(XIVth, XVth, and XVIth) on the western, and four Corps (Ist, IInd,
Vth, XVIIth) on the eastern frontier, it will be possible at the first
declaration of war with either France or Russia to combine large masses
of Cavalry and throw them at once into the enemy’s territory. One or two
battalions of Jäger are also to be sent shortly into Alsace, in order
to watch the passes over the Vosges.
The peace-strength of the German Army is reckoned at—
534 Battalions of Infantry,
465 Squadrons of Cavalry,
364 Batteries of Artillery with 1,500 fully-horsed guns.
Total, 19,457 officers and 468,400 men.
In consequence of the extension of the Landwehr and Landsturm,
it is difficult to arrive at an exact estimate of the German
war-strength.[17] In the event of war, different Army Corps and
Cavalry Divisions will be combined into Armies, but their number and
strength will necessarily depend on the theatre in which they are to be
utilised, on the plan of campaign, and on the strength of the enemy.
The resources of the Empire will not, however, come to an end with the
20 Army Corps whose strength we have just been describing. Behind the
men doing their seven years of service, who compose the Active Army,
come those of the 1st and 2nd Class Landwehr, and behind these again
come the Ersatz Reserve and the Landsturm.
Although this tremendous Army of close on two million of well-trained
and well-armed men may at first sight appear a menace to the peace of
the world, still we must remember that Germany is absolutely obliged,
for the preservation of her very existence, to keep up these huge
forces, and that she has no intention of using them except for that
purpose. As an old national proverb has it: “He who wants to come to
grief in war had better try a fall with Germany.”
ADDENDUM TO GERMANY.
P. 25. The German Infantry now numbers 173 regiments and 19 Rifle
battalions—total 538 battalions.
P. 31. The Artillery has lately been increased to 387 batteries of
Field, and 47 batteries of Horse Artillery, the whole forming 43
regiments.
P. 32. The Engineers number 20 battalions.
P. 34. The peace strength of the German Army now numbers
538 battalions of Infantry,
465 squadrons of Cavalry,
434 batteries of Artillery, with over 1700 guns.
The latest estimate of the German Army at war-strength, _i.e._ Active
Army, Active Reserve, and 1st class Landwehr, is as follows—
48,635 officers,
2,253,841 men,
445,104 horses,
3,982 guns.
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 11: Or in the Navy and Naval Reserve respectively as
required.]
[Footnote 12: “Beurlaubtenstand.”]
[Footnote 13: Corresponding somewhat to our University Degree.]
[Footnote 14: Or rather, will be in the near future.—_Tr._]
[Footnote 15: The word Uhlan means “belonging to the hoof,” in the
language of that region.]
[Footnote 16: Including the independent (25th) Hesse-Darmstadt
Division.]
[Footnote 17: It may be taken as 36,582 officers, 1,493,690 combatants,
27,000 non-combatants, 331,904 horses, 2,952 guns.—_Tr._]
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.
The next on the list is Germany’s powerful neighbour, friend, and ally
on her southern frontier, Austria-Hungary.
There is in the Austro-Hungarian Army a varied assemblage of different
races: the honest Austrian, the proud and fiery Hungarian, the smart
Czech, the true-hearted Tyrolese, the thin onion-eating Wallachian, the
hot-blooded Croat, the nomad Slowak, the homeless gipsy, etc., etc.,
are all represented in its ranks. All these have been welded together
by the iron bands of discipline into the “Imperial and Royal” Army.
The Emperor is Commander-in-Chief, and with him rests the decision for
peace or war.
After the disastrous campaign of 1866 the Austrian Army was entirely
reorganised. The reorganisation is now almost completed, and the
Army now takes its place as one of the foremost in the world. The
division of the Empire into Cis- and Trans-Leithania—_i.e._ this side,
the Austrian, and that side, _i.e._ the Hungarian, of the Leitha, a
tributary of the Danube, is only partially carried out in the military
system.
[Sidenote: +Terms of Service.+]
According to the conscription law of December, 1868, universal
conscription is now the rule; in the whole Austro-Hungarian Empire, and
exemption by purchase, formerly allowed, is now abolished. The forces
are divided into the Standing Army, the Ersatz Reserve, the Landwehr,
and the Landsturm.
About 103,000 recruits are yearly admitted into the Standing Army,
of which Cis-Leithania contributes 54,000. Those able-bodied young
men who are not taken into the Standing or Active Army are sent for
ten years to the Ersatz Reserve, which is intended, as in Germany, to
provide reinforcements for the Active Army. Service in the latter is
for three years with the Colours and seven years in the Active Reserve.
Service in the Landwehr is for two years for those who have served ten
years in the Active Army and Reserve or in the Ersatz Reserve, and for
twelve years for those who have been sent straight thither, for various
reasons, on conscription. After the Landwehr service, the soldier is
sent for five years to the 1st Class Landsturm, and for five years more
to the 2nd Class Landsturm. By this time he is forty-two years of age.
The one-year Volunteers are enlisted in the same manner as in Germany
(q. v.).
[Sidenote: +Organisation.+]
The whole Empire is, for military purposes, divided into fifteen
Territorial Districts; these are of various sizes, so that the Austrian
Army Corps are not all of the same strength. In case of war, the whole
“Imperial and Royal” Army would be grouped into three armies, under one
supreme command, each army consisting of three or more Army Corps. The
Army Corps consists of 2 Infantry Divisions, each of 2 brigades. The
division is commanded by a “field-marshal-lieutenant,” corresponding to
our lieutenant-general, and the brigade by a major-general.
Each Infantry brigade has as a rule 2 regiments, and 1 battalion of
Rifles. Besides the 2 Infantry brigades, each Division has in addition
2 to 4 squadrons of Cavalry, 1 battery division (2 to 3 batteries of
Field Artillery), and 1 company of Engineers.
[Sidenote: +Infantry.+]
[Illustration: Officer of Infantry (Marching Order).]
The Infantry of the Active Army comprises 102 regiments, each of 4
Field and 1 Ersatz battalions; the latter is in peace-time represented
by a cadre only. The 4th Field battalions, so-called “Mobile”
battalions, have mostly a stronger peace-establishment than the others,
and are used to garrison Bosnia, Herzegovina, and the Sanjak of
Novi-Bazar; _i.e._ they are completely separated from their regiments.
[Illustration: Cavalry Officer (Undress).]
The Rifles comprise the Tyrolese Rifle Regiment of 10 Active and 2
Ersatz battalions, and 32 independent battalions of Rifles, each of 4
Field and 1 Ersatz companies.
The Infantry has (since 1868) laid aside its historical white uniform,
and is now clothed in dark blue tunics or loose jackets, and light
blue trousers, the latter in the Hungarian regiments being ornamented
with embroidery and fitting like tights. The Hungarian regiments wear
lace-boots, the remainder Wellingtons. The usual head-dress is the
fatigue-cap, and, on great occasions, the shako. The Rifles are dressed
in blue-grey.
After 1866 the Austrian Infantry was armed with an excellent
breech-loader, the Werndl rifle. Since the German Infantry have
attained a certain moral superiority by being armed with a
magazine-rifle, the authorities have introduced a magazine-rifle for
the Infantry and Rifles.
So quickly has the work of manufacturing and issuing them proceeded,
that by the autumn of this year (1890) it is expected that they will
all be thus armed, and will have overtaken the German Infantry. The new
Austrian magazine-rifle, called after its inventor, Colonel Männlicher,
is of ·315-inch bore, and can fire 30 to 40 shots in the minute.
Austria possesses an excellent Rifle Regiment in the Tyrolese, the
so-called Emperor Rifles, mentioned above, which is composed of men
accustomed from their youth up to the use of the rifle. They are
recruited in the Tyrol and Vorarlberg.
[Sidenote: +Cavalry.+]
The Cavalry of the Active Army consists
of—
14 Regiments of Dragoons (Austrians and Bohemians),
16 Regiments of Hussars (Hungarians), and
11 Regiments of Lancers (with Polish Reserve).
Each regiment consists of 6 squadrons and a depôt-cadre. In case of
mobilisation the latter develops into one Ersatz squadron (in which
are trained the Ersatz men and the extra horses required), one Reserve
squadron for supply purposes, and two sections of Staff Cavalry for
service at the headquarters of Corps and at Field-Supply stores. The
peace establishment of the Austro-Hungarian Cavalry accordingly comes
to 246 squadrons, and the war-establishment to 246 Field, 41 Reserve,
and 41 Ersatz squadrons, besides the Staff Cavalry.
The Cavalry Regiments are clothed according to their nationality. The
Dragoons wear a light-blue tunic, the Uhlans their tunic of peculiar
cut, and the Hussars the jacket and attila, the latter as a rule
suspended by yellow cords from the shoulder. The whole Cavalry wear red
breeches, tight in the Hussar regiments, and loose in the others.
The Hungarian Hussars, on their small but swift horses, are a
peculiarly national institution. These Hussars (from a Magyar word
“husz,” meaning “twenty,” from the fact that every twenty houses in
Hungary had to provide one horseman in days gone by) have always been
particularly prominent in the Austrian Army and were long held to be
pre-eminent in their mode of fighting, until Frederick II. formed some
regiments after their pattern. These were afterwards increased to ten
in number, and, under celebrated leaders like Zieten, soon won for
themselves renown equal to that of their Hungarian cousins.
The whole of the Cavalry is armed alike, with sword and Werndl carbine.
The Uhlans’ lances have been done away with since 1884, but there is a
question of the re-introduction of this old Polish weapon. After the
Infantry has been fully armed with the magazine-rifle, the Cavalry
will, it is said, be armed with repeating-carbines, which will have
been served out by next spring (1891). This is an example which, it is
to be hoped, other armies will soon follow.[18]
[Sidenote: +Artillery.+]
The Artillery comprises Field and Garrison Artillery. The Field
Artillery consists of 14 regiments of Corps Artillery, numbered
according to their Army Corps and each of 5 batteries; and of 28
independent Heavy Battery Divisions, each of 3 batteries. Several
Corps Artillery Regiments have in addition a couple of Horse Artillery
Batteries, or a Mountain Battery.
The batteries have each in peace-time 4, and in war-time 8,
fully-horsed guns. An exception to this are the Horse Artillery
batteries, which always have 6 guns in the battery.
The Mountain Batteries, which have been found most useful in campaigns
in Dalmatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, are a peculiar feature of the
Austrian Artillery. Their guns can be dismounted and packed on the
backs of mules, and in this way they can be transported along narrow
mountain-paths.
The Corps Artillery Regiments are to have their number of batteries
increased by one each, but this will barely be completed before 1892.
The Austrian Field Artillery has an excellent weapon in the shape of
the 2·95-inch Uchatius steel bronze gun, and also that of the 3·43-inch
bronze gun for the heavy batteries, both equal in worth to the Krupp
gun. The shells are of the German pattern, but the shrapnel have fewer
bullets than the German ones. Besides these projectiles, case-shot,
fire-shells, and so-called high-angle shells, for bursting among troops
behind cover, are carried with the battery.
The Garrison Artillery numbers 12 battalions, each of 5 Field and 1
Depôt-cadre companies. Eighteen more battalions have been projected,
and will be formed in the course of the next few years according to the
amount of money in hand.
The uniform of the Artillery is dark-brown. The men are armed with
sword and revolver, those of the Garrison Artillery carrying the
Werndl rifle instead.
[Sidenote: +Engineers.+]
The Corps of Engineers is composed of the Engineer Staff and Engineer
troops. The former is exclusively composed of officers; the latter of 2
regiments of 5 battalions each. Each battalion has 4 Field, 1 Reserve,
and 1 Depôt-cadre companies. The Pioneer Regiment, not considered as
Engineers, consists of 5 battalions, similarly constituted to the
Engineer battalions.
The Railway and Telegraph Regiment, which has but recently been
formed, after the German model, consists of 2 Field and 1 Depôt-cadre
battalions.
The Train consists of 3 regiments of 5 squadrons each and a Depôt-cadre.
There is no Guard Corps in the Austrian Army, so several bodies of
troops have been formed for the honour of protecting the Emperor
person and guarding his palaces. These are the Arcieren squadron of
Life-Guards, the Hungarian Body-Guard, the Trabanten Body-Guard, the
squadron of Horse-Guards, and the Infantry Company of the Guard. These
troops are richly dressed in peculiar uniforms.
[Sidenote: +Reserve Troops.+]
The Landwehr is formed into two distinct bodies, which are also quite
distinct from the Active Army; each Landwehr is under its own ministry
of defence. In peace-time only the cadres exist; that is to say, that
of 92 Infantry battalions and 6 Cavalry regiments (24 squadrons) of
Cis-Leithanian Landwehr, only 1 strong company per battalion and 1
strong squadron per Cavalry Regiment are kept up.
The Native Rifles (Landesschützen) of the Tyrol and Vorarlberg consist
of 10 battalions in time of peace, which are in war-time increased by
ten Reserve battalions.
[Illustration: Royal Hungarian Body-Guard.]
[Illustration: Hungarian Palace Guard.]
[Sidenote: +The Honvéd.+]
In Trans-Leithania the Landwehr forms a peculiar national Hungarian
Army, the so-called Honvéd Army, which is subject in war-time only to
the commander-in-chief, and in peace-time only to the Royal Hungarian
jurisdiction, _i.e._ the Ministry of Defence and the Landwehr Ministry.
It forms in peace-time the Cadres for 92 battalions of Infantry and
15 regiments of Honvéd Hussars (60 squadrons). The officers of this
force are trained in the Honvéd Ludovica Academy at Buda Pesth. It
is on this Army, whose standards and badges are of the Hungarian
colours, and which in time of war reaches nearly 200,000 men, that the
pride of Hungary rests. It is this Army whose predecessors saved the
Austro-Hungarian Monarchy from destruction a century and a half ago. On
the 21st of September, 1741, the Empress Queen, Maria Theresa, came to
her Parliament at Presburg in dire distress. Dressed in the national
Hungarian dress, with her newly born son (destined to become Joseph
II.) in her arms, pain and courage depicted on her noble countenance,
she advanced towards the Hungarian nobles, and in a powerful Latin
speech asked for the National Army to be called out, to protect her and
her country from her many foes. Then the Hungarian magnates tore their
crooked swords from their scabbards, clashed them wildly together, and
shouted: “Moriamur pro rege nostro Maria Theresa!” With the help of her
brave Hungarians, Maria Theresa, after making peace with Frederick II.
of Prussia, succeeded in beating off her numerous enemies.
[Illustration: Austria-Hungary. I.
_Printed by G. Löwensohn, Fuerth Bavaria_
_Published by William Clowes & Sons, L^{d}, London._]
[Illustration: Austria-Hungary. II.
_Printed by G. Löwensohn, Fuerth Bavaria_
_Published by William Clowes & Sons, L^{d}, London._]
[Sidenote: +Conclusions.+]
If we consider that the total strength (on a war establishment) of
the Austro-Hungarian Army, Line and Landwehr included, exceeds one
million of trained men, of which 778,889 belong to the 1st Line, and
we remember that the Cis-Leithanians are in no way inferior in warlike
spirit, that inheritance of their forefathers, to their brethren on
the far side of the Leitha, we shall come to the conclusion that in
the Austrian Army, with its excellent Corps of officers and excellent
material in the shape of men and horses, any State in Europe would find
either a powerful adversary or a most desirable ally.
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 18: Turkey set this example long ago.—_Tr._]
ITALY.
In Italy we have the third of the Powers who have formed the Triple
Alliance in order to maintain the peace of Europe and to make common
cause against any disturber thereof. The history of this country has
been very similar to that of Germany. In this instance also, an
energetic Prince, King Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia (died 1878),
supported by an active statesman, Count Cavour, placed himself at the
head of the national movement in favour of unity, and formed the various
States of the Peninsula into one kingdom under his rule.
The kingdom of Italy appears thenceforth as the last formed among the
European Powers, and it has raised an excellent Army in order to
maintain its position as such. The development of the latter has since
that time progressed considerably, and especially so during the last
decade, when a distinct advance has been apparent.
Constituted on the principle of Universal Conscription, the land forces
of Italy are formed, similarly to those of the German Empire, into a
Standing Army, a Landwehr (Milizia mobile), and a Landsturm (Milizia
territoriale).
[Sidenote: +Terms of Service.+]
The liability to serve commences with the twentieth year, and continues
till the thirty-ninth. It consists of eight years in the Standing
Army (three with the Colours and five in the Reserve); four years in
the Landwehr, and seven years in the Landsturm. Those who have been
exempted from service by ballot are sent straight to the Landsturm for
nineteen years.
When the young men attain the age rendering them liable to serve, those
physically unfit are “cast,” and some are put back who are ill or
excused for domestic reasons. The remainder of the men draw lots and
are placed according to their lottery number in the 1st or 2nd class,
those excused being placed in the 3rd class. The 1st class conscripts
are distributed throughout the Standing Army. The 2nd class go through
three months’ training, to form an Ersatz (or reinforcing) Reserve, and
the 3rd class men are called out every four years for a few days at a
time for instruction in the use and manipulation of their arms.
The Standing Army consists accordingly of eight yearly batches of the
1st class and eight of the 2nd class; the Landwehr of four yearly
batches of men who have served their time in the Standing Army, and
four batches of the 2nd class; and the Landsturm comprises seven
batches of the 1st, seven of the 2nd, and nineteen of the 3rd class.
[Sidenote: +Infantry.+]
The Infantry of the Standing Army consists of 96 regiments (including
2 Grenadier regiments), each of 3 battalions and 1 Ersatz company.
Besides these, there are the special Corps d’Élite, the Bersaglieri
(“marksmen”—from bersaglia = a target), and the Alpini (Alpine Rifles).
The Bersaglieri, in 12 regiments, each of
3 battalions and 1 Ersatz company, are Light Infantry, trained to
execute all movements at the “double,” exceedingly good shots, and
looking very smart in their neat uniforms, the large hats of which are
ornamented with a waving bunch of cock feathers.
The Alpine Troops consist of 7 regiments (forming 75 companies), to
which are attached 9 mountain batteries. These are also considered
Corps d’Élite.
Composed of herdsmen and gamekeepers, familiar with every footpath in
the Alps, never fatigued, quick of sight and hearing, and excellent
shots, they are equally valuable in reconnoitring work or on the field
of battle, although their original rôle is that of acting in defence
of their mountain passes. The Alpine companies are placed in summer as
near as possible to the particular mountain passes whose defence is
assigned to them, and are stationed for only half the year in the towns
as winter quarters.
Their duty is carried out with a particular object in view, and
consists mostly in shooting, skirmishing, constant marches over
mountain paths, reconnaissance duty and patrolling, and in minor
tactics.
The whole of the Italian Infantry is at this moment armed (until the
alteration of their former weapon, the single-loader Vetterli, is
completed) with an excellent repeating rifle, the Vitali. Particular
attention is paid to musketry instruction, and facilities for shooting
are given and encouraged by the holding of National Rifle Meetings at
stated times. At these meetings, any soldier on furlough is allowed to
compete, with his Service rifle.
[Sidenote: +Cavalry.+]
The Cavalry of the Italian Army, on account of the scarcity of
useful horses, and the mountainous character of the land, is weak in
comparison with the Cavalry of other European armies.
It consists of 24 regiments, each of 6 squadrons and an Ersatz-cadre;
_i.e._, 10 Lancer regiments and 14 regiments of Light Cavalry
(Cavalleggieri).
The Light Cavalry are armed with a long curved sword, and the Lancers
with a lance. In addition to these weapons, the whole of the Cavalry is
armed with a rifled breech-loading carbine.
[Sidenote: +Artillery.+]
The Field Artillery consists of 24 regiments, each of 8 batteries;
there are also 6 Horse Artillery and 9 Mountain batteries. It can put
in the field in war-time 1,196 guns. The heavy batteries are armed with
3·54-inch breech-loaders; the Light and Horse Artillery batteries with
2·76-inch breech-loaders. The mountain guns, for the transport of each
of which three horses or mules are provided, are of 2·95-inch calibre,
of steel-bronze, and mounted on wooden carriages.
The Garrison Artillery consists of 5 regiments; the Siege-train of 2
parts—each of 200 guns.
[Sidenote: +Engineers.+]
The Engineers consist of 4 regiments, including a Railway and Telegraph
Company, a Pontoon and a Bridging Troop.
The Artillery and Engineers provide their own Train.
12 Commissariat companies are told off for service in the depôts.
The men of the Field Artillery and Engineers carry a revolver besides a
sword; Garrison Artillerymen are armed with a breech-loading carbine.
[Sidenote: +Gendarmerie.+]
[Illustration: Carbineer.]
There is also a Corps closely connected with the Army which deserves
mention, namely, the Gendarmes, or “Carabinieri Reali,” whose strength
amounts to 543 officers, 22,487 Foot Gendarmes, and 11 legions of
Mounted Gendarmes.
Formerly many a story was told of the fights between the Carabinieri
and the banditti. Nowadays, both the robbers and the old Carabinieri
have disappeared, and the present Carabinieri Reali form an excellent
Corps, whose duty it is to maintain peace and good order in the country.
In war-time a battalion of them is sent with each Army Corps. They have
then to provide orderlies for the Staff, as well as to act as Military
Police.
[Sidenote: +Organisation.+]
The whole kingdom is divided into twelve Army Corps Districts.
[Illustration: Bersagliere of the African Contingent.]
In peace-time the Army Corps vary in strength. In war, each Army Corps
consists of 2 Divisions, the Division numbering 2 Brigades (each
brigade consisting of 2 regiments of Infantry), and an Artillery
Division of 3 batteries. Besides these, each Army Corps has 1 regiment
of Bersaglieri, 1 or 2 Artillery Divisions, each of 4 batteries, 1
regiment of Cavalry, 2 companies of Engineers, with bridging-train,
and 1 battalion of Carabinieri, forming altogether 27 battalions of
Infantry, 5 or 6 squadrons of Cavalry, 12 to 16 batteries of Artillery,
and 2 companies of Engineers, etc.—total, about 29,000 men and 112 guns.
The Alpini are not included in the Corps organisation.
[Sidenote: +Milizie.+]
The Landwehr consists of 48 regiments of Infantry, 18 battalions of
Bersaglieri, 22 Alpine Companies, 61 batteries of Artillery, and 35
companies of Engineers. It is formed into twelve divisions in time of
war.