frequently represented are St. Benedict and his sister St. Scholastica,
and his disciples St. Maurus, St. Placidus, and St. Flavia, who all
wear the black habit; except, when St. Benedict appears as patriarch of
any of the Reformed orders which adopted the white habit, he then wears
white. The black habit is also given to:
St. Boniface, the Apostle of Germany.
St. Bennet, Bishop of Durham.
St. Benedict of Anian.
St. Bavon of Ghent.
St. Ildefonso of Toledo.
St. Giles of Languedoc.
St. Dunstan of Canterbury.
St. Walpurgis of Eichstadt.
St. Bernard is prominent in all the Cistercian abbeys and churches.
St. John Gualberto figures principally in Florentine art, or pictures
painted for the Vallombrosans.
The =Augustines= claim St. Augustine, one of the Four Latin Fathers, as
their founder, and wear the black habit. This order embraces:
The _Premonstratensians_, founded by St. Norbert; habit, brown or
black, with a white cloak.
The _Servi_, founded by St. Philip Benozzi; habit, black.
The _Trinitarians_,[11] founded by St. John de Matha; habit, white with
a blue and red cross on the breast.
The _Brigittines_, founded by St. Bridget of Sweden; habit, black.
The _Order of Mercy_, founded by St. Peter Nolasco; habit, white, and
the badge of the arms of the King of Aragon on the breast.
In the churches of the Augustines, one finds St. Augustine and his
mother Monica; St. Joseph, the husband of the Virgin Mary, whom the
Augustines reverence as their patriarch and patron saint; Joachim and
Anna; the apostles and saints of the earliest ages, and the hermits St.
Anthony and St. Paul; but next to St. Augustine their great saint is
St. Nicholas of Tolentino.
The =Mendicant Orders=: the =Franciscans=, the =Dominicans=, the
=Carmelites=. These monks were not called _Padri_, fathers, but
_Frati_, brothers of men, and so great was the humility of St. Francis
that he called his community _Frati Minori_, lesser brothers.
The =Franciscan Order=, founded by St. Francis of Assisi; the habit,
originally grey, was changed after the first two centuries to a dark
brown. The knotted cord around the waist was used symbolically by
St. Francis to represent the halter or bridle of a subdued beast, or
the body in subjection to the spirit. The reformed branches of the
Franciscans are:
The _Capuchins_, habit dark brown with a long, pointed hood.
The _Poor Clares_, Franciscan nuns, founded by St. Clara; grey or brown
habit and cord, and black veil.
The _Observants_, founded by St. Bernardino of Siena; grey habit and
cord.
The _Cordeliers_, brown habit.
The _Minimes_, founded by St. Francis de Paula; brown habit, short
scapulary with rounded ends, and the cord of St. Francis.
In pictures painted for any of the Franciscan churches or convents are
found, singly or in groups, their eight great saints, called in Italian
_I Cardini dell’Ordine Serafico_,” “The Chiefs of the Seraphic Order.”
_St. Francis, Padre Serafico_, patriarch and founder.
_St. Clara, Madre Serafica._
_St. Bonaventura, il Dottore Serafico_, the great prelate of the order.
_St. Anthony of Padua_, second only to St. Francis as a worker of
miracles.
_St. Bernardino of Siena_, their great reformer and preacher, and the
three royal saints, _St. Louis of France_; _St. Louis of Toulouse_; and
_St. Elizabeth of Hungary_ (wearing her crown, and with her lap full of
roses).
The =Dominican Order=: founded by St. Dominick; distinguished by a
white habit under a long black cloak with a hood. The Dominicans are
always shod. The Franciscans are generally barefoot or wear a wooden
sandal.
The four celebrated saints who figure in Dominican pictures are:
_St. Dominick_, founder and patriarch.
_St. Peter Martyr_, distinguished by the wound in his head.
_St. Thomas Aquinas_, who represents the learning of the order.
_St. Catherine of Siena_, the great female saint of the Dominican Order.
The =Carmelites= claim the prophet Elijah as patriarch and founder,
with the Virgin Mary as protectress. They were first formed into an
order by St. Albert of Vercelli. The habit is a dark brown, with a long
scapulary and a white mantle. The reformed branch, the _Scalzi_, or
barefooted Carmelites, was founded by St. Theresa.
The =Jeronymites= claim St. Jerome as founder.
The =Jesuits=, founded by St. Ignatius Loyola; habit, a straight black
cassock and square black cap.
The =Order of the Visitation of St. Mary= was founded by St. Francis de
Sales and Ste. Jeanne Françoise de Chantal (grandmother of Madame de
Sévigné).
FOOTNOTES:
[11] See Appendix.
APPENDIX
=Angels.= The Jewish belief in good and bad angels was probably
borrowed from Zoroastrianism during their exile. St. Paul speaks of
Thrones, or Dominions, or Principalities, or Powers (Col. i., 16),
and from this and a few other scriptural texts the imagination of the
early theologians arranged the angelic host into nine choirs—or three
hierarchies of three choirs each. To each of these were given fanciful
and mystical powers. The first hierarchy are the Councillors; to this
belong the Seraphim, Cherubim, and Thrones. The Seraphim—love—stand
nearest the throne of God, next come the Cherubim—knowledge,—and then
the Thrones who support the seat of the Most High. These receive their
glory direct from God and transmit it to the second who in turn shed
the radiance of divine light upon the third and lowest hierarchy.
The second hierarchy are governors, who reign over and control the
stars and the elements.
The third are the only ones that have concern with the earth. They are
the messengers of God, and the protectors and guardians of the children
of men.
A fourth century Byzantine manual gives the following directions to
painters according to the order laid down by Dionysius the Areopagite:
{ =Seraphim.= } Six wings covered with eyes.
{ }
{ =Cherubim.= } Head only, two wings.
1st { }
{ =Thrones.= } Fiery wheels surrounded by wings
{ } filled with eyes. The whole
{ } symbolising a royal throne.
{ =Dominations.= } These wear albs to feet, golden
{ =Virtues.= } girdles, and green stoles. Hold
2d { =Powers.= } a golden staff in right hand and
{ } seal of God in left.
{ =Principalities.= } In soldier’s garb, golden girdles,
3d { =Archangels.= } and holding lance-headed javelins
{ =Angels.= } in their hands.
The early artists followed the description of the Seraphim given in
Isa. vi., 2: “Each one had six wings; with twain he covered his face,
and with twain he covered his feet, and with twain he did fly.”
In very old pictures and illuminated manuscripts, the hierarchies of
angels are represented by circles. The innermost circles, the Seraphim
and Cherubim, are commonly depicted with heads only, and with two,
four, or six wings. The Seraphim are the colour of red—fire, meaning
love. The Cherubim blue, the colour of the firmament or light, that
is, knowledge. In these representations of the celestial hierarchy the
Seraphim have the highest rank of all, and angels the lowest. Then
follow apostles, martyrs, confessors, and virgins.
Didron says that “the hierarchy thus figured in rose windows and
sculptured on vaulted roofs of cathedrals, exhibits in a palpable form
... the system of ethics and cosmogony embodied in the Hindu doctrine
of emanation.”
The angels in the architectural decoration of old Christian churches
have for their authority the Cherubim that adorned the temple of
Solomon (1 Kings vi., 23-29).
Angels are sometimes placed on winged and fiery wheels, to typify
extreme swiftness and buoyancy.
“The seven angels which stood before God” (Rev. viii., 2) are
occasionally represented in pictures of the Last Judgment and of
heaven, and can be recognised by their seven trumpets. These seven
archangels are thus defined:
1. =Michael= (“like unto God”), captain of the host of heaven and
protector of the Hebrews.
2. =Gabriel= (“whose strength is in God”), guardian of the heavenly
treasury, and Joseph the patriarch’s preceptor.
3. =Raphael= (the healing of God), chief guardian angel, and the leader
of Tobias.
4. =Uriel= (the light of God), who taught Esdras, explaining the
prophecies.
5. =Chamuel= (the wrath of God), who wrestled with Jacob.
6. =Jophiel= (the beauty of God), guardian of the tree of knowledge and
the same who drove Adam and Eve out of Paradise, and the preceptor of
the sons of Noah.
7. =Zadkiel= (the righteousness of God), who stayed the hand of Abraham
when about to sacrifice Isaac.
Only the names of the first four are given in the Bible, and these
four are seldom represented together except in architectural decoration.
=Badge of Trinitarians.= “His Holiness [Pope Innocent, III.] did
forthwith ratify the Order, and, by his command, they assumed the
white habit, having on the breast a Greek cross of red and blue; the
three colours signifying the Three Persons of the Most Holy Trinity;
the white, the Father Eternal; the blue, which was the traverse of
the cross, the Son as Redeemer, and the red, the charity of the Holy
Spirit.”
=Basket.= Liberality to the poor.
=Bear.= Solitary life and self-restraint.
=Bee.= Originally a pagan symbol, the bee was adopted by the early
monks as a symbol of chastity and industry. Peter of Capua alludes
to the risen Saviour as _apis ætherea_. (In this connection it is
interesting to note that Vishnu incarnate as Krishna is represented
with a blue bee hovering about his head symbolising the ether.)
Chrysostom, Isidore of Seville, Ambrose, and Bernard of Clairvaux were
said to have lips flowing with honey (_mellifluus_) typifying their
eloquence. The virgin queen of the hive became a favourite type of the
Virgin Queen of Heaven. The bee is rarely found in art, however, but
is occasionally seen carved on tombs in the catacombs as a symbol of
immortality.
=Beehive.= Eloquence.
=St. Bernardino of Siena.= “So much was he affected by the mysteries of
the incarnation and sufferings of the Son of God that he could never
pronounce his sacred name without appearing in transports of love and
adoration. Often at the end of his sermon he showed to the people
the sacred name of Jesus curiously cut on a board with gold letters,
inviting them to adore Christ with him on their knees, reciting a pious
doxology.”[12]
=Christ= in early art was typified by Orpheus seated among beasts and
birds playing on a lyre.
=Fish=, the eucharistic significance of. As the water turned into wine
at the marriage of Cana was accepted by the early Church as symbolical
of the Eucharist, so the fish as a symbol of Christ had also a
eucharistic significance in commemoration of the miracle of the loaves
and fishes. An early symbol of the Eucharist found in the catacombs is
a cup containing three small loaves upon which are traced the cross.
Speaking of the multitude who were fed with five loaves and two fishes,
Paulinus of Nola says of Christ that “he himself is the true bread
and the fish of living water”—_panis ipse verus et aquæ vivæ piscis
Christus_. Eternal life and the Eucharist are inseparable ideas in the
Church. “He that eateth my flesh and drinketh my blood hath eternal
life and I will raise him up at the last day.” Prosper of Aquitane
speaks of Christ as “giving himself as food to the disciples by the
seashore and offering himself to the whole world as _Ichthus_.”
=Font.= According to Durandus the baptismal font in Christian churches
was made octagonal because creation was complete in seven days; thus
eight figured regeneration—the beginning anew.
=Hands, two.= In some paintings by the early Italian artists of the
Baptism of Christ _two_ hands are seen emerging from the clouds with
the dove proceeding from them (see illustration, page 79). Thus when
two hands crossed at the wrists are seen on certain houses and convents
in Italy it should typify the blessing and protection of the Eternal
Father.
=Horns=, symbol of strength, intelligence, and power. See Moses.
The =Lion= placed at the doors of churches as guardian of the sanctuary
was symbolical of spiritual vigilance, as the lion was believed never
to close its eyes in sleep. The lion, however, not only typified
Christ triumphing over death and hell (Rev. v., 5), but was used also
to typify the devil which “as a roaring lion walketh about, seeking
whom he may devour” (1 Peter v., 8). Thus the lions used to support
pulpits in churches, as in Siena, Pisa, Lucca, and elsewhere in Italy,
represent Satan vanquished and subdued by the might of Christianity.
The same idea of triumphing over the powers of evil was intended to be
conveyed in the sculptured figures of deceased persons reclining on
tombs with their feet resting on a dragon, a lion, or a dog—the dog
being regarded by the Jew as the incarnation of the evil principle.
The Hebrew misconception of the character of the dog is a very curious
one and persists throughout the Bible, where he is rarely referred to
except in terms of contempt. The substitution of the Aryan for the
Semitic point of view, however, reversed the meaning of the symbolism
at a later period, when a lion at the feet of a man typified courage
and manly strength, and the dog at the feet of a woman indicated
fidelity and undying love.
The =Lizard= according to the _Physiologus_ when blind in old age
creeps into the crevice of a wall facing east and stretches out its
head to the rising sun whose beams restore its sight. Thus the lizard
represented in ecclesiastical architecture is a symbol of the healing
and illuminating effect of the gospel.
The =Magi=. “In the early art of the catacombs the three children of
Babylon refusing to worship the image of Nebuchadnezzar were often
associated with the three Magi who refused to obey Herod. It is not
improbable that the number of the Magi became fixed by this association
rather than by the gifts they bore of gold, frankincense, and myrrh.
Previous to the fourth century they were represented as two, four, and
in one case six. After that time they were invariably represented as
three.”[13]
=Majesty.= A term denoting pictures of Christ seated upon a throne and
surrounded by angels with the symbols of the four Evangelists and the
Greek letters Α and Ω, alpha and omega, signifying that Christ is the
beginning and the end of all things.
=Oran=, or =Orant=, designates the figures seen in the catacombs with
hands uplifted in prayer.
The =Ox= symbolises toil and patient renunciation.
The =Phœnix= in Egyptian religion was the embodiment of Ra the Sun
God. It was fabled to come out of Arabia every five hundred years to
Heliopolis, where it burned itself on the high altar in the Temple of
the Sun and rose again from its own ashes young and beautiful. This
pagan emblem of the resurrection and of immortality was adopted by the
Christians and is frequently found on early mosaics and sarcophagi and
carved on church stalls, where it is often associated with the pelican.
The =Sibyls=. There are numerous Sibyls but the Cumæan Sibyl of whom
Ovid and Virgil wrote is the most famous. According to a Roman legend
this Sibyl appeared to one of the Tarquins and offered him nine books
for sale. The king refused to buy them. She burned three and returned
with six, demanding the same price. Upon his second refusal she burned
three more and returning to the king again demanded the same price for
the three remaining. Puzzled, and curious at last, the king paid the
price and found them to contain the destinies of the Roman state. These
Sibylline books were for centuries the oracles of Rome.
=Tetramorph=, a figure which combines the four heads with wings and
fiery wheels described by Ezekiel (chap. x.). The same figure with six
wings denotes extreme swiftness, the wheels also winged.
=Three=, the number. According to Pythagoras three was the primal
perfect number and symbol of completeness. The cube of three being nine
was regarded by him as the extent to which numbers would go, all others
being comprehended by and revolving within it. The decade ten was
called by him “Heaven” as being the boundary of nine and forming as it
were a monad with which recommences a fresh series capable of infinite
expansion. The number three among Greeks and Romans had a mystic import
and later when the meaning was lost it was considered exceptionally
lucky, as were all uneven numbers.
=Tobias.= See Tobit, Apocrypha.
=Virgin of Pity.= The Madonna as “dispenser of mercy on earth” is
sometimes represented crowned, standing with outstretched arms from
which depends her mantle, the corners of which are upheld by angels,
while underneath its shelter kneel worshipping votaries of all ranks
and conditions—the rich, the poor, the lame and halt.
FOOTNOTES:
[12] Butler’s _Lives of the Saints_, vol. v., p. 369.
[13] _Christian Art and Archæology_, by Walter Lowrie.
SYMBOLS OF CERTAIN OLD TESTAMENT CHARACTERS
THE PROPHETS
AMOS. A shepherd’s crook.
DANIEL. A lion. A ram with four horns. Sometimes naked with hands
outstretched and a lion on each side.
EZEKIEL. A turreted gateway, in his hand a plan of the New Jerusalem.
ISAIAH. A saw. Clothed in a sack. St. Matthew on shoulder.
JEREMIAH. A wand in his hand.
JOEL. Lions around him.
OBADIAH. Pitcher of water and loaves.
ZECHARIAH. A temple building. A stone covered with eyes.
THE PATRIARCHS
ABRAHAM. A knife and brazier of fire.
ADAM. A spade.
DAVID. Harp. Sling of stones. Head of Goliath.
ELIJAH. Scroll and red robes. Fiery chariot. Sword.
ELISHA. Two-headed eagle on shoulder.
GIDEON. Fleece of wool.
JOSEPH. Purse.
MELCHIZEDEK. Priest and king.
MOSES. Tablets of the Law. A rod. Horns of light. Burning bush. A rock.
Some modern writers claim that the horns given to Moses by artists
and sculptors grew out of an error in the translation of the ancient
Hebrew, the early translators describing Moses in his descent from
Sinai as _facies cornuta_ (“his face was horned”) instead of “his face
shone.” Other writers, however, assert that among all peoples, horns
have symbolised power; that the Israelites, fresh from the land of
bondage, familiar with horns upon the heads of Egyptian gods, would
readily believe that Moses had miraculously received the mark of
divinity and kingly power. That he really descended with solid horns
upon his head was devoutly believed down to the middle ages.
NOAH. Ark. Dove with olive branch. An oar.
SAMSON. Gates of city. Jaw bone of an ass.
SETH. Three seeds of the tree of life. A thread bound thrice around
thumb.
INDEX
Abbey, 277.
Abraham, 290.
Adam, 290.
Adoration of Magi, 105.
Adoration of Shepherds, 104.
Agatha, St., her legend, 229.
Agnes, St., her legend, 226.
Ambrose, St., 182.
Amos, 290.
Anachronisms, 65.
Anchor, 73.
Andrew, St., Apostle, 153.
Angels, 281.
Anna, St., Legend of Joachim and Anna, 91.
Anna, prophetess, 109.
Anthony, St., Hermit, 240.
Anthony, St., of Padua, 258.
Apostles, the twelve, 146.
Apparition of Christ to His mother, 116.
Apple, symbol of, 75.
Archangels, 81.
Arrow, 72.
Ascension, 119.
Ass and Ox, Symbol of, 103.
Assumption of the Virgin, 119.
Augustine, St., 184.
Augustines, The, 277.
Aureole, 67.
Banner, or Standard, 73.
Barbara, St., 212.
Barnabas, St., 167.
Bartholomew, St., 161.
Basket, 284.
Bear, 284.
Bee, 284.
Beehive, 284.
Bell, 75.
Benedict, St., 244.
Benedictines, The, 275.
Bernard, St., of Clairvaux, 248.
Bernardino, St., of Siena, 264, 284.
Birds, as symbols, 88.
Bonaventura, St., 260.
Book, symbol of, 75, 87.
Brandeum, Legend of, 190.
Brigittines, 278.
Camaldolesi, 275.
Cana, Marriage at, 113.
Capuchins, 278.
Carmelites, 280.
Carthusians, 275.
Catherine, St., of Alexandria, 209.
Catherine, St., of Siena, 272.
Cecilia, St., 223.
Chalice, as emblem, 74.
Chamuel, 283.
Christ, Symbols of, 78, 285.
Christopher, St., 196.
Cistercians, 276.
Clara, St., 256.
Colours, Significance of, 76.
Cordeliers, 278.
Coronation of the Virgin, 121, 123.
Cosmo and Damian, Sts., 200.
Creed, Apostles’, 146.
Cross, Different forms of, 69.
Crown, as symbol, 71.
Crucifix, 76, 125-126.
Crucifixion, 114.
Daniel, 290.
David, 290.
Deposition, 116.
Descent from Cross, 115.
Devotional representations of the Virgin, 122.
Dispute in Temple, 111.
Doctors, Four, of the Church, 177.
Dominicans, 279.
Dominick, St., 266.
Dove, as emblem, 74, 88.
Dragon, symbol of, 70.
Dress, of Virgin, 76, 89.
Elijah, 290.
Elisha, 290.
Elizabeth, St., 100.
Entombment, 116.
Evangelists, Four, 137.
Ezekiel, 290.
Fathers, Four Latin, 177.
Fire and flames, 73.
Fish, emblem of Christ, 68, 285.
Flaming heart, 75.
Flight into Egypt, 109.
Flowers and fruit, 75.
Font, 285.
Francis, St., of Assisi, 252.
Franciscans, 278.
Gabriel, St., the Archangel, 84.
George, St., of Cappadocia, 191.
Gideon, 290.
Globe, 87.
Glory, 67.
God, the Father, Symbols of, 78.
Gregory, St., the Great, Legends of, 187.
Hands, two, 285.
Hart, 71.
Hind, 71.
Historical and devotional subjects, 64.
Holy Family, 112.
Holy Ghost, Symbols of, 78.
Horns, 286.
Immaculate Conception, 126.
Isaiah, 290.
James, St., the Great, 156.
James Minor, St., 163.
Jeremiah, 290.
Jerome, St., 177.
Jeronymites, 280.
Jesuits, 280.
Joachim, St., Legend of, 91.
Joel, 290.
John the Baptist, St., 134.
John the Evangelist, St., 142.
Jophiel, 283.
Joseph, 291.
Joseph, St., Marriage of, 94;
Death of, 113.
Judas Iscariot, 165.
Jude, St., 164.
Lamb, 70.
Lamp, 73.
Lance, 72.
Lantern, 73.
Last Supper, 175.
Latin Fathers, Four, 177.
Laurence, St., 235.
Lily, symbol of, 74.
Lion, as emblem, 70, 286.
Lizard, 287.
Louis, St., of France, 262.
Louis, St., of Toulouse, 263.
Lucy, St., 231.
Luke, St., the Evangelist, 141.
Madonna, Legends of, 91-121;
Symbols of, 86-88.
Magi, Adoration of, 105, 287.
Majesty, 287.
Margaret, St., 220.
Mark, St., the Evangelist, 140.
Marriage of Virgin, 94.
Mary Magdalene, St., 169.
Mater Amabilis, 132.
Mater Dolorosa, 125.
Matthew, St., 138.
Matthias, St., 165.
Melchizedek, 291.
Mendicant Orders, 278.
Michael, St., the Archangel, 81.
Minimes, 279.
Monastic Orders, 275.
Moses, 291.
Mysteries, Fifteen, of the rosary, 89.
Nativity, of the Virgin, 92;
of Christ, 102.
Nicholas, St., of Myra, 205.
Nimbus, 67.
Noah, 291.
Obadiah, 290.
Observants, 278.
Olive, as symbol, 74.
Olivetani, 276.
Oran or Orant, 287.
Oratorians, 276.
Order of Mercy, 278.
Orders, religious, 275.
Ox. _See_ Ass, symbol of, 287.
Palm, as emblem, 73.
Passion of our Lord, 114.
Paul, St., Apostle, 152.
Paul, St., Hermit, 241.
Peacock, 71.
Pelican, 70.
Peter, St., 148.
Peter Martyr, St., 268.
Philip, St., 159.
Phœnix, 287.
Pietà, 126.
Pomegranate, as emblem, 75, 88.
Poor Clares, 278.
Preaching Friars. _See_ Dominicans.
Precious stones, symbols of, in sacred art, 76.
Premonstratensians, 277.
Presentation of the Virgin, 92.
Procession to Calvary, 114.
Purification of the Virgin, 108.
Raphael, St., the Archangel, 84.
Repose of Holy Family, 110.
Roch, St., 202.
Rosary, Institution of. _See_ St. Dominick, 268.
Rosary. _See_ Mysteries.
Rose, symbol of Virgin, 87.
Saints frequently found in art, Legends of, 234.
Saints and Symbols, 30-63.
Samson, 291.
Scourge, as symbol, 74.
Sebastian, St., 194.
Serpent, 70, 88.
Servi, 277.
Seth, 291.
Seven joys. _See_ Sorrows.
Shell, 75.
Ship, emblem of, 73.
Sibyl, Tiburtina, Prophecy of, 102.
Sibyls, 288.
Simeon, Prophecy of, 108.
Simon Zelotes, St., 164.
Skull, 75.
Sorrows, Seven, of the Virgin, 89.
Spasimo, lo, 114.
Sposalizio, 94.
Square, 68.
Star, symbol of Virgin, 86.
Stephen, St., 234.
Sudarium, 62.
Sun, 86.
Sword, as emblem, 72.
Symbols, general, 67-75;
of saints, 1-29;
of the Virgin, 86-88.
Tetramorph, 288.
Thomas, St., 161.
Thomas Aquinas, St., 270.
Three, 288.
Triangle, emblem of, 68.
Trinitarians, 277;
badge of, 284.
Trinity, Holy, Symbols of, 80.
Unicorn, 75.
Uriel, 283.
Ursula, St., 214.
Vallombrosans, 275.
Vincent, St., 237.
Virgin Martyrs, Four, of the Latin Church, 223.
Virgin Mary, Legends of, 91-121;
Symbols of, 86-88.
Virgin Patronesses, 208.
Visitation, 100.
Visitation of St. Mary, Order of, 280.
Votive Pictures, 65, 130.
Zacharias, 134.
Zadkiel, 283.
Zechariah, 290.