also of religious aspiration. “Like as the hart panteth after the
water-brooks, so panteth my soul for Thee, O God!” When the original
meaning of the lion, the hart, and other emblems had faded from the
popular mind, legends were invented to explain them and _that which
had been a symbol_ became an _incident_ or an _historical attribute_;
as the legend of the lion healed by St. Jerome, or two lions digging
the grave of St. Paul, the stag that appeared to St. Eustace and St.
Hubert, and the hind that spoke to St. Julian.
The =Peacock=, the bird of Juno, was an old pagan symbol signifying
the apotheosis of an empress. The early Christians, with this
interpretation in mind, used it as a general symbol of immortality.
It was not until modern times that the peacock became the emblem of
earthly pride.
The =Crown= in Christian art is either an emblem or an attribute. In
all ages it has been the emblem of victory and reward due to surpassing
power or virtue. “Henceforth there is laid up for me a crown of
righteousness”; and in this sense the crown became the especial symbol
of the glory of martyrdom. Among the Jews, the crown was worn by a
bride, and usually only the female martyrs wear the symbolical crown
of glory, signifying in a double sense the bride of Christ, and the
martyr. Martyrs of the other sex hold the crown in their hands or it
is borne by an angel. The crown is also the symbol of sovereignty.
The Virgin wears it as Queen of Heaven and _Regina Angelorum_. It is
important to distinguish between the _symbol_ and the _attribute_. When
the crown is given to St. Cecilia and St. Barbara it is the emblem of
their glorious martyrdom. When given to St. Catherine and St. Ursula
it is not only the _symbol_ of martyrdom but the _attribute_ of their
royal rank as princesses.
As an attribute it is frequently worn by a saint or placed at his feet,
indicating that he was of royal birth, as in pictures of Louis of
France, St. Helena, and many others.
The =Sword= is also a symbol or an attribute. In general it signifies
martyrdom by a violent death and thus is given to many saints who did
not perish by the sword. As an attribute, it shows that the martyr was
beheaded. Thus it is given to St. Paul, St. Catherine, and many others.
It is also given to the warrior martyrs typifying their military
profession.
Other symbols of martyrdom are:
The =Lance=, the =Axe=, the =Club=.
The =Arrow=, the attribute of St. Ursula, St. Christian, and St.
Sebastian.
The =Anvil= is an attribute of St. Adrian only, signifying his
martyrdom.
The =Poniard=, of St. Lucia.
The =Caldron=, given to St. Cecilia and St. John the Evangelist.
The =Pincers= and =Shears=, St. Apollonia and St. Agatha.
The =Wheels=, St. Catherine.
=Fire= and =Flames= sometimes indicate martyrdom, sometimes religious
fervour.
The =Palm= is the universal symbol of martyrdom, for which the
Christians found scriptural authority in Rev. vii., 9, 14: “And after
this I beheld, and lo, a great multitude ... stood before the throne
... clothed with white robes, and with palms in their hands.” ... “And
he said to me, These are they which came out of great tribulation.”
Thus in pictures of martyrdoms an angel is introduced with the palm.
The =Standard= or =Banner= is the symbol of victory. It is carried by
our Saviour after His resurrection, and is given to St. George, St.
Maurice, and other military saints; to some victorious martyrs, as St.
Julian and St. Ansano, also to St. Ursula and St. Reparata, the only
female saints.
The =Ship=. The Ark of Noah was in early times a symbol of the Church
of Christ. Later the Ark became a Ship.
The =Anchor= symbolises immovable firmness, patience, and hope.
The =Lamp=, =Lantern=, or =Taper= is the emblem of piety: “Let your
light so shine before men,” etc. Thus it is given to St. Gudula, St.
Geneviève of Paris, and St. Bridget. It also signifies wisdom, and when
given to St. Lucia typifies celestial light or wisdom.
A =Church= in the hands of a saint shows that he was the founder of
some particular church. But in the hands of St. Jerome it signifies the
whole Catholic Church, and to make the symbol more impressive rays of
light stream out from the portal.
The =Chalice=, or Sacramental Cup with the Host, signifies faith, and
is thus given to St. Barbara.
The =Scourge= in the hand of a saint or at his feet indicates the
penance he inflicted upon himself; in the hand of St. Ambrose, however,
it shows the punishment he inflicted upon others.
The =Olive=, emblem of peace and reconciliation, is found on the tombs
of the early martyrs; sometimes with, and again without, the dove. It
is carried as the attribute of peace by the Angel Gabriel, sometimes
also by the angels in a Nativity who announce “peace on earth.”
The =Dove= in sacred art is the symbol of the Holy Ghost, and is given
to certain saints who are considered to have been divinely inspired,
as St. Gregory, St. Thomas Aquinas, St. Hilarius, and others. It is
also introduced into various subjects from the New Testament, as the
Annunciation, the Baptism, and the Pentecost. It also symbolises
simplicity and purity of heart, and is the emblem of the soul, and in
this sense is seen coming forth from the lips of dying martyrs.
The =Lily= is another emblem of purity and appears in pictures of the
Virgin, particularly those of the Annunciation. It belongs also to St.
Joseph, the husband of the Virgin Mary, whose staff, according to the
legend, put forth lilies. It is given as an emblem only to St. Francis,
St. Anthony of Padua, St. Dominick, and St. Catherine of Siena, to
emphasise the great purity of their lives.
The =Unicorn= is another “ancient symbol of purity, in allusion to the
fable that it could never be captured except by a virgin stainless in
mind and life.” It is the emblem of female chastity, and is given only
to the Virgin Mary and St. Justina.
The =Flaming Heart= symbolises fervent piety and love.
The =Book=, in the hands of the evangelists and the apostles,
represents the Gospel, and is an attribute. In the hand of St. Stephen
it is the Old Testament; with any other saint it may be the Gospel, but
it may also be a symbol signifying that the saint was famous for his
learning. It is thus given to St. Catherine, the Doctors of the Church,
St. Thomas Aquinas, and St. Bonaventura.
=Flowers= and =Fruit= may be simply ornamental in ecclesiastical works
of art, but in many instances they have a definite meaning. Roses are
symbolical in pictures of the Madonna, who is the “Rose of Sharon.”
The =Apple= was the accepted emblem of the fall of man and original
sin. In pictures of the Madonna and Child, in the hand of the Infant
Christ, or presented by an angel, it symbolised redemption.
The =Pomegranate= bursting open, showing the seeds, was a symbol of the
future and hope of immortality.
An _Apple_, _Pear_, or _Pomegranate_ placed in the hand of St.
Catherine as the mystical bride of Christ, alludes to the scriptural
text, “The fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace.”
A =Bell= was supposed to exorcise demons, and thus it is given to the
haunted St. Anthony.
The =Shell= signifies pilgrimage.
The =Skull=, penance.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] See Appendix.
[2] See Appendix.
V.—COLOURS AS EMBLEMS
In early art colours were always used symbolically, and until the old
traditions were cast aside by later painters, certain colours were
always associated with certain subjects and certain personages. In all
the old stained glass these rules were scrupulously followed.
=White= was the symbol of light, faith, joy, life, and of religious
purity, virginity, and innocence. It signified honour and integrity in
the judge, humility in the rich man, and chastity in a woman. Christ
appears in white after His resurrection and the Virgin wears it in
pictures of the assumption.
=Red=, the ruby, denoted fire, divine love, the Holy Spirit; royalty,
creative power, and heat. Red and white roses are symbols of love and
innocence, or love and wisdom. Thus the angel crowns St. Cecilia.
Used in the bad sense, red typified blood, hatred, war. Red and white
together were the colours of the devil and of purgatory.
=Blue=, that of the sapphire, signified heaven, fidelity, constancy,
truth. Christ and the Virgin wear the blue mantle typifying heavenly
love and heavenly truth. St. John the Evangelist was given the _blue
tunic_ and the red mantle.
=Yellow= or =Gold= was the symbol of the sun, of the goodness of
God, of marriage and fruitfulness. St. Joseph wears yellow, and St.
Peter, in pictures of the apostles, wears a yellow mantle over a blue
tunic. Used in the reverse sense, yellow denoted jealousy, deceit, and
inconstancy. The traitor Judas wears a dirty, dingy yellow.
=Green=, the emerald, the colour of spring, symbolised victory and
hope—particularly hope of immortality.
=Violet=, the amethyst, signified passion and suffering, or love and
truth. It is the colour worn by the martyrs, by the Virgin after the
crucifixion, by Mary Magdalene as the penitent, and sometimes by Christ
after the resurrection.
=Grey= is the colour of humility, mourning, penance, and accused
innocence.
=Black= indicated darkness, wickedness, death, and mourning, and was
given to Satan. Black and white signified humiliation or mourning, and
purity of life, and for this reason was adopted by the Dominicans and
Carmelites.
VI.—THE TRINITY
=Symbols of God the Father.= Until the twelfth century the only symbol
used to indicate God the Father was a hand issuing from the clouds.
It was generally represented in the act of benediction, sometimes
encircled by a cruciform nimbus, sometimes entirely open with rays
proceeding from each finger. It was then supposed to be in the act of
bestowing. This symbol was followed by a face in the clouds, then a
bust, and by the end of the fourteenth century the entire figure was
represented. Then a sentiment grew into being that, as no mortal had
seen nor could see him, any attempt to represent him in human form was
profane; and since the sixteenth century the Supreme Being has been
symbolised by a triangle, the geometrical emblem of the Divine Trinity,
or by a radiating circle, itself the symbol of eternity.
=Symbols of God the Son.=[3] The symbols of Christ are the glory,
aureole, or nimbus, the cross, lamb, and lion. However, from the
beginning of Christian art, Christ has been represented by portraits
rather than symbols, and these portraits are always unmistakable.
[Illustration:
Photo. Alinari
THE BAPTISM OF CHRIST BY ST. JOHN.—VERROCCHIO
(Academy, Florence.)]
=Symbols of the Holy Ghost.= From the sixth century the dove has
been the universal symbol of the Holy Ghost. The representation of
the Saviour surrounded by seven doves is highly symbolical. They
are emblems of the seven gifts of the spirit with which He was
endowed—wisdom, understanding, counsel, strength, knowledge, piety, and
fear (Is. xi). During the Middle Ages seven was considered a mystic
number. There were seven gifts of the Holy Ghost; seven planets; seven
days of the week; seven branches on the candlestick of Moses; seven
sacraments; seven stars; seven liberal arts; seven symbolic trumpets;
seven churches of Asia; seven mysterious seals; seven heads of the
Dragon; seven penitential psalms; seven joys and seven sorrows of the
Virgin; seven deadly sins; seven canonical hours.
=Symbols of the Trinity.= In early art the Divine Three in One was
symbolised by the combination of three triangles, three circles, three
fishes, and in later art by three human figures, each with its peculiar
attribute. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries the dove was
often represented hovering between the first and second persons of the
Trinity with the tips of the wings touching the lips of each.
FOOTNOTES:
[3] See Appendix.
VII.—ARCHANGELS[4]
The seven archangels who stood in the presence of God are frequently
referred to in Scripture. These are: _Michael_, _Gabriel_, _Raphael_,
_Uriel_, _Chamuel_, _Jophiel_, _Zadkiel_.
From the standpoint of art, however, it is necessary to consider only
the characteristics of the first three, who are venerated as saints
in the Catholic Church. These, by their majestic and gracious beauty,
and their accredited mission as counsellor, messenger, and healer to
mankind, have inspired some of the most poetical and beautiful works of
art.
=St. Michael.= _Lat._ Sanctus Michael Angelus. _Ital._ San Michele,
Sanmichele. _Fr._ Monseigneur Saint Michel.
Poetry and art have united in giving St. Michael pre-eminence over
all created spirits. All the glory of princedoms, powers, virtues,
dominations, and thrones radiate from him, and God manifested His glory
in him when He made him victor over the power of sin and over the
“great dragon that deceived the world.”
The worship of St. Michael became general in France from the ninth
century, and he was made the patron saint of France, and of the
military order instituted in his honour by Louis XI., in 1469. This
worship extended to England after the Norman Conquest, and churches
dedicated to St. Michael are found in all the towns and cities along
the southern and eastern shores.
St. Michael is also the angel of good counsel.
[Illustration:
Photo. Alinari
THE THREE ARCHANGELS.—BOTTICELLI
(Academy, Florence.)]
He is represented in three characters in art: as patron saint and
prince of the Church Militant; as captain of the hosts of heaven and
conqueror of the powers below; as lord of souls,—the conductor and
guardian angel of the spirits of the departed.
In all representations of St. Michael in art the leading _motif_ is
the same. He is young and beautiful, with a severe, imperious beauty.
In early art he is represented in white, with large many-coloured
wings, and carries only the sceptre, or the lance surmounted by a
cross, as one who conquered sin by spiritual power alone. In later
representations—those imbued with the spirit of chivalry, he becomes
the idealised expression of knighthood, and is attired in a magnificent
coat of mail, with shield and spear and sword. Sometimes he wears a
helmet; more often his long, fair hair is confined by a jewelled tiara,
or floats loose upon his shoulders, the only angelic attribute being
the wings that spring resplendent from his shoulders.
In devotional pictures of St. Michael, he is represented as captain of
the heavenly host and conqueror of the Evil One. He is armed and stands
with his foot on the half-human, half-dragon form of Lucifer, whom he
is about to pierce with his lance or to hurl down into the infernal
regions. This representation is the universal symbol of the ultimate
victory of good over evil.
When St. Michael is portrayed as lord of souls he is unarmed. He holds
a balance and upon each scale sits a little naked figure representing
two human souls. The _beato_—the blessed one—has his hands joined in
gratitude, while the other, the rejected one, is in an attitude of
hopeless misery. Frequently a demon is seen grasping the descending
scale with his talons or a long two-pronged hook.
Whether with or without the balance, St. Michael appears as lord of
souls in the death and assumption of the Virgin. The legends assert
that he received her spirit and guarded it during the interim of her
death and assumption.
=St. Gabriel.= _Ital._ San Gabriele, San Gabriello, L’Angelo
Annunziatore.
Where the Angel Gabriel’s name occurs in Scripture it is in the
character of a messenger only. It is he who is sent to Daniel to
interpret the vision which shows the destinies of mighty nations, and
to announce the return of the Jews from captivity. In the New Testament
he foretells the birth of John the Baptist to the high-priest Zacharias
and six months later he is sent to the Virgin to proclaim the coming of
the Redeemer of the world. In the Apocryphal New Testament he foretells
to Joachim the birth of the Virgin and is thought to have foretold the
birth of Samson. He is more important in the New Testament than Michael
and as the angel who announced the birth of Christ he is reverenced as
the angel who presides over childbirth.
In devotional pictures he is represented as the second of the three
archangels. In his character of _l’angelo annunziatore_, he usually
carries a lily or a sceptre in one hand and in the other a scroll
inscribed “Ave Maria, Gratia Plena!”
=St. Raphael.= _Ital._ San Raffaello. _Ger._ Der Heilige Rafael.
Raphael is the prince of guardian spirits, the guardian angel of all
humanity and thus, according to the early traditions, he appeared to
the shepherds by night, “with good tidings of great joy, which shall
be for all people.”
Raphael in his character of guardian angel is generally represented
leading the youthful Tobias. When in order to show the difference
between the heavenly and the mortal being, Tobit is made to look like a
child, and the angel appears with wings and is not disguised, it is no
longer historical, but devotional, and Tobias with his fish represents
the Christian protected and guided by his guardian spirit.
All the pictured subjects of Raphael belong to the history of Tobit,
and incidents from this beautiful apocryphal legend have been favourite
subjects of art. Tobias dragging the fish ashore and the angel standing
by has been often painted. In such pictures the angel should be without
wings and disguised as the friendly traveller; the dog, which should
not appear in the devotional pictures, is here an attribute and belongs
to the story.
Devotional pictures represent him attired as a pilgrim or traveller,
with sandalled feet and hair confined by a fillet or diadem. He has
the pilgrim’s staff and a wallet or panetière suspended from his belt.
Often as guardian spirit he has a sword; usually, however, he bears a
small vase or casket containing the “fishy charm” against evil spirits
(Tobit, vi., 6-7).
FOOTNOTES:
[4] See Appendix.
VIII.—SYMBOLS AND ATTRIBUTES OF THE VIRGIN
The =Star= often embroidered on the right shoulder of the Virgin’s
mantle or in front of her veil refers to the most expressive of her
many titles, _Stella Maris_, “Star of the Sea,” an interpretation of
her Jewish name Miriam. Several pictures are called _La Madonna della
Stella_. She is also _Stella Matutina_, the “Morning Star”; _Stella non
Erratica_, the “Fixed Star”; and _Stella Jacobi_, the “Star of Jacob.”
The =Sun= and the =Moon=. “Who is she that looketh forth as the
morning, fair as the morn, clear as the sun” (Solomon’s Song, vi., 10).
This text is applied to the Virgin and she is also the woman of the
Apocalypse, “_A woman clothed with the sun, having the moon under her
feet_, and on her head a crown of twelve stars.” Hence she is portrayed
with the glory of the sun about her, and the crescent moon beneath her
feet.
The =Enclosed Garden= is a symbol borrowed from the Song of Solomon
(Cant. iv., 12) as well as a =Fountain Sealed=, a =Well of Living
Waters=, the =Tower of David=, the =Temple of Solomon=, and the =City
of David=.
The =Porta Clausa= or Closed Gate is taken from Ezekiel (xliv., 2).
The =Lily=, the =Rose=. “I am the rose of Sharon, and the lily of the
valleys” (Cant. ii., 1).
The =Palm=, the =Cypress=, and the =Olive= are all emblems of the
Virgin. The first signifies victory, the second points to heaven, and
the third denotes peace, abundance, and hope.
The =Cedar of Lebanon= (“exalted as a cedar in Lebanon”), because of
its imperishable nature, its perfume, its healing qualities, and its
great height, denotes also the virtue, greatness, and beauty of the
Virgin.
The =Sealed Book=, as a symbol in the hands of the Virgin, refers to
the text: “In that book were all my members written”; also to the “book
that is sealed which men deliver to one that is learned, saying, Read
this, I pray thee: and he saith, I cannot, for it is sealed: And the
book is delivered to him that is not learned, saying, Read this, I pray
thee: and he saith, I am not learned” (Is. xxix., 11-12).
Besides these symbols, which are mystical and sacred and belong only to
the Virgin, there are others of a more general nature that appear in
pictures of the Madonna and Child.
The =Globe=, as the symbol of sovereignty, was early placed in the
hands of the divine Infant. When it is under the feet of the Madonna
with a serpent twining about it, it is the symbol of redemption.
The =Apple=, in the hands of the Infant Christ, symbolises the fall of
man; in the hands of the Virgin it indicates that she is the second Eve.
The =Serpent= is the general emblem of Satan and sin, but it is used
in reference to the prophecy, “She shall bruise thy head,” when placed
under the feet of the Madonna.
The =Pomegranate=, the ancient symbol of hope, is often placed in the
hands of the Child, who is seen presenting it to His mother.
The =Book=, when the Madonna holds it open, or has a finger between
the leaves, or when the Child is turning the pages, is the Book of
Wisdom, and is supposed to be open at the seventh chapter. When clasped
or sealed, as before explained, it is a mystical emblem of the Virgin
herself.
=Birds= represent the soul. The =Dove= is the Holy Spirit hovering
about the Virgin. The =Seven Doves=, typifying the gifts of the Spirit,
when they surround the Virgin, characterise her as _Mater Sapientiæ_,
“Mother of Wisdom.” Doves near her when she is working or reading in
the Temple express the meekness and tenderness of her nature.
* * * * *
Certain women of the Old Testament are regarded as especial types of
the Virgin, viz.: =Eve=, =Rachel=, =Ruth=, =Abishag=, =Bathsheba=,
=Judith=, and =Esther=, and it is because of this that these Jewish
heroines so often appear in religious pictures.
The correct and traditional dress of the Virgin is a blue robe or
mantle worn over a close red tunic with long sleeves. In early pictures
her head is veiled and the colours are pale and delicate. The enthroned
Madonna unveiled was introduced about the end of the fifteenth century.
In the historical pictures she is simply dressed, but in the devotional
pictures wherein she is portrayed as the Queen of Heaven, she wears a
magnificent crown wrought with jewels interwoven with roses and lilies;
her blue robe is richly embroidered with gold and gems, and lined with
ermine or stuff of gorgeous colours, carrying out the text: “The king’s
daughter is all glorious within; her clothing is of wrought gold. She
shall be brought unto the king in raiment of needlework” (Ps. xlv.,
13-14).
In the Immaculate Conception and the Assumption, the Virgin wears a
white tunic, or white strewn with gold stars. In all subjects that
relate to the passion and those that follow the crucifixion she should
wear violet or grey. This rule is not always followed, however.
The =Seven Joys= and the =Seven Sorrows of the Virgin= are often
painted as a series.
The =Seven Joys= are: the Annunciation, the Visitation, the Nativity,
the Adoration of the Magi, the Presentation in the Temple, Christ
found by His mother, the Assumption and the Coronation.
The =Seven Sorrows= are: the Prophecy of Simeon, the Flight into
Egypt, Christ lost by His mother, the Betrayal of Christ, the
Crucifixion (with St. John and the Virgin only present), the
Deposition from the Cross, and the Ascension when the Virgin is left
without her Son.
The fifteen Mysteries of the Rosary are also given as a series.
The =Five Joyful Mysteries= are: the Annunciation, the Visitation,
the Nativity, the Purification, and Christ found in the Temple.
The =Five Sorrowful Mysteries= are: Christ in the Garden of Olives,
the Flagellation, Christ Crowned with Thorns, the Procession to
Calvary, and the Crucifixion.
The =Five Glorious Mysteries= are: the Resurrection, the Ascension,
the Descent of the Holy Ghost, the Assumption, and the Coronation.
These series are treated mystically rather than in the limited
historical sense, the object being to induce devout religious
contemplation.
IX.—LEGENDS OF THE MADONNA
Anna, the mother of the Virgin, was early venerated as a saint in the
East, but the parents of the Virgin were never represented in early
art except in a series of the life of the Virgin. It was not until the
beginning of the sixteenth century that the increased reverence for
the Virgin Mary gave to her parents Joachim and Anna a more prominent
position as patron saints, and from that time on they were frequent
subjects in sacred groups.
A complete series of the history of the Blessed Virgin, as imaged forth
by the early artists, always begins with the =Legend of Joachim and
Anna= as it is related in the Apocryphal New Testament.