CHAPTER XV_The art of music, Vol. 05 (of 14)

MODERN LYRICISTS OUTSIDE OF GERMANY AND FRANCE

The new Russian school: Balakireff, etc.; Moussorgsky

and others--The Scandinavians and Finns--Recent English

song-writers.

We have referred in another chapter to the neo-Russian school of

composers, who worked under the influence of Mily Balakireff and

based their composition largely upon the native folk-songs. It is

this group that has created Russia’s musical art. Tschaikowsky and

Rubinstein are, in the Russian view, out of the direct line of

succession. In the direct line, which commences with Glinka, we find

a distinguished company of geniuses. After Glinka comes Alexander

Dargomijsky (1813-1869), one of the earliest converts to Wagnerian

principles outside of Germany and a radical innovator in dramatic and

harmonic method. His opera, ‘The Stone Guest,’ looks forward a quarter

of a century to modern harmonic effects, whole-toned scale and all.

But, in consideration of the time he was working, it is not to be

expected that his songs are of a radical cast. They, however, show the

innovating genius of the man and his full-blooded artistic life. Some

ninety in all, they are extraordinarily varied in style and contents,

some graceful and elegaic, some exotic, and some humorous. Dargomijsky

took the traditional mantle of Russian genius upon his shoulders in

satirizing the bureaucracy and wrote some of his finest humorous songs

on the subject. Among the best of his songs we may mention ‘An Eastern

Song,’ ‘I Think that Thou Wert Born for This,’ and ‘O Maid, My Rose.’

His dramatic ballads, of which ‘The Knight Errant’ and ‘The Old

Corporal’ are the finest, are marked by directness and simplicity which

give them a rare laconic force.

[Illustration: Famous Song Interpreters.

Top: Julia Culp and Elena Gerhardt

Bottom: Ludwig Wüllner and David Bispham]

Dargomijsky was one of the older generation, a sort of father confessor

to the neo-Russian group. This group worked under the inspiration of

Mily Balakireff (1837-1910), a young enthusiast with fine visions and

a considerable knowledge of music, mostly self-learned. It was he

who first of all gave the great emphasis to the use of folk-songs in

Russian composition and this he made the cornerstone of the new school.

As members of his little group he was lucky enough to have two geniuses

of very nearly the first order, one Modest Moussorgsky (1835-1881) and

the other Nicholas Rimsky-Korsakoff (1844-1908). Balakireff’s own songs

show artistic qualities of a high order; they are marked by unfailing

taste and proportion and range over a broad field of expression, nearly

everywhere successfully. But, though his artistic and critical sense

was superb, he had not the creativeness of most of the group. One man

who has done much finer work in song than he is Alexander Borodine

(1834-1887). Borodine entered the neo-Russian group as a mere amateur,

but he became filled with the new enthusiasms and set himself to

work in earnest. The high and consistent creative level of his work,

considering his short and interrupted study and the smallness of his

output, is amazing. He wrote some twelve songs in his lifetime and

fully half of them are masterpieces. Borodine was courageous in his

attitude toward new musical principles and extremely happy in his use

of the new materials. Expressive dissonance, in particular, he uses

with rare effectiveness. The ballad or romance entitled ‘The Sleeping

Princess’ is surely one of the finest things of its kind in existence.

The spell of the enchanted forest, the calm beauty of the sleeping

princess, are suggested in a succession of major second dissonances

which weave a web over the mysterious melodies of the accompaniment.

The same power of creating ‘atmosphere’ with simple means is shown

in ‘The Sea-Queen,’ which is an exquisite inspiration. The romance,

‘A Dissonance,’ is a gem of concentrated lyricism. But the most

original of Borodine’s songs, one of the most memorable of the whole

Russian product, is ‘The Song of the Dark Forest.’[33] This is written

purely in the Russian idiom, with a great and savage melody which is

irresistible in its vigor. The accompaniment only duplicates the voice

part, with the addition of dissonances that sound forth like trumpet

blasts. With his handful of songs and his definite quantity of genius

Borodine has made a place for himself in the history of lyric music.

César Cui (born 1835), who was in early years the press agent of the

neo-Russian group, need be mentioned here only to be passed over. His

song output is generous and nearly always marked with much grace and

good taste. But Cui took less stock in the adoration of the folk-song

than the other members of the group and his art product is in every way

weaker. Rimsky-Korsakoff combined an intense feeling for the native

Russian idiom with an exhaustive knowledge of the technique of music

and produced a large number of works which, while being truly Russian,

seem not unnatural to western ears. He is shown in romantic vein in

two early songs, ‘On the Georgian Hills’ and ‘A Southern Night.’ His

oriental songs are perhaps the best known of his lyric works. In these

the greatest modern master of musical exoticism has brought vividly to

our ears not only the phrases, but the very spirit of the east. The

‘Hebrew Love Song’ may be taken as one of the best of the group. But

the greatest of the neo-Russian group, the greatest Russian composer

hitherto, and one of the great composers of all musical history, was

Moussorgsky. This man was utterly absorbed in the Russian folk-song and

based his style on nothing else. He had the faculty of genius which

goes straight to the heart of something new and produces his result

without seeming effort. Few musicians of the nineteenth century have

spoken with so individual a voice. The world is only beginning to

appreciate the greatness of his operas. As for his songs, they have

made their way even more slowly, but where they are once known they

are never forgotten. Moussorgsky’s many remarkable qualities are not

to be set down in a single paragraph like the present. Suffice it to

point out his harmonic originality, which made use of atmospheric

chords, unusual scale combinations, and powerful modulation long before

Debussy’s time (Debussy, in fact, confesses to have learned much from

Moussorgsky); his freshness of inspiration, which has produced some

of the most glorious of melodies; and his unsurpassed ability in the

delineation of character and mood. His songs are not a great many,

but there are few of them that are not masterpieces. His pictures of

peasant life are marvellous in their persuasive picturesqueness. As an

example we may quote the ‘Peasant Cradle Song,’ one of the greatest

of songs anywhere. The ineffable pathos of the beginning, the strange

ethereal light of the end, are hardly to be paralleled in the whole

range of song. But it is more than a mere lullaby; it is a peasant’s

lullaby and the music almost makes us see the poor hut in which the

mother croons her song. Another lullaby, the ‘Cradle Song of the Poor,’

is hardly less appealing, but is totally different in design. Another

song showing Moussorgsky’s highest genius is the _Hopak_, a long piece

with admirable picturing of various phases of Russian character. The

song is tremendously effective in concert.

Moussorgsky’s three song groups are all of the highest rank. In the

Nursery Songs he has done what no other composer has ever done better,

and not more than two or three have done so well. He has depicted

the events and emotions of a child with the simplicity of spirit of

a child. The songs, however, are not simple technically--so much the

contrary that, composed in 1868 to 1870, they are prophetic of future

musical procedure. This freedom and delicacy of delineation had never

been seen in songs before. The four ‘Death Dances’ are tremendous songs

of grim tragedy; in ‘Death and the Peasant’ the accompaniment depicts

the indifference of nature at the fate of the peasant who is dying in

the snow after a debauch. The most amazing product of Moussorgsky’s

lyrical genius, however, is his last group of six songs--‘Where

No Sun Shines.’ These, written in the later years of his life,

under the influence of the deepest pessimism, are perhaps the most

intense expression of spiritual despair in all song literature. The

extraordinary technical method of these pieces, hardly less than that

of the remarkable children’s songs, was Debussy’s chief guiding light

in the early years of the development of his style. In absolute musical

value these six last songs stand very high and ‘By the Water’ has few

parallels in song literature.

The remaining Russian song writers can be summed up briefly. Antony

Arensky (born 1861) is the composer of many songs, graceful and

pleasing but not highly original in style. Sergius Taneiev (born

1856) inclines to the conservative and classical, but is an able

musician and capable song-writer. Alexander Glazounoff (born 1865)

has worked with most success in the smaller forms and in his graceful

songs has put much that is charming, though little that is genuinely

inspiring. His work is marked by its extraordinary suavity and taste.

Michael Ippolitoff-Ivanoff (born 1859) has composed some ninety songs,

distinguished by a straightforward honesty of method and healthfulness

of feeling. Sergei Rachmaninoff (born 1873) is a much greater man than

those we have just named and a masterful song-writer. He is not always,

however, writing in the strenuous eastern idiom. ‘Before My Garden’ and

‘Lilacs’ are excellent in the conventional way. But he has written at

least one truly great song of genuine Russian inspiration. This is ‘Oh,

Thou Billowy Harvest Fields,’ which deserves to rank with Borodine’s

‘Song of the Black Forest’ in daring and stark power.

Since the time of Grieg, song writing in Scandinavia has flourished.

The chief Norwegian exponent of the art is Christian Sinding (born

1856), a hardworking and sincere artist, with occasional flashes of

something near genius. His many songs include settings and adaptations

of Norwegian folk-songs, which he has handled with rare taste. He has

put something of their directness into his own art, for he is one of

the best of the modern song-writers in his power of getting the nub of

an emotion in a few notes. His song product is uneven, for much of his

work has been hurried and routine in quality. But there are many pieces

of superior character and these reveal a quality which is above all

things lyrical.

Emil Sjögren (born 1853) is probably the foremost song writer of

Sweden. He is not a man of power. His range of expression is limited

to the graceful and tender. Much of his work is of the second order.

But very often he produces lyrics of quite original beauty. Among

these we may mention _Du schaust mich an_, _Jahrlang möcht’ ich_, and

_Ich möchte schweben_. The second, in particular, should prove highly

effective in concert. Of recent years Sjögren has cultivated the new

harmonic style with much industry and acquisitive talent. He has, in

fact, changed his style completely. It is doubtful if he can be said

to be wholly successful in his metamorphosis. He seems over-concerned

with details and fails to attain cogency of form.

Jean Sibelius (born 1865) is the greatest of Finnish composers and is

rapidly coming to be recognized as one of the greatest in the world.

We must remember that the Finns are dominantly Teutonic, and that

culture has been Teutonic in the past and not Russian or Mongolian

as is sometimes supposed. But Sibelius has developed a marvellous

individuality of expression which is at once expressive of him and

of his nation. Some of his songs are epoch-making in their form and

method. In the more graceful lyrical mood Sibelius is often charming.

We may mention ‘Idle Wishes’ and ‘Oh, Wert Thou Here’ as of this class.

In the simple folk-style Sibelius is even more individual. ‘A Little

Flower Stood on the Wayside’ is a thing of remarkable tenderness and

beauty. But it is when Sibelius strikes his national idiom that he is

at his greatest. This idiom is characterized by long, slowly-moving,

angular phrases, with frequent repetitions of the same note. The style

is admirably presented in the long song ‘To Frigge.’ The accompaniment

is scarcely less simple than the voice part, yet it is truly

delineative. The song is a model of pure genius creating something

quite new and very beautiful out of materials so simple that they have

been left by the wayside as useless. _Des Fahrmanns Bräute_ is a very

long ballad of great strength. But Sibelius is at his greatest and most

original in the ‘Autumn Evening,’ a song which has no fellow anywhere.

Sibelius’s method here is unique. The song is almost recitative, but

the various irregular phrases of the voice have an incisive quality

which makes them rank as descriptive. The accompaniment is little

more than a chord support at most points, but now and then rises into

great delineative power. The method is one of selection until only the

essentials remain. Each unit of expression which Sibelius has here

used is ideally fitted for its purpose. Moreover, the song, though free

in the extreme, has a close structure which is entirely convincing. The

originality of this song should ultimately make a deep impression on

current song-writing.

III

In latter-day England song-writing has risen to a dignity and

importance which it had not possessed since the time of Purcell. With

Arthur Goring-Thomas, whom we have already mentioned, a new note of

artistic sincerity entered the art. This was continued by an unusually

talented man, Arthur Somervell (born 1863), who has composed some

of the best song cycles of recent times. Somervell is by no means a

radical in his method. But his lyric sense is keen and his invention

fertile. His cycle from Tennyson’s ‘Maud’ attains rare fidelity and

tragic intensity. Among his other numerous songs are the two cycles,

‘A Shropshire Lad’ and ‘James Lee’s Wife,’ the latter scored for

orchestral accompaniment. These both show his happy invention and his

high musicianship. A song-writer who has gained a much more glittering

reputation less deservedly is Edward Elgar, whom people regard for

some reason as the chief representative of modern English song. As

a matter of fact, Elgar’s song output has been slight and has not

pretended to show the best he was capable of (as Reger did attempt to

show in _his_ songs). There is little of Elgar’s forceful musicianship

which comes across to us in these songs. The ‘Sea Pictures’ have made

their effect chiefly through the effective orchestration which their

composer provided for them. Considered as independent music, they are

inferior and somewhat conventional. The best is probably ‘Where Coral

Lies.’ ‘The Swimmer’ will serve to suggest Elgar’s descriptive style.

The conventional, in fact, hangs over most of Elgar’s songs. The one

which notably escapes it is the beautiful lyric, ‘My Love Lives in a

Northern Land,’ which is worthy to be signed by a first-class musician.

Of the others we may mention ‘Queen Mary’s Song,’ which, with its

accompaniment in imitation of a lute, is effective in concert; ‘Through

the Long Days,’ The Shepherd’s Song,’ and The Pipes of Pan.’

Granville Bantock (born 1868) may justly be called a radical modern

composer, whereas Elgar has much of the classical reserve about him.

Bantock’s very great ability and learning sometimes produce rather

chaotic results, the more so because his output is unusually great.

But frequently it produces results that are altogether admirable. To

singers he is known chiefly through his ‘Songs of the East.’ These

are published as cycles, as follows: Songs of Egypt, Songs of India,

Songs of Persia, Songs of the Seraglio, Five ‘Ghazels of Hafiz,’ lyrics

from ‘Ferishtah’s Fancies,’ Songs of China, and Songs of Japan. The

exoticism of these many songs is rarely genuine and Bantock’s facile

technique extends over them all to make them seem rather too much

alike for the good of his reputation. But the _effect_ of exoticism

is frequently attained with rare skill and the musical standard is

kept far higher than is usual in this class of music. Bantock’s

powerful technique, which is obviously influenced by Richard Strauss,

is to be studied to advantage in many of these songs, especially the

more pretentious ones. From the Songs of Egypt we should mention the

majestic ‘Invocation to the Nile,’ the mystical song ‘The Unutterable’;

and the poignant ‘Lament of Isis.’ Of the Hindoo songs that of the

Nautch girl is ever memorable for its effect of fierce physical motion.

The songs from Persia include two of high quality, the ‘Drinking Song’

and the ‘Hymn of the Ghebers.’ Let us further pick out, as among the

best, the Persian Love Song from the ‘Songs of the Seraglio’; and the

‘Shah Abbas’ and ‘Mahirab Shah’ from ‘Ferishtah’s Fancies,’ the last

remarkable for its expression of physical pain. The songs of China

and Japan are in no way unusual. Nor are the six Jester Songs, though

they sometimes catch the joy of life in engaging fashion. But Bantock

has one very ambitious work, the cycle of fragments from Sappho, which

is sufficient to put him in the front rank. It is hard to describe

the richness of the technique he has lavished on this work. We should

find it difficult to name anything similar to it in its peculiar

emotional intensity. The best that Bantock has to show of his art (his

instrumentation aside) is all to be found in this remarkable group

of songs. Every one of them is admirable, as is also the very long

introduction. But one remembers especially the opening number, the

‘Hymn to Aphrodite,’ dramatic and passionate; the painfully beautiful

song, ‘The Moon Has Set’; the masterful description of ‘Peer of the

Gods’; and the profuse musical richness of ‘In a Dream I Spake.’

Possibly these songs will in later years be judged too pretentious.

But while the judgment is still unmade we must regard with the highest

respect the musician who has done this thing in the musical conditions

that have prevailed in England.

It only remains to speak of the most radical of the young English

composers, Cyril Scott (born 1874). He broke away completely from

the traditional English style, founded on conventional church music,

and embraced the ‘atmospheric’ manner of the modern Frenchmen. In

this style he has displayed great energy and no small amount of

inventiveness. It remains to be seen whether he can make his influence

permanently felt in music. His songs well exemplify the general style

of his music. The best are ‘Lovely Kind and Kindly Loving’ and ‘Why

so Pale and Wan,’ both from opus 55. Others which should be mentioned

are ‘My Captain’ (to Walt Whitman’s words), ‘A Reflection,’ and

‘Afterday.’ The song writing of the modern English school has not yet

gathered body. It is only beginning to make itself felt beyond the

seas. But it has already shown so much vigor and independence that we

may justly look for abundant and fine results from it.

FOOTNOTES:

[33] See Musical examples, Volume XIV.

APPENDIX

THE FRENCH-CANADIAN FOLK-SONG

The songs of the French Canadians, which show considerable originality,

are in part transplanted from France, modified and localized in

the natural course of popular music. But a considerable part are

indigenous, with a history dating back, possibly, more than two

centuries. They are all, of course, made in imitation of the parent

stock, but in many instances they have taken on a new character,

befitting the wild and uncouth environment in which they were composed.

In some instances they show model characteristics, as in the _Mon Cri

Cra, Tir’ la Liretta_, sung by the boatmen on the Red River. This old

song shows scarcely any traces of the omnipresent influence of the

court of Louis XIV. Other songs bear the marks of the French priests,

through whose hands they passed on their way to the Canadian natives,

Indians or Frenchmen. Such a song is _Jesos Ahatonhia_, the music

of which was evidently an ecclesiastical melody with a strong modal

character indicating its great age. But on the whole the refined and

graceful influence of French civilization is strongly marked in the

Canadian songs, even when these songs originated in the New World. The

one department in which they are supreme is that of playful humor--not

the humor of the old English songs, which is somewhat bumptious and

muscular, but a more delicate humor, into which the singer enters

from pure effervescence of human sympathy and childlike playfulness.

We must range a long way through folk-song literature before we find

a song of this sort to equal ‘The White Duck,’ or ‘I Hear a Mill

Go Tick-Tack.’ A provocative playfulness sings in the words of ‘My

Faithful Bottle,’ ‘The Lost Chance,’ and the inimitable ‘When Returning

from Varennes,’ with its continuous refrain, _Cach’ton joli bas de

laine_. The spirit of Gascony, famous home of the practical joke, is in

the ‘Song of Lies,’ in which the singer turns the world topsy-turvy and

hopes to be hung if a single word he says is true. The sentimental note

is not so often struck, but we find it charmingly in such occasional

songs as ‘The Traveller’s Return,’ and ‘From Yonder on the Mountains.’

Gagnon’s collection, made in 1865 (the earliest of all), contains a

number of gentle and lovely airs, such as _C’est la belle française_.

We may also notice in this book a number which have been transported

from France and forgotten in the home country while they lived and

flourished under their foster mother. Such a song is _Dans les Prisons

de Nantes_. _Mon Per’ n’avait fille que moi_ is one of the most

interesting examples of the old modal style. The Canadian songs are

peculiarly addicted to the use of the refrain. This device, which is

always a mark of unsophisticated playfulness, is relied upon to such

an extent that one would call it excessive if the high spirits of the

music and words did not carry the little game through to complete

success. As so often happens, the refrain frequently has nothing

whatever to do with the sense of the text. The primitive innocence

of the mind is absolutely demanded of any singer who attempts, for

instance, ‘The White Duck.’ On the whole, the Canadian songs, though

very limited in range, can show a few types of folk-expression

managed with such consummate art that they deserve a place in the

folk-literature of the world.

LITERATURE FOR VOLUME V

(_In English_)

A. B. BACH: The Principles of Singing (London, 1897).

J. FRANK BOTUME: Modern Singing Methods (London, 1885).

LENNOX BROWNE and EMIL BEHNKER: Voice, Song and Speech (2nd

ed., London, 1884).

ANNA CHAPIN: Makers of Song (New York, 1904).

WILLIAM CHAPPELL: Old English Popular Music, 2 vols. (London,

1893).

H. HOLBROOK CURTIS, M. D.: Voice Building and Tone Placing (New

York, 1896).

HENRY T. FINCK: Songs and Song Writers (New York, 1910).

FFRANGCON-DAVIES: The Singing of the Future (London, 1904).

Folk-Songs from Somerset, 5 vols. (London, 1904-8).

HARRY PLUNKETT GREENE: Interpretation in Song (New York, 1912).

MAX HEINRICH: Correct Principles of Classical Singing (Boston,

1910).

H. L. F. HELMHOLTZ: The Study of Sensations of Tone (Trans. by

A. J. Ellis, 1875).

W. J. HENDERSON: The Art of Singing (New York, 1906).

GORDON HOLMES: A Treatise on Vocal Physiology and Hygiene

(1879).

JOHN HOWARD: The Physiology of Artistic Singing (1886).

DORA JONES: Lyric Diction (New York, 1913).

KICKSON AND NEAL: English Folk-song and Dance (Cambridge, Eng.,

1905).

H. E. KREHBIEL: Afro-American Folk-song (New York, 1914).

LOUIS LABLACHE: Complete Method of Singing.

FRANCESCO LAMPERTI: A Treatise on the Art of Singing (Trans. by

J. C. Griffiths, 1876).

LILLI LEHMANN: How to Sing (New York, 1912).

EUGENIE LINEVA: Peasant Songs of Great Russia (Engl. and

Russian text, Imperial Academy of Science, St. Petersburg).

SIR MORELL MACKENZIE: The Hygiene of the Vocal Organs (London,

1890).

GIOVANNI BATTISTA MANCINI: Practical Reflections on Figured

Song (Engl. transl. by Pietro Buzzi, Boston, 1913).

MATILDA MARCHESI: Ten Singing Lessons (London, 1901).

WESLEY MILLS, M. D.: Voice Production in Singing and Speaking

(1906).

SIR C. HUBERT H. PARRY: The Evolution of the Art of Music

(1899).

C. K. ROGERS: My Voice and I (Chicago, 1910).

E. W. SCRIPTURE: The Elements of Experimental Phonetics (1902).

WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE: The Art of Singing, 3 parts (London, 1898).

W. WARREN SHAW: The Lost Vocal Art (Phila., 1914).

SHAYS: English Folk-Carols (London, 1911).

SHAYS: English Folk-Chanteys (London, 1914).

SHAYS: English Folk-Songs; Some Conclusions (London, 1907).

DAVID C. TAYLOR: The Psychology of Singing (New York, 1908).

PIETRO FRANCESCO TOSI: Observations on the Florid Song (1723).

(Reprint by William Reeves, London, 1905.)

GEORGE P. UPTON: The Song (Chicago, 1915).

_In German_

ERK UND BÖHME: Deutscher Liederhort, 3 vols. (Leipzig, 1893).

MAX FRIEDLÄNDER: Das deutsche Lied im 18. Jahrhundert, 2 vols.

(Stuttgart and Berlin, 1902).

H. L. F. HELMHOLTZ: Die Lehre der Tonempfindungen.

R. G. KIESEWETTER: Schicksale und Beschaffenheit des weltlichen

Gesanges, etc. (1841).

DR. L. MANDL: Die Gesundheitslehre der Stimme (1876).

CARL LUDWIG MERKL: Der Kehlkopf (1873).

_In French_

F. J. FÉTIS: Histoire générale de la musique (1869).

Méthode de chant du Conservatoire de Musique (Paris, 1803).

JULIEN TIERSOT: Histoire de la chanson populaire en France

(Paris, 1889).

J. B. WECKERLIN: Chansons populaires du pays de France, 2 vols.

(Paris, 1903).

_In Italian_

GIOVANNI BATTISTA MANCINI: Reflessioni pratiche sul canto

figurato (1777).

GIULIO CACCINI: Le nouve musiche (Florence, 1600).

INDEX OF VOLUME V

N. B.--_Figures in Italics indicate major references._

_A Highland Lad My Love was Born_ (Scotch folk-song), 113.

Abdominal breathing, 4f.

Abyssinians, 86.

Acoustics (rel. to human voice), 13.

Adam de la Halle, 138.

Adams, Stephen, 327.

Adaptive change, 2.

_Adeste Fideles_, 113.

African folk-songs, 105.

Agricola, Martin, 164.

Airs du cour, 166.

Albéniz, Isaac, 120.

Albert, Heinrich, 162f.

America, (folk-music) 129;

(song-writers), 298, 319ff, 322f.

Anatomy of the vocal organs, 1-23.

Ancient methods of vocal culture, 30ff.

_An die ferne Geliebte_ (Beethoven), 154f.

André, Johann, 191f.

‘Annie Laurie,’ 107, 113.

Archilei, Vittoria, 40.

Arensky, Antony, 368.

Aria, (_da capo_ form), 154ff;

(development), 172ff;

(German), 175.

Arioso, 175.

Aristotle, 55.

Arne, [Dr.] Thomas, 171.

Arnold, Samuel, 172.

Art-ballad (German), 272ff.

Art-song, (compared with folk-song) 72, 89ff;

(early rise and decline), 151ff;

(in 17th cent.), 162ff;

(rise of modern), 186ff.

Articulation, 3, 16ff, 63ff.

Artificial soprano, 44.

Athens, early vocal culture in, 32f.

Assyria, vocal culture in, 30.

_Auld Lang Syne_, 72f, 102, 112f.

Bach, Johann Sebastian, (spiritual songs), 147;

(secular songs), 164;

(in rel. to German song), 175.

Bach, Carl Philipp Emanuel (_Geistliche Lieder_), 189f.

Balakireff, Mily, 127, 365.

Balfe, Michael, 267.

Ballad form, (compared to lyric form), 202;

(Schubert), 225f;

(Löwe), 272ff.

Ballad opera, (18th cent.), 170ff;

(19th cent.), 267.

Bantock, Granville, 372f.

Baritone voice, 62.

Bass voice, 14.

Bassani, Giovanni Battista, 160.

Beethoven, 96, 177, 184, 187, 193, 196.

_An die ferne Geliebte_, 154f.

_In questa tomba_, 184.

_Busslied_, 184.

‘Beggar’s Opera,’ 170f.

Behnke, 28.

Bel canto, 16, 29, 44, 158f.

Benedict, Julius, 267.

Béranger, 260f.

Bergerette, 166f, 179f, 204.

Berlioz, Hector, 262ff.

Bierbaum, Otto Julius, 331.

Bishop, [Sir] Henry, 105, 172, 267.

Bizet, Georges, 315.

Blondel (minstrel), 137f.

Bohemian folk-songs, 127f.

Bologna (early music school in), 37.

Borodine, Alexander, 128, 365f.

Brahms, Johannes, 125, _276-290_.

_Æolian Harp_, 286.

_Anklänge_, 285.

_As the Clouds_, 285.

_Before the Window_, 282.

_Consolation of Spring_, 288.

_Fidelity_, 284.

_Going to My Sweetheart_, 282.

_Gold Outweighs Love_, 288.

_Gypsy Songs_, 277f, 282f.

_Have a Care_, 288.

_Hey, Bow and Arrow_, 287.

_Hey, Ye Gypsies_, 283.

_I Call from the Bank_, 288.

_Is it Sorrow_, 287.

_Joy Hath Left Me_, 282.

_Lament_, 282.

_Longing_, 282.

_Love and Spring_, 284.

[_The_] _Lover’s Oath_, 282.

_Magyar Love Song_, 288.

[_The_] _Maiden_, 282f.

[_The_] _Maiden’s Curse_, 288f.

_Minnelied_, 289.

_Motionless Air_, 288.

[_The_] _Mournful One_, 282.

_Nicht mehr zu dir zu gehen_, 286.

_Nightingale_, 285.

[_The_] _Nut Brown Lad_, 283.

_Oh, Come, Holy Summer Night_, 288.

_Oh, kühler Wald_, 289.

_Oh, Would I Knew the Returning Road_, 288.

_On Sunday Morning_, 288.

_Red Evening Clouds_, 283.

_Remembrance_, 288.

_Rest, Sweet Love_, 287.

[_The_] _Return_, 285.

_Sapphic Ode_, 289.

_Serenade_, 282.

[_The_] _Smith_, 285.

_So steh’n wir, ich and meine Weide_, 287.

[_The_] _Song of Herr von Falkenstein_, 287f.

_Spanish Song_, 285.

_Three Roses in a Row_, 283.

_Twilight Falls_, 288.

_Vain Serenade_, 289.

_Volkslied_, 282.

_Wie bist du, meine Königin_, 287.

_With, Eternal Love_, 287.

Breath control, 58.

Breathing, 1ff;

(faulty methods) 65.

Breathing exercises, 60f.

Browne and Behnke (‘Voice, Song and Speech’), 28.

Bruneau, Alfred, 356f.

[_The_] _Brunette_, 166.

Bungert, August, 312.

Burns, Robert, 91, 95f, 113f.

Burton, Frederick R., 42.

Caccini, Giulio, 47ff, 154.

_Amarilla_, 159.

Cadman, Charles Wakefield, 105.

Caffarelli, 44.

Caldara, Antonio, 160.

_Caller Herrin_ (Scotch song), 113.

Cambio, Perrisone, 153.

[_The_] _Campbells are Coming_, 112f.

Canadian folk-songs, 375ff.

Cantus firmus, 148f.

Carey, Henry, 171.

Carissimi, Giacomo, 160.

Catholic Church. See Roman Catholic Church.

Cavalli, Francesco, 159f.

Cavatina, 175.

Chabrier, Emmanuel, 354.

Chaldea (ancient), vocal culture in, 30.

Chaminade, Cécile, 318.

Chanson, 166.

Charlemagne, 131.

_Charlie is My Darling_ (Scotch folk-song), 113.

Charpentier, Gustave, 358.

Chausson, Ernest, 355.

Cherubini, Luigi, 49f.

Chest cavity, 4f.

Chest register, 11f.

Chest resonance, 14f, 62ff.

Chinese scale, 86.

Chivalry (influence of, on song), 136ff.

Choir master, in early Roman church, 33ff.

Choir schools, 33ff.

Chopin, Frédéric, 256.

Chorale, 147.

Church, Roman, (early vocal culture in), 33ff;

(early music of), 130f;

(use of popular music in),

148.

See also Greek Catholic Church; Lutheran Church.

Classic song (The), 151-185.

Coloratura, 39ff, 155ff, 160.

Comic opera (French), 166, 179.

Conservatoire method of singing, 49f.

Consonants, 17f, 64, 66.

Coquard, Arthur, 319.

Cornelius, Peter, 298, 302ff.

Counterpoint, 24, 35ff, 129, 149, 153;

(modern), 343, 345.

Courts of Love, 139f.

Cowen, Frederick, 327.

Crescendo (vocal), 15.

Cricoid cartilage, 6ff.

Cui, César, 366.

Curschmann, Karl Friedrich, 256.

Da capo form, 154ff, 172, 175.

Dalayrac, Nicolas, 180.

Dance, (primitive), 83;

(popularity of, in Italy), 120.

Danish folk-songs, 123.

Dargomijsky, Alexander, 349, 364f, 365.

Darwin, Charles (theory of origin of song), 87.

David, Félicien, 315.

Davy, John, 172.

Debussy, Claude, 346, 356;

(compared with Charpentier), 358;

(his songs), 358ff;

(compared with M. Ravel), 362;

(influenced by Moussorgsky), 367.

Declamation, art of (in ancient Athens), 32;

(compared with recitative), 202f.

Dehmel, Richard, 331.

Delivery, in singing, 97.

Denmark, folk-songs of, 123.

Denza, Luigi, 323.

_Der du von dem Himmel bist_

(settings of Liszt and Schubert compared), 294.

Descriptive music, 219f.

Diaphragm, 4f.

Dibdin, Charles, 172.

Dissonance, unprepared, 159, 162.

Doric mode, in Irish folk-song, 114.

Dramatic recitative, influence of, on solo singing, 42.

Drinking, effect of, on singer’s organism, 19.

_Du bist wie eine Blume_ (Schumann), 240;

(Liszt), 294;

(Rubinstein), 324.

Dufay, Guillaume, 148.

Duparc, Henri, 355.

Durchkomponiertes Lied, 176f.

Dutch folk-song, 108.

Dutrochet, cited, 56.

Dvořák, Anton, 312.

Ear control of voice, 28f, 52f.

Eating, effect of, on singer’s organism, 19.

Ecclesiastical modes. See Modes.

Education, musical, viii-ff.

_Edward_ (settings of Löwe and Brahms), 275.

Egypt, vocal culture in, 30.

_Ein Fichtenbaum steht einsam_ (settings of Schumann and Lassen), 307.

Eleanor of Aquitaine, 140.

Elgar, Edward, 371f.

England, (folk-song), 104, 108ff;

(mediæval minstrels), 34, 38, 132;

(classic song), 167ff;

(songs of early 19th cent.), 266, 267f;

(late romantics), 298, 326ff;

(modern lyricists), 371ff.

English ballad-opera, 170ff, 267.

English folk-song, 167ff.

Enunciation, 66.

_Erlking_, (Schubert), 193f, 203, 205, 209, 225;

(Löwe), 274.

_Es ist bestimmt_ (Mendelssohn), 107.

Ethmoid sinus, 15.

Expiration, in correct breathing, 5.

Expressive style. See Representative style.

Fabricius of Aquapendente, 55f.

Falsetto, 62.

Farinelli, 44.

Fasolo, G. B., 160.

Fauré, Gabriel, 347, 349ff.

Ferrein (anatomist), 56.

Fétis, F. J., cited, 27.

Fielitz, Alexander von, 310f.

Finck, Henry T., cited, 319.

Finland, modern, 370f.

Fiorituri, 41.

_[The] Fisher_ (folk-song), 119;

(Schubert), 212.

_[The] Fisher Boy_, (Schubert), 226;

(Liszt), 292f.

Florid song. See Coloratura, Ornamentation.

Folk-song, 25, _70-99_, _100ff_, 147f, 150, 308ff, 337;

(English), 110f, 167ff;

(Scotch), 111ff;

(Irish), 113f;

(French), 115f, 164f;

(Italian), 116ff, 153, 266ff;

(Spanish), 119f, 364ff;

(German), 120f, 162f, 191f, 229f;

(Scandinavian), 121, 299, 301f;

(Hungarian), 122ff;

(Russian), 125ff;

(Norwegian), 121, 369;

(Bohemian), 127f;

(Polish), 128;

(influence on art-song), 152ff;

(compared to early church song), 164f;

(influence on Schubert), 205.