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* * * * *
THE ART OF MUSIC
The Art of Music
A Comprehensive Library of Information
for Music Lovers and Musicians
Editor-in-Chief
DANIEL GREGORY MASON
Columbia University
Associate Editors
EDWARD B. HILL LELAND HALL
Harvard University Past Professor, Univ. of Wisconsin
Managing Editor
CÉSAR SAERCHINGER
Modern Music Society of New York
In Fourteen Volumes
Profusely Illustrated
[Illustration]
NEW YORK
THE NATIONAL SOCIETY OF MUSIC
[Illustration: Saint Cecilia]
_After the painting by Rubens_
(_Kaiser-Friedrich Museum, Berlin_)
THE ART OF MUSIC: VOLUME FIVE
The Voice and Vocal Music
Department Editors:
DAVID C. TAYLOR
Author of ‘The Psychology of Singing,’ etc.
AND
HIRAM KELLY MODERWELL
Musical Correspondent, Boston Evening Transcript, etc.
Author of ‘The Theatre of Today,’ etc.
Introduction by
DAVID BISPHAM, LL.D.
[Illustration]
NEW YORK
THE NATIONAL SOCIETY OF MUSIC
Copyright, 1915, by
THE NATIONAL SOCIETY OF MUSIC, Inc.
[All Rights Reserved]
THE VOICE AND VOCAL MUSIC
INTRODUCTION
All the Arts, being emanations from the superman, are of the highest
significance to the human race therapeutically--the word being used in
its broadest possible significance. They are curative, they do us good.
There is happily no longer a ban put upon any one of them in the modern
world, except by an occasional religious sect, and even those survivors
of a prohibitory past are rapidly disappearing.
Enough can scarcely be said of the value of the literature of song
as it exists to-day. Whatever has been written or is yet to appear,
is a natural growth, and should be recognized as welling up from the
unsounded depths of the human mind, as something to be used for the
benefit, here and now, of young and old, male and female, rich and
poor, well and ill--as a fruit ‘for the healing of the nations.’ When
performed under proper circumstances, music--and particularly song,
because it is so individual--has a power for good that is amazing.
But this is not generally recognized; only by poets and dreamers
has it been stated. The words of such are accepted by the world at
large as beautiful generalizations, having no immediate or personal
significance, applicable to some realm of fancy, some Celtic fairyland,
as impossible as an Oriental heaven, but not to the sombre facts of
existence upon this earth--facts so discordant that none but a prophet
could by any stretch of the imagination reconcile them with a life of
harmony here. Personally I believe in the foresight of the prophets
and poets, and hope that Science will ere long come forward to set
the seal of authority upon their utterances. When this is done, song
will be accorded the position that so justly belongs to it, and its
place will not be an inferior one in the scheme of man’s development
through savagery into civilization, and beyond. The seers spoke better
than we know; they saw, and do see, through the veil of the present
into the beyond, through the paradoxical Paradise of parable into
the theoretical perfection in which the effort to attain practical
results will be one of the chiefest of joys. Is it not wonderful to
realize that music and song are so prominent in the utterances of these
hitherto misunderstood soothsayers? _Truth_-sayers are they in
sooth!
There is a noble work to be done in the endeavor to bring about
sensibly, systematically and scientifically, the realization of their
visions as they pertain to music, and a recognition of the value of
song and singing and the application of this beautiful and all but
universal gift to the betterment of conditions both personal and social.
To the musical enthusiast society seems to be divided into two classes:
those who are musical and those who are not. The fact remains, however,
that every normal person is musical to a certain degree, though
some may believe it of themselves more readily than others believe
it of them. To paraphrase Shakespeare, some are born musical, some
achieve music, but all should have music thrust upon them. In one way
or another, everyone should be educated in music, to the degree at
least of knowing from childhood about it and its makers, being able
to participate in musical performance, or at least to appreciate the
performance of others, for the musical gift is a fundamental part of
human nature; but unfortunately the vast majority of people seem to
be unaware of the importance and value of this precious possession,
which has indeed by too many come to be considered as a mere source of
amusement, and not as a thing to be taken seriously.
We have now reached a period when all music, and particularly singing,
should receive most careful consideration. The voice is so intimate a
thing that no one can avoid it in himself or escape it in others, and
so great is its power when properly used, whether in speech or song,
that it is amazing that its qualities are not more fully realized by
all educators and treated accordingly. But up to the present time it
seems that those who have influence in educational matters have not
had their eyes opened to the fact that every human being should be
taught to speak properly and to sing as well as may be, and that these
things are perfectly easy of accomplishment, if only correct models are
put before children as they grow up. Languages, the most difficult to
acquire by adults, are learned by children with perfect ease from those
with whom they come into contact; they will speak them well or ill,
according as they have heard others speak. In short, example is, where
voice is concerned, better than precept; and the ear, so intimately
associated with everything vocal, should be given more to do than has
hitherto been considered necessary either in schools or by private
teachers. While most young people do not begin to take singing lessons
until their voices are reasonably settled and can bear the strain of
study, it does not seem incompatible with the dictates of common sense
to say that the training of voices, as of bodies and minds, may be
undertaken much earlier than has generally been thought advisable. ‘The
precious morning hours’ of youth are too often shamefully wasted; in
them this natural and beautiful gift should be brought out. Vocal music
should be learned by ear as well as by eye, pieces suited to varying
vocal capacities and wisely selected by those competent to choose
should be taught, while certain of the musical masterpieces should be
made familiar to all.
This seems so obvious as to be hardly worth saying, but as a matter
of fact, song is by too many looked upon merely as a luxury to be
enjoyed by the few, whereas it is in reality a necessity that should
be used by all, for all have not only a latent impulse toward vocal
expression, but much more of a natural gift than is usually granted.
Persons selected for the purity of their enunciation and beauty of
their voices should every day, in all schools, speak and sing to the
pupils, who in turn would unconsciously imitate what they heard; and
so there would grow a regard for purity and beauty of tone, both in
speech and in song, which later would find expression in the study of
the various branches of vocal music--from folk-song to the art-song,
from sacred music and oratorio to opera. Only those especially gifted
should be permitted by their masters to take up the profession of
singer or teacher of singing, and thus there would be selected from the
great field of those who know much the few specialists in this or that
phase of the art who know more, and who are by nature better fitted to
exercise their talents in public.
So many people are able to sing after a fashion that sufficient care
is not always taken to separate those who are entitled to enter with
joy into the ranks of the interpreters of song from those who are fit
only for the comparative outer darkness of the auditor. But if that be
darkness, how great is the light of those who, by common consent, are
adjudged competent to bear so glorious a lamp before the footsteps of
the world!
The desire to sing is so universal that many enthusiasts overlook the
fact that they have neglected to train their vocal apparatus until
it is too late to make serious study worth while. Little can then
be done beyond what will give pleasure to the individual himself.
But this universal desire to sing should be universally recognized.
When in future it shall be not only so recognized but sensibly and
scientifically satisfied, then it will no doubt be found that very
great benefit will result to musical art and, through it, to the daily
lives of well-nigh everyone on earth.
When the science of education shall have advanced further, music, and
especially singing, will hold a very important place in the scheme,
and the difference will become clearly apparent between the average
normal being with the average vocal equipment and the artist to the
manner born. As with those whose trend toward mathematics or languages
is unmistakable, so the truly musical are to be distinguished with ease
from their fellows; but all such, and especially singers, should be
educated with great care and in a broad and comprehensive manner.
Great geniuses have written music to the words of great poets because
they were compelled by the inmost needs of their natures to supplement
the message of poetry by that of music. What does the world at large
care for these things? Only the educated in musical art know that they
exist, but the time is now at hand when the storehouses of music will
be opened, and their treasures disseminated among the general public
through the schools. Instrumental music is so costly in comparison
to vocal music that the obvious course to pursue is to train that
wonderful instrument, the voice, which all carry about with them, but
the value of which is realized by only a few.
The many-sided occupation of the singer should be as carefully studied
as that of the pianist, the violinist, or the organist. The vocalist
requires a technique comparable to that of any of these virtuosi, a
memory trained to answer the demands not only of music but of words,
a knowledge not merely of one’s own but of several other languages,
a training in the manner of speaking and singing intelligibly in
these tongues, a mastery of the actor’s art with all that it means in
gesture, deportment and expression, and, finally, a comprehension of
the whole of vocal literature. Would-be singers should be well educated
men and women, subjected to rigorous examination in all branches of
their art at every stage of progress; for only thus may vocal artists
be prepared for their exacting and important career and be made worthy
to tread in future our concert platforms and operatic stages. For this
way singing will become a dignified profession instead of a spurious
and uncertain career, at which the vast majority of those who follow it
can expect to earn but a pittance.
The fact should be very clearly forced home upon students that voice
alone does not make a public singer any more than the possession of a
Stradivarius makes a violinist, but if either has a good instrument
the possessor of so valuable a thing should train himself to play upon
it with more than ordinary care, and intelligently study not only the
classics of his branch of the profession, but, in the case of a singer
especially, enlarge his knowledge of poetry, literature, the drama, and
the fine arts in general. Thus equipped he may with safety and with
reasonable expectations of success take the hazardous path that leads
to the supreme honor of lasting public esteem. Every student should
recognize this necessity and work with this end in view. The way is
long and the task is hard, but it is not impossible.
Ignorance and daring have long gone hand in hand with an assurance
which is at times amazing, but the rising generation should be
obliged to learn not only how to sing, but what to sing--both equally
important. And then, with intelligence awakened, and the dawn of a new
day breaking in through the windows of the mind, we may look for the
beginnings of an interest in the advancement of a vocal art that has
too long been harnessed to the car of Fashion, and under the yoke of
Commercialism.
As before the Renaissance of plastic art all had been said in painting
and sculpture that could be said in the old formulæ, so in music the
few notes of the scale had in the hands of the older masters been
worked to their ultimate possibilities of expression, when lo! a new
light was shed upon the situation, and presently the flood-gates of
sound were opened, and undreamed-of works appeared in rapid succession
to amaze and affright the senses. Song reflects this, and the limits of
vocal capacity have seemingly been reached. It is not to be believed,
however, that, to whatever lengths this new musical Renaissance may
go, the appeal of simple melody will ever want for an audience. The
past has enough and to spare of song that we have not even tasted,
much less digested. Let us set ourselves to teach the multitudes of
the uninitiated rising generation all the beauties of the classics of
song. They are as full as ever of worth and loveliness, and must form
a part of the heritage of the generations yet unborn. The peasant from
afar has in him the blood of the peoples from which sprang the great
artists and musicians of the past, and it is not for a moment to be
supposed that under the freer circumstances of life in America works of
originality and charm will soon be forthcoming. This is no place nor
time for the sadness of a conquered race that by the waters of another
land hung up its harps, and refused to sing the songs of home. Here,
on the contrary, may all the accumulated wealth of the beauty of song
be joyously revealed to the people by the people, and for the people’s
good.
No words can describe music. Talk of it as we may, only music can tell
us of itself. How profound its appeal to the very essence of human
nature! In the works that have been left to us we have a marvellous
heritage. Let it not be neglected, but preserved, honored, and taught
to all, from the least even unto the greatest; for when sound has been
wedded to words by one of the anointed hierarchy of the priests of
music, what a mystic union is there. How potent the spell of a voice
lifted in song informed by the spirit of poetry!
We have here at hand that which makes our Paradise--the gift of song.
Let us no longer disregard this fundamental possession, but use it
well, and with it enter into the peace that song can give to all who
have ears to hear its wondrous message. It is the Evangel that has for
so long been knocking at our doors. Let us open wide and welcome this
friend and comrade whose voice goes throbbing through the aisles of
the vast Temple of Music--that structure not made with hands; heard,
not seen, present only to the spirit of mortals, place of worship and
refreshment for all generations.
DAVID BISPHAM.
August, 1914.
CONTENTS OF VOLUME FIVE
PAGE
INTRODUCTION BY DAVID BISPHAM vii
PART I. THE VOCAL MECHANISM
CHAPTER
I. THE VOCAL ORGANS, THEIR OPERATION AND HYGIENE 1
The vocal instrument; anatomy of the vocal organs; the
healthy mechanism--The larynx; the laryngoscope;
operations of the laryngeal muscles--Tone production; the
resonating cavities; vowel formation; articulation--Vocal
hygiene; incorrect tone production; throat stiffness and
its cure.
II. VOCAL CULTIVATION AND THE OLD ITALIAN METHOD 24
Historical aspect of vocal cultivation--The modern
conception of voice culture; the mechanical and
psychological methods--Ancient systems--Mediæval
Europe--The revival of solo singing; the rise of
coloratura--The old Italian method--The _bel canto_
teachers: Caccini; Tosi and Mancini; the _Conservatoire_
method; the Italian course of instruction; theoretical
basis of the Italian method.
III. MODERN SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF VOICE CULTURE 55
The transition from the old to the modern system;
historical review of scientific investigation; Manuel
García; progress of the scientific idea; Helmholtz, Mandl,
and Merkel--Diversity of practices in modern methods; the
scientific system; breathing; laryngeal action; registers;
resonance; emission of tone; the singer’s sensations;
correction of faults; articulation--General view of modern
voice culture.
PART II. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ART SONG
IV. THE NATURE AND ORIGIN OF SONG 70
The origin of song--The practical value of primitive
song--The cultural value of primitive song--Biography
of primitive song--The lyric impulse--Folk-song and
art-song--Characteristics of the art-song; style, the
singer and the song.
V. FOLK-SONGS 100
The nature and value of folk-songs--Folk-songs of the
British Isles--Folk-song in the Latin lands--German and
Scandinavian folk-song--Hungarian folk-song--Folk-songs of
the Slavic countries; folk-song in America.
VI. THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF SONG 130
Song in early Christian times--The age of chivalry--The
troubadours and trouvères--The minnesingers--The
mastersingers; the Lutheran revival--Polyphonic eclipse
of song.
VII. THE CLASSIC SONG AND THE ARIA 151
Italy and the monodic style--Song in the seventeenth
century; Germany; France--Song in England--The aria--German
song in the eighteenth century; French song in the eighteenth
century; forerunners of Schubert.
PART III. THE ROMANTIC SONG
VIII. FRANZ SCHUBERT 186
Art-song and the romantic spirit--Precursors of
Schubert--Schubert’s contribution to song; Schubert’s
poets--Classification of Schubert’s songs--Faults and
virtues--The songs in detail; the cycles--Schubert’s
contemporaries.
IX. ROBERT SCHUMANN 231
Romantic music and romantic poetry--Schumann as a
song-writer--The earlier songs--The ‘Woman’s Life’ cycle;
the ‘Poet’s Love’ cycle; the later songs--Schumann’s
contemporaries.
X. THE CONTEMPORARIES OF SCHUBERT AND SCHUMANN 258
The spirit of the ‘thirties’ in France; the lyric poets of
the French romantic period--Monpou and Berlioz--Song-writers
of Italy; English song-writers--Robert Franz--Löwe and the
art-ballad.
XI. BRAHMS, WAGNER AND LISZT 276
Brahms as a song-writer--Classification of Brahms’ songs;
the ‘folk-songs’; analysis of Brahms’ songs--Wagner’s
songs; Liszt as a song-writer.
XII. LATE ROMANTICS IN GERMANY AND ELSEWHERE 296
The dilution of the romantic spirit--Grieg and his
songs--Minor romantic lyricists: Peter Cornelius, Adolph
Jensen, Eduard Lassen, George Henschel, and Halfdan Kjerulf;
Dvořák’s songs--French song-writers: Gounod and others;
Saint-Saëns and Massenet; minor French lyricists--Edward
MacDowell as song-writer; Nevin and others--Rubinstein and
Tschaikowsky--English song.
PART IV. MODERN SONG LITERATURE
XIII. HUGO WOLF AND AFTER 330
Wolf and the poets of his time; Hugo Wolfs songs; Gustav
Mahler; Richard Strauss as song-writer; Max Reger’s
songs--Schönberg and the modern radicals.
XIV. MODERN FRENCH LYRICISM 346
Fauré and the beginning of the new--Chabrier, César Franck,
and others--Bruneau, Vidal, and Charpentier--Debussy and Ravel.
XV. MODERN LYRICISTS OUTSIDE OF GERMANY AND FRANCE 364
The new Russian school: Balakireff, etc.; Moussorgsky
and others--The Scandinavians and Finns--Recent English
song-writers.
APPENDIX. THE FRENCH-CANADIAN FOLK-SONG 375
INDEX 380
ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME FIVE
‘Saint Cecilia’; painting by Rubens _Frontispiece_
The Larynx (Line-cuts in text) 6-13
FACING
PAGE
Apotheosis to Farinelli 44
Manuel García 58
Illustration for the ‘Roman de Fauvel’; fifteenth century print 74
Famous Singers of the Past (Malibran, Rubini, Lablache) 98
Famous Singers of the Past (Jenny Lind, Patti,
Schroeder-Devrient, Viardot-García) 152
‘Das Veilchen’; Fac-simile of Mozart’s manuscript 178
Precursors of Schubert (Hiller, Reichardt, Zelter, Zumsteeg) 192
Poets of the Romantic Period (Hugo, Goethe, Schiller, Heine) 200
Robert and Clara Schumann 238
Robert Franz 268
Famous Singers (Lilli Lehmann, Marcella Sembrich, Melba,
Schumann-Heink) 286
Minor Romanticists (Löwe, Jensen, Lassen) 306
Hugo Wolf 332
French and Scandinavian Song-Writers
(Fauré, Pierné, Sjögren, Sinding) 346
Lieder Singers of Today (Julia Culp, Ludwig Wüllner,
David Bispham, Elena Gerhardt) 364
THE VOICE AND VOCAL MUSIC
CHAPTER I
THE VOCAL ORGANS, THEIR OPERATION AND HYGIENE
The vocal instrument; anatomy of the vocal organs; the healthy
mechanism--The larynx; the laryngoscope; operations of the
laryngeal muscles--Tone production; the resonating cavities;
vowel formation; articulation--Vocal hygiene; incorrect tone
production; throat stiffness and its cure.
An acquaintance with the anatomical structure of the vocal organs,
together with an understanding of the acoustic laws bearing on their
operations, is usually held necessary to a competent knowledge of the
principles of voice culture. A rather tedious course of study is indeed
demanded for this purpose. But it will be our aim to present this
portion of our subject briefly, touching only on those points which are
essential to a practical grasp of vocal methods. For a more extended
treatment of the anatomy of the organs of voice and breathing any
standard text-book of anatomy may be consulted. It is, however, hoped
that our outline of the subject will suffice for the purposes of the
general reader.
As the subject of acoustics is dealt with in Vol. XII, the present
chapter does not cover this topic. A sufficient understanding of the
laws of vibration and resonance is also assumed on the part of the
reader.
No man-made musical instrument can compare with the human voice in
complexity and delicacy of structure. Yet, so far as the general
principles of its construction are concerned, it does not differ
materially from the voices of air-breathing mammals and birds in
general. In each case the vocal organs form a complex wind instrument,
consisting of an air chamber (the lungs), a vibrating mechanism (the
vocal cords), and a set of reinforcing resonance cavities. The human
voice differs from the voices of other air-breathing animals only in
its vastly higher development and complexity.
The vocal organs of all the various species of animal life we are now
considering were developed as a part of the respiratory system. In the
early stages of the evolution of air-breathing animal forms the lungs
had only one function, that of supplying air for the oxidizing of the
red corpuscles of the blood. No other use was made of the respiratory
organs; the breath served no purpose beyond that of furnishing oxygen
for the needs of the circulatory system. This was the condition of
those forms which were the forerunners of present mammal and bird life.
In the course of evolution a gradual change took place in a part of the
respiratory tract. This modification was an example of what is called
in evolutionary science ‘adaptive change.’ The organs of respiration
were modified and developed in such a way that the pressure of the
expired air could be utilized in the production of sound.
As evolution progressed the organs of voice which thus had their origin
took on an ever-increasing complexity of structure. This process of
evolution has reached its highest development in man. As a musical
instrument the human vocal organs may fairly be said to have reached
the point of perfection.
I
From the anatomist’s standpoint the vocal organs consist of four parts:
1. The lungs, together with the bones by which they are inclosed and
the muscles which fill and empty them.
2. The larynx and its appendages.
3. The resonating cavities--trachea, pharynx, mouth, and the cavities
of the nose and head.
4. The organs of articulation--the tongue, lips, teeth, etc.
Each of these organs performs a different function in the production of
useful and beautiful sounds. It is the generally accepted view among
vocal scientists that each portion of the vocal mechanism has one and
only one correct mode of operation. Many forms of incorrect action are
also possible; indeed, the untrained voice is believed to be liable
in almost every case to faulty operation in some respect. Scientific
investigation of the voice has for its purpose the determining of the
correct muscular actions of the various parts of the vocal mechanism,
and the formulation of exercises whereby the student is enabled to
acquire command of these actions.
Modern methods of voice culture embody the results of scientific study
of the vocal mechanism. It must be observed that not all investigators
are agreed upon what constitutes the correct vocal action. Several
conflicting theories have been urged concerning the proper movements
of the breathing and laryngeal muscles and the operations of the
resonating cavities. An exhaustive treatment of these various theories
is, however, not called for here. Some of them have been discarded,
others have but few followers. The majority of authorities are in fair
agreement concerning the theoretical basis of voice culture. In the
present chapter only the theoretical aspect of the subject will be
considered; the third chapter will be devoted to the practical methods
which embody the doctrines of vocal science.
Two opposed sets of muscles are concerned in the operations of
breathing, those which, respectively, fill and empty the lungs. The
action of inspiration consists of an expansion of the chest cavity,
which by increasing its cubical capacity draws in air from the outside
to fill what would otherwise be a vacuum. The chest cavity is conical
in shape, its base being formed by the diaphragm, and its sides and
apex by the ribs, the breast-bone, and the intercostal muscles.
Broadly speaking, there are two distinct forms of muscular action by
which the chest cavity can be expanded in inspiration: one is the
sinking of the base of the chest cavity, the other the broadening of
the chest by raising the ribs. Either of these can with some little
practice be performed independently of the other.
The sinking of the base of the cavity is accomplished by the
contraction of the diaphragm. This muscle is roughly circular in
outline. In its relaxed state it rises to a dome in the middle and
might be compared in shape to an inverted bowl. As it contracts the
diaphragm flattens out and increases the length of the vertical axis
of the chest cavity. In its descent it pushes the viscera downward and
forces the abdomen to protrude slightly. This manner of breathing is
commonly called abdominal, although the muscles of the abdomen are not
directly concerned in the filling of the lungs.
The expansion of the chest cavity may be accomplished by the raising of
the ribs. Owing to their curved shape and sloping position, a slight
elevation of the ribs causes them to rotate outward from the central
axis of the chest cavity. This increases the horizontal diameter of the
cavity in every direction--forward, backward, and sidewise.
In the judgment of the most competent investigators the best form of
breathing combines the two muscular actions just described. At the
start of the inspiration the diaphragm descends, but the protruding
of the abdomen is checked almost instantly by a contraction of the
abdominal muscles. The inspiration is then completed by the lateral
expansion of the chest. In this manner the lungs are filled to their
greatest capacity in the least possible time. Another great advantage
of this type of breathing is that it imparts a peculiarly erect and
graceful carriage, a matter of much importance to the singer and public
speaker.
In the action of expiration following the taking of a full breath in
the manner just described two sets of muscles are involved. These
are: first, the abdominal muscles, which push the diaphragm back to
its original position; second, the muscles which lower the ribs (the
internal intercostals and some of the external abdominal muscles). The
actions of both these sets of muscles can easily be observed. When
correctly performed the two actions are simultaneous, the whole chest
cavity being gradually and uniformly contracted.
A highly important feature of correct breathing, in the opinion of most
authorities, is the control of the expiration. In the first place, all
the expired air must be converted into tone and none of it allowed to
escape unused. Further, the vocal cords must not be exposed to the full
force of a powerful expiratory blast, as they are too small and weak to
withstand this pressure without strain and injury. The air must be fed
to the vocal cords in just sufficient quantity to serve the purposes of
tone production.
It is generally held that this economy of breath can be secured,
without strain on the vocal cords, only by opposing the action of
the inspiratory muscles to the action of the muscles of expiration.
Instead of allowing the inspiratory muscles to relax completely at the
beginning of the expiration these muscles are to be held on tension
throughout the expiration. By this means both the force and the speed
of the expiration can be regulated at will; no undue pressure is
exerted on the vocal cords, and the tone is prolonged steadily and
evenly so long as the expiration lasts.
II
[Illustration: FIGURE I]
The main passage from the lungs to the outer air is the trachea or
windpipe, a tube formed of from sixteen to twenty rings of cartilage,
united by tendons and muscular fibres, and lined with mucous membrane.
At the top of the trachea is situated the larynx, the organ of
phonation, strictly speaking. The larynx is built up of two cartilages,
the thyroid and cricoid, which represent developments of what once were
the uppermost two rings of the trachea. The cricoid cartilage, forming
the base of the larynx, is shaped like a seal ring, with the bezel to
the back. The thyroid cartilage, just above the cricoid, has the form
of an open book, V-shaped in horizontal section. In the interior of the
larynx are two tiny cartilages, the right and left arytenoids. These
rest on top of the rear portion of the cricoid, on which they rotate
freely.
Figure I shows two views, front and rear, of the cartilages of the
trachea and larynx. Immediately above and connected with the thyroid
cartilage is the hyoid bone, which serves as the attachment of the base
of the tongue. It is shaped like a horseshoe, the ends pointing to the
rear.
[Illustration: FIGURE II]
Figure II presents a section of the interior of the larynx, all the
muscular tissues having been removed. In this cut the position of the
arytenoid cartilages is plainly shown.
By feeling the outside of the throat with the thumb on one side and the
forefinger on the other, the hyoid bone and the thyroid and cricoid
cartilages can easily be located. The space between the two cartilages
in front is covered by the crico-thyroid membrane.
The muscles of the larynx are considered in two groups, the extrinsic,
those which connect the larynx with the other parts of the body, and
the intrinsic, those which belong to the larynx strictly speaking. By
the extrinsic muscles the larynx is held in its place in the throat.
These muscles are usually held to have no direct office in phonation.
[Illustration: FIGURE III]
The intrinsic muscles of the larynx are nine in number, as follows:
2 Thyro-arytenoids, right and left.
2 Crico-thyroids, right and left.
2 Lateral crico-arytenoids, right and left.
2 Posterior crico-arytenoids, right and left.
1 Arytenoideus.
In Figure III these muscles are plainly shown. This cut presents a view
of the interior of the left half of the larynx; the right half of the
thyroid cartilage has been removed, together with the muscles which
lie to the right of the middle line of the larynx. We see the muscles
of the left side of the interior of the larynx and also the right
posterior crico-arytenoideus and the right crico-thyroid.
[Illustration: FIGURE IV]
The thyro-arytenoideus muscles are attached in front to the interior
angle of the thyroid cartilage, and at the back to the arytenoid
cartilages. To their outer edges the vocal cords are attached and the
space between them is called the glottis. The crico-thyroids are
attached to the outer surfaces of the cartilages. The lateral and
posterior crico-arytenoids have very complex attachments, which can
be seen in Figure III. The arytenoideus connects the rear surfaces of
the two arytenoid cartilages. In Figure IV a drawing of the larynx is
presented, looked at from above, the surrounding parts having been
dissected away to allow a clear view of the muscles just considered.
It is impossible to state with absolute certainty just what office
the various intrinsic laryngeal muscles have in the production of
tones of different pitches and qualities. Most of our information
regarding this subject has been obtained by means of the laryngoscope.
People interested in singing are now very generally acquainted with
this little instrument, although it was invented by Manuel García so
recently as 1855. While it is generally used only by physicians, anyone
who wishes to can easily procure one and by its means observe the
actions of his own vocal cords. The laryngoscope consists of a little
mirror fitted to a handle at an angle of about 100 degrees. When used
by a physician, it is held in the back of the subject’s throat, the
tongue being pulled forward and to one side. A ray of strong light is
reflected into it from another mirror, which the observer straps to his
forehead. This ray of light is again reflected by the laryngeal mirror
so as to illuminate the vocal cords. At the same time the observer sees
in the laryngeal mirror the image of the vocal cords and so studies
their movements.
While laryngoscopic observation has thrown much valuable light on the
operations of the laryngeal muscles, it has not by any means cleared
up all the mysteries pertaining to this peculiarly intricate subject.
All the muscles concerned are very small. Each one contains a vast
and intricate number of tiny fibres, extending in widely varying
directions. As each one of these sets of fibres can be contracted
with a greater or less degree of strength than those most intimately
connected with it, the possibility of variety in the combined actions
of the laryngeal musculature is seen to be almost unlimited. Many
conflicting theories have been offered to explain the details of
the laryngeal action, but a comprehensive review of the subject is
not called for here. Our purpose will be served by stating the most
generally accepted theory, without committing ourselves as to its
accuracy or sufficiency. This theory is as follows:
In quiet breathing all the laryngeal muscles are in a state
of relaxation, with the possible exception of the posterior
crico-arytenoids. These muscles draw the arytenoid cartilages apart,
and so open the glottis. For the production of a tone the glottis
is closed by the contraction of the arytenoideus, which pulls the
arytenoid cartilages together. The tension of the vocal cords is
regulated by two sets of muscles: first, the thyro-arytenoids, to which
the cords are directly attached; second, the lateral crico-arytenoids,
which rotate the arytenoid cartilages, bringing their forward spurs
together.
The pitch of the tone is determined in two ways: first, by the tension
of the vocal cords; second, by their effective length. In different
parts of the vocal range the manner of adjustment for pitch varies. For
the lowest notes of the voice, the chest register, the cords vibrate
in their full length. As the pitch rises in singing an ascending scale
passage in this part of the voice, the tension of the vocal cords is
gradually increased by a corresponding increase in the strength of
the contraction of the thyro-arytenoids. When the limit of the chest
register has been reached, a further ascent in pitch is brought about
by the gradual shortening of the vocal cords. This is effected by
the contraction of the lateral crico-arytenoids, which rotate the
arytenoid cartilages inward, as has just been described. The forward
spurs of these cartilages are slightly curved in shape, so that, as
they continue to rotate, their point of contact is gradually brought
further and further forward. As the vocal cords are held tightly
together behind this point, the portion of the cords left free to
vibrate is shortened with each material increase in the tension of the
lateral crico-arytenoids.
With each shortening of the vibrating parts of the cords the pitch is
correspondingly raised. The portion of the vocal range thus produced
is called the medium register. The highest note of the medium register
is reached when the forward spurs of the arytenoid cartilages are
in contact at their tips. Beyond this point there can be no further
shortening of the vocal cords in this way. The remaining notes of the
compass, known as the head register, are secured through a shortening
of the effective length of the vocal cords at their forward ends, as
well as by a further increase in their tension. Both these actions are
accomplished by the contraction of the thyro-arytenoids.
[Illustration: FIGURE V]
Figure V shows a laryngoscopic view of the larynx, as it appears in
quiet breathing. It will be observed that the vocal cords are widely
separated, and the glottis is opened to its full extent. A similar
view of the larynx during the production of tone is given in Figure VI.
The vocal cords are closely approximated and the glottis is narrowed to
a tiny slit-like opening.
[Illustration: FIGURE VI]
III
What was said about the uncertainty of our present knowledge concerning
the laryngeal action applies with almost equal force to the other
operations of tone production. Beyond the basic facts that the tones
of the voice are produced by the vibration of the vocal cords and are
reinforced and modified by the influence of the resonance cavities,
little can be stated with absolute certainty. There is, of course, no
question as to the definiteness of our knowledge of the anatomical
structure of the parts involved. But, with regard to the muscular
operations of the resonance cavities and the application of acoustic
and mechanical principles in these operations, the same uncertainty is
encountered as in the laryngeal actions. We shall continue therefore
to outline the most widely accepted theories, without entering into a
discussion as to their soundness.
Considered acoustically, the voice is a wind instrument of the reed
class. It differs, however, from all other reed instruments in several
particulars. It is capable of producing a wide range of pitches,
covering more than three octaves in many cases, by the operation of a
single pair of reeds. Further, it has command of an immense range of
tone qualities, through the combined action of its reed mechanism and
its resonating cavities.
For the production of tone the vocal cords are brought together and
held on tension with sufficient strength momentarily to close the
glottis and check the outflow of the expired breath. As a slight degree
of condensation takes place in the air behind the cords, they are
forced apart and a tiny puff of air is allowed to escape. Immediately
the cords spring back, once more close the glottis, and again check the
outflow of the breath. This is repeated a varying number of times per
second, the rate of rapidity of the succession of puffs being regulated
by the degree of tension of the vocal cords, and by their effective
vibrating length. The pitch of the tone thus produced is determined
by the rate of the air puffs; these range from 75 per second for the
lowest usual bass note, [Illustration: Music score] to 1,417 per second
for the highest usual soprano note, [Illustration: Music score].
The tone produced by the vibration of the vocal cords is complex in its
acoustic character, containing the fundamental note and a large number
of its overtones. Yet as it leaves the cords the tone is weak in power
and of rather characterless quality. In order to be of musical quality,
volume, and carrying power, the primary or vocal cord tone requires to
be modified and reinforced by the resonance cavities.
The resonating cavities of the voice, mastery of which is considered
essential to the scientific management of the voice, are the chest,
the mouth-pharynx, the nasal passages, and the sphenoid, ethnoid,
and frontal sinuses. Each of these is adapted by its size and shape
to reinforce either the fundamental note or certain of its overtones
with especial prominence. In order to produce a satisfactory tone each
resonance cavity must exercise its particular influence in the proper
way, their combined effect being necessary to a correct use of the
voice.
Much importance is attached by most vocal authorities to the subject
of chest resonance. It is believed that the size of the chest
cavity,[1] much greater than that of the other resonating spaces,
adapts it especially to the reinforcement of the fundamental note
and its lower overtones.[2] The mouth-pharynx cavity is capable of
extreme variability in both size and shape. This mobility enables it
to reinforce a wide variety of overtones, and so to exercise a most
important influence in determining the quality of the tone. Another
function of this cavity is to increase the power of the primary or
vocal cord tone. To secure the effect of crescendo in a single tone,
the force of the expiratory blast is gradually increased. In order
that the tone may be of uniform musical quality as it swells from soft
to loud, a corresponding increase must take place in the size of the
mouth-pharynx cavity. This is effected by the gradual opening of the
mouth by a lateral expansion of the pharynx and by a lowering of the
base of the tongue. A slight elevation of the soft palate may also
contribute to the expansion of the cavity.
A highly important feature of mouth-pharynx resonance is the forming of
the various vowel sounds. Each vowel is simply a distinct quality of
sound, caused by the special prominence of some one or two overtones.
Helmholtz investigated this aspect of voice production exhaustively.
At first thought, it seems strange that a tone on some one pitch gives
the effect of a particular vowel. Yet we can readily hear this in the
steam siren whistle commonly used for alarms of fire. This produces a
screaming sound, caused by a gradual rise and fall of pitch through a
range of several octaves. Its almost vocal effect of ‘Ooh-oh-ah-eh-ee’
gives us a clear idea of the manner in which these vowels are each the
sound of a note somewhat higher than the one preceding.
Helmholtz gives as the determining notes for certain of the German
vowels the following table:
[Illustration: Music score]
For each vowel the mouth-pharynx must assume a shape and size adapted
to reinforce with special prominence its particular note or notes.
Anyone can readily observe for himself what the positions of the tongue
and lips are for the various vowels. For _ee_ the tongue is arched high
in the mouth and the lips are only slightly parted. For _ah_ the mouth
is opened slightly wider, while the tongue lies flat, etc.
No variation can be made in the size or shape of the nasal and head
cavities. As these hollow spaces are small and very various in form,
they reinforce only the higher overtones. Special prominence given
to the higher upper partials[3] has the effect of making the tone
brilliant and somewhat metallic in quality, and it is here that the
special function of nasal resonance is seen. A certain degree of nasal
resonance is therefore essential to the correctly used voice, but
this must be kept within well-defined bounds. Excessive prominence of
this resonance is the cause of the unpleasantly nasal sound which is
absolutely out of place in correct tone production.
There remains to be treated under this head the production of consonant
sounds. Consonant sounds are of various acoustic characters and are
formed in a variety of ways. They may best be considered as of two
classes: those into which a tone produced by the vocal cords enters and
those devoid of this element. The other determining factor in consonant
formation is the point at which an interruption takes place in the
outflow of the breath.
There are a number of allied pairs of consonants, one with and the
other without an accompanying vocal sound. These are:
_v_ and _f_
_b_ and _p_
_z_ and _s_
_d_ and _t_
_j_ and _ch_
_th_ (as in that) and _th_ (as in think)
_z_ (as in azure) and _sh_
_g_ and _k_
In each of these pairs the interruption takes place at the same
point--_v_ and _f_ between the lower lip and the upper teeth, _b_ and
_p_ at the lips, etc.
Another class of consonants are the so-called sonants or liquids,
_l_, _m_, _n_, and _ng_. In these the vocal tone may have appreciable
duration; we can hum a tune on any one of them; _m_, _n_, and _ng_ are
emitted solely through the nostrils, the orifice of the mouth being
completely closed.
_R_ may be pronounced in two ways, the trilled or rolled _r_ being
best for the purposes of singing. Another form of this consonant,
made by the vibration of the uvula in contact with the back of the
tongue, is essential to a correct (conversational) pronunciation of
both French and German, although it has no place in English. The rolled
_r_, however, is generally used in singing by both the French and the
Germans.
IV
A highly beneficial form of physical exercise is found in the regular
daily practice of singing. All the muscles of the abdomen and thorax
are strengthened by this exercise; the lungs are developed to their
greatest normal capacity, and the habit is formed of breathing at
all times in the most healthful manner. Both the circulation and the
digestion share in the benefits derived from regular vocal practice,
and the general health inevitably reflects the advantages incident to a
proper performance of these most important bodily functions. An erect
and graceful bearing, with well poised head and shoulders and firm,
elastic step, can be secured through the correct practice of singing
more readily than in almost any other way.
Yet the professional use of the voice imposes considerable restrictions
on the singer’s habits of daily life. As Sir Morell Mackenzie has said,
the singer is an athlete who must always be in training. A perfect
condition of the voice demands a perfect state of general health.
The singer must plan his whole life in conformity with the demands
imposed on him by his art. The slightest indisposition of any kind
is almost invariably reflected in the voice. Under the conditions in
which people in the usual walks of life are placed, slight colds and
trifling upset states of the digestive organs are a matter of almost
no concern. But with the professional singer conditions are entirely
different. So delicate and finely adjusted are the laryngeal muscles
of the cultivated voice that their ‘tone’ may be upset by apparently
insignificant causes. The mucous membranes of the larynx and throat are
also highly sensitive to severe and unfavorable conditions.
It is necessary, therefore, for the singer to study himself, to learn
by experience what is good and what is bad for him. This is a matter
in which individual peculiarities play so great a part that only very
general rules can safely be laid down. Singing within less than two
hours after the eating of a hearty meal is almost certain to have
an injurious effect on the voice. Exposure and over-fatigue must be
carefully avoided. Stimulants, especially alcohol and tobacco, have
a markedly bad influence on the mucous membranes of the throat. But
beyond general statements of this kind, so obvious indeed that their
truth is fairly well known, little can with safety be said as to the
regimen imposed on the singer. That one man’s meat is another man’s
poison is most strikingly true in its application to the voice. Many
famous singers have been excessive smokers without seeming to suffer
any ill results from the habit. Yet with most vocalists tobacco has
a very irritating effect on the mucous membranes. So, also, with
regard to eating and drinking, the widest differences of individual
constitution are seen. Hot drinks are beneficial to some voices,
injurious to others; cold drinks and ices are equally contradictory in
their influence on the voice. All these questions of daily habit must
be decided by each singer for himself and experience is the only safe
guide.
There is a class of dangers to which the voice is exposed, entirely
distinct from the influence of unfavorable conditions of the general
health. Most of the throat troubles to which singers and public
speakers are liable are directly traceable to a wrong use of the vocal
organs. One of the most striking facts regarding the voice is this:
If the voice is correctly produced it is benefited by exercise and
improves steadily, year after year, in power, beauty, and facility of
execution. On the other hand, when the voice is wrongly or imperfectly
used exercise has exactly the opposite effect. Badly produced voices
constantly deteriorate; their use results in course of time in throat
troubles, of which the number and variety seem almost inconceivably
great.
One general trouble lies at the bottom of all the throat ailments which
follow on a wrong use of the vocal organs. This is a state of muscular
strain suffered by the delicate muscles of the larynx. Every incorrect
manner of producing vocal tone imposes an excessive degree of effort on
these muscles. On the practical side the difference between the correct
production of tone and any wrong use of the voice may be stated thus:
When the voice is correctly used each tiny muscle of the larynx exerts
exactly the right degree of effort in its contraction. To just this
amount of exertion the muscles are fitted by Nature and in it they find
their normal and healthful exercise. Incorrect tone production, on the
other hand, always involves an excessive expenditure of effort on the
part of the laryngeal muscles. The throat is in a state of muscular
stiffness, in which all the muscles are contracted with more than their
normal and appropriate degree of effort.
Muscular stiffness is indeed possible in any part of the body. It can
be well illustrated as follows: Take a pencil and a sheet of paper and
copy a few lines of what you are reading; grasp the pencil with all
the strength of your fingers and exert all the power of your hand and
arm in forming the letters. You will find that your arm and hand tire
after a few minutes of writing in this manner. This follows from the
expenditure of vastly more effort than is required for the purpose of
writing.
All the muscles of the body are arranged in opposed pairs and groups.
As your hand rests on the table, the contraction of one set of muscles
brings the thumb and the first two fingers together so as to grasp the
pencil. An opposed set will, by their contraction, spread these fingers
apart, and the pencil will be released. If, now, both these sets of
muscles are contracted at the same time the pencil is held stiffly, and
the hand moves to form the letters only by the exertion of considerable
effort. The muscles themselves are stiffened by this simultaneous
contraction of opposed pairs and groups.
Throat stiffness, the characteristic feature of all incorrect vocal
actions, is exactly similar in its nature to the stiffness of the hand
and arm just considered. The laryngeal muscles are also arranged in
sets which oppose their action one to another. One set (the posterior
crico-arytenoids) opens the glottis, another set (the arytenoideus and
the lateral crico-arytenoids) closes the glottis and brings the vocal
cords on tension. Now, if the glottis opening muscles are contracted
during tone production, the opposed muscles must put forth enough
strength to overcome the effects of this contraction in addition to
that which they are normally called upon to exert. This applies also
to all the other sets of laryngeal muscles. Through this excessive
tension the delicate laryngeal muscles are strained and weakened, and
in the course of time the voice is permanently injured. This condition
of throat stiffness is by no means uncommon, a matter for which modern
methods of voice culture are to a certain degree responsible. The
attempt to manage the vocal organs directly is very apt to lead to
excessive tension of the muscles.
Throat stiffness is very insidious in its workings. It tends always to
become more pronounced and to impose a constantly greater strain on the
voice. Yet in its beginnings the singer may be completely unaware of
any trouble. The muscles of the larynx are very poorly supplied with
sensory nerves, so poorly, indeed, that under ordinary circumstances
we are utterly unconscious of their movements. Owing to this fact, a
condition of strain may exist without making itself manifest by any
painful sensation. It thus comes about that a singer may suffer from
the constantly progressing effects of throat stiffness before its
results are so pronounced as to be painful.
Yet there is one infallible way of determining whether a voice is
correctly used, or whether, on the contrary, its production is
characterized by excessive muscular tension. This is found in the sound
of the tones. Any degree of throat stiffness is invariably reflected in
the sound of the voice. A throaty quality of tone always results from
an incorrect manner of production, and this quality can result in no
other way. While a keen and highly experienced ear is needed to detect
a slight degree of throatiness, any ordinary observer can hear this
condition when it is very pronounced. True, it is very much easier to
detect a throaty quality in the voice of some one else than in one’s
own voice. The singer labors under this disadvantage, that he can never
hear his own voice as clearly and with the same discrimination as can
the people who listen to him. Yet by practice and careful attention
this difficulty can in great measure be overcome.
For the cure of throat stiffness and its attendant ills the physician
can do but little. Even the diagnosis of the condition can hardly be
said to lie within his province. In very bad cases a swelling of the
muscles inside the larynx can be detected, as well as a sympathetic
congestion of the mucous membranes. The existence of nodes on the vocal
cords, rather a rare condition resulting from long-continued vocal
strain, can also be determined by laryngoscopic examination. But in
the case of the great majority of singers suffering from the effects
of throat stiffness the only competent diagnosis is made by the vocal
teacher, whose ear is sufficiently trained and experienced to hear the
exact nature of the trouble. Further, it is the vocal teacher alone who
can relieve and permanently cure the condition. The physician can allay
the inflammation of the mucous membranes and can temporarily stimulate
the vocal muscles. But no lasting relief can be given in this way. Only
one real cure is possible. That is the abandonment of the incorrect
habits of tone production and the adoption of the correct manner of
using the voice.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] A certain allowance must be made for popular forms of speech in
dealing with the subject of chest resonance. It is plain that the
air in the chest cavity could not possibly be thrown into regular
vibrations. In the acoustic sense the chest is not a hollow space, but
a solid body. Filled as it is with the spongy tissue of the lungs,
as well as the heart and the great blood vessels, there is no room
for the formation of air waves or the oscillation of air particles.
Another form of resonance is involved here, what is known in acoustics
as sounding-board resonance. The reinforcing vibrations of the chest
are those of its bony structure, which vibrates according to the same
principle as the sounding-board of a piano.
[2] Overtones, or harmonics, are the tones produced by the vibrations
of the individual parts of a resonating body, into which it
automatically divides itself. See Vol. XII.
[3] Overtones. _Cf._ note above.