THE SAXON AND NORMAN STYLES.
As we have seen in the previous chapter, the whole subject of pre-Saxon
church building is still very obscure, and for some considerable time
after the Anglo-Saxon invasion little is known concerning church
architecture, nor has it yet been fully ascertained whether any
buildings of this period exist. By the year 588 the Saxons were in
complete possession of the land. Christianity was to all appearance
wiped out and the Church, to the superficial observer was dead. In his
"_History of English Church Architecture_," Scott expresses the opinion
that the oldest English churches may be divided into three groups.
First, those which preceded the Danish invasion; secondly, those from
the above epoch to the invasion of Sweyn; and thirdly, those onward to
the Norman Conquest.
[Side note: Saxon Architecture.]
What exactly constituted Saxon architecture has long been a
controversial point and one which will probably never be definitely
settled. Parker, in his "_Glossary of Architecture_," says:--
"For a considerable time, after they (the Anglo-Saxons) had
established themselves in this country, their buildings were
of wood, and this appears to have been the prevailing material
employed at the time of the Conquest, although stone had been
occasionally used several centuries earlier.... No timber-work
of Saxon date can be in existence at the present time, but it is
contended by some antiquaries that several of our churches exhibit
specimens of Saxon masonry; the truth of this theory, however, is
not fully established, nor has the subject of Saxon architecture
been yet sufficiently investigated to clear away the obscurity in
which it is involved."
Probably few of our so-called Saxon churches were built earlier than
thirty or forty years before the Norman Conquest, and it seems certain
that for some years after they had settled in England, the Normans
employed Saxon masons to build in the Saxon manner, as is seen by the
tower of S. Michael's Church, Oxford, which, although showing all the
characteristics of reputed Saxon masonry was built many years after the
Battle of Hastings. Certain it is that these pre-Norman buildings in
England were singularly rude and rough and show how much our Saxon
ancestors were, at that period, behind the Italians, French and Germans
in architectural skill.
[Side note: Saxon Churches.]
Our best examples containing Saxon work are possibly the churches at
Sompting and Bishopstone, Sussex; Bradford-on-Avon; Wootton Wawen
(sub-structure of tower); Wing; Brixworth, and Barnack, Northants;
Greenstead in Essex; and S. Martin's at Wareham, Dorset. Of towers of
this date the best are possibly those of S. Mary's and S. Peter's,
Lincoln and S. Benet's, Cambridge. Of crypts, the finest examples are
at Ripon Cathedral, York Minster (part) and S. Mary's Church, York. In
addition to these, many other churches have chancel arches, doorways or
some other less important features which are considered to be of Saxon
origin.
These early buildings generally show the semi-circular arch on the
doorways, but the windows usually have a triangular head; at Sompting
church, however, the windows have the semi-circular arch. It is
necessary to say a few words in detail about the more important churches
of this era.
[Side note: S. Lawrence, Bradford-on-Avon.]
The church of S. Lawrence at Bradford-on-Avon is one of the oldest
unaltered churches in England, and it seems to be beyond question that
it is the actual church built by Ealdhelm at the beginning of the eighth
century and dedicated by him to S. Lawrence. It consists of a chancel,
nave and north porch, and among its remarkable features is its great
height and the extreme narrowness of the round-headed arch between the
nave and the chancel, a feature it has in common with the Saxon church
of S. Martin at Wareham; the ground-plan measurements of both these
churches are identical. At S. Lawrence's church, an incised arcade is
seen outside the walls, and on either side of the west aspect of the
chancel arch are two sculptured figures of angels, which are thought to
represent the earliest extant fragments of church carving in England.
[Side note: Brixworth, Earls' Barton and Barnack.]
Brixworth church is possibly older than S. Lawrence's and it is said to
have been in continuous use for Divine Service ever since it was
erected. The tower appears to be of rather later date than the nave and
rests upon the walls of a "narthex" or portico, which may have extended
along the whole breadth of the front, as is still to be seen in churches
at Rome and Ravenna. The curious pile of masonry built up against the
tower may have been added for defence, as it could hardly have formed
part of the original design.
[Illustration: Tower of Earls' Barton Church.
Generally considered to show characteristics of Saxon masonry.]
Earls' Barton and Barnack churches both have towers so covered with
narrow projecting strips of stonework that the surface of the walls
appears divided into rudely formed panels. The west doorways of both
show primitive imitations of Roman mouldings in the imposts and
architraves. The tower of Earls' Barton consists of four stages, each
of which is slightly smaller than the one below. In that of Barnack
church, the upper stages of the tower represent the period of transition
from Norman to Early English.
[Illustration: An Example of a Norman Tower.
Bishopstone, Sussex. _Homeland Copyright._]
S. Michael's, Oxford, has a massive tower of solid masonry, unpierced in
its lowest stage by either door or window, the second stage shows but
one window and the highest is pierced by several windows of more
elaborate construction.
[Side note: St. Michael's Church, Oxford.]
Although generally consisting of rubble and stone, Saxon churches were
sometimes built of wood as we see from the existing nave of the parish
church of Greenstead, Essex.
[Side note: Greenstead Church, Essex.]
A brick chancel has been added at the east and a timber belfry at the
west end, but the old Saxon portion is composed of large chestnut trees
split asunder and set upright close to each other with the round side
outwards. The ends are roughly hewn so as to fit into a sill at the
bottom, and into a plate at the top, where they are fastened with wooden
pins. There are 16 logs on the south side where are two doorposts, and
on the north side twenty-one logs and two spaces now filled with rubble.
There is a tradition that this church was erected to receive the body of
S. Edmund, on its return from London to Bury, in 1013.
The semi-circular arch has long been considered to be one of the most
distinctive marks of Norman architecture, but Mr. Rickman, who made an
exhaustive study of the early churches of France and England, says:--
"In various churches it has happened that a very plain arch
between nave and chancel has been left as the only Norman feature,
while both nave and chancel have been rebuilt at different times;
but each leaving the chancel arch standing. I am disposed to think
that some of these plain chancel arches, will, on minute
examination, turn out to be of Saxon origin."
It would be tedious to enter into any more minute account of the
Anglo-Saxon ecclesiastical remains, and the reader whose enquiries
conduct him to the more elaborate works on the subject will be startled
by the contrary opinions that he will surely encounter.
In concluding these brief remarks on early buildings, we must again
quote from Parker's work to which reference has already been made:--
"The class of buildings referred to as being considered to belong
to this style contain some rather unusual features, and they
require to be particularly described, both because they are in
themselves remarkable, and because there is a probability that
some of them may be Saxon."
[Illustration: A Norman Pier Arcade.
Abbots Langley, Herts. _Photograph Mr. A. W. Anderson._]
The Norman style of church architecture with its varied forms of
columns, moulded and recessed arches and vaulting, may be roughly stated
to have been introduced into England at the time of the Conquest. The
Saxon masons do not appear to have understood vaulting sufficiently well
to have roofed over any large space with stone, and for this reason
alone the Saxon form of building was bound to give way before the
Norman, which of all the earlier styles was the most advanced in this
respect.
[Side note: Norman Architecture.]
Generally speaking, Norman arches were semi-circular, but they were by
no means universally so, for a form frequently found is one in which the
spring of the arch does not take place from the abacus, or upper member
of the capital, but at some distance above it and when it assumes this
form it is called a "stilted" arch, suggested by some authorities to
have been unintentional and the result of imperfect construction or
planning. _See page 10._
[Illustration: Examples of Norman Mouldings.
Chevron or Zig-zag. Star.
Alternate Billet. Square Billet.
Double Cone. Lozenge.
Beak Head. Bird Head.]
The main features in the ornamentation of this period are the sculptured
bands worked round the arches, which, although generally called
"mouldings," are more in the nature of decoration, and in some instances
they appear to be additions carved on the originally unadorned surface
of the masonry.
[Side note: Ornament.]
The earliest and most general ornament is the chevron or zig-zag, which
is frequently found doubled, trebled and quadrupled. The next most
common form is the beak-head, consisting of a hollow and large round.
In the hollow are placed heads of beasts or birds whose tongues or beaks
encircle the round. On the west doorway of Iffley church, Oxford, are
many of these beak-heads extending the whole length of the jamb down to
the base moulding. They also figure prominently among the ornamentations
of the hospital church of S. Cross, near Winchester. The zig-zag
moulding is very common on Norman churches and is so easily recognised
that no further description is needed here. The less prominent decorations
of Norman mouldings include the alternate billet, the double cone, and
the lozenge, together with an immense number of others less commonly
found.
[Side note: Windows.]
The Early Norman window was little better than a narrow slit finished
with a plain semi-circular head, and was generally only a few inches
wide. They were, it is believed, filled with oiled linen and the sides
of the aperture were splayed towards the interior. Later in the period,
the windows were enriched by the zig-zag and other mouldings and at a
still later period an improvement was made by inserting nook-shafts in
the jambs similar to those in doorways.
[Illustration: A Late Norman Parish Church.
Castle Rising, Norfolk. _Drawn by Gordon Home._]
The towers of Norman churches often show windows of two lights separated
by a central shaft, all enclosed under a large semi-circular arch, the
spandrel of which is rarely pierced. Plain circular windows of small
dimensions are sometimes found in other positions and in churches of
later date, and occasionally in gable walls. Larger windows of the same
form, with small shafts radiating from the centre and connected at the
circumference by semi-circular or trefoiled arches, are also found as at
Barfreston church, Kent, where there is a fine example.
[Side note: Doorways.]
Norman doorways are found in great numbers and variety, even in churches
which present no other features in this style. The most usual form
consists of a semi-circular-headed aperture with a hood-mould springing
from plain square-edged jambs. Frequently, however, the doorways are
recessed, having a nook-shaft in the angle formed by a recession from
the capital, in which case it presents two soffits and two faces,
besides the hood-moulds. The depth of these doorways is largely due to
the great thickness of the walls usual in buildings of this period, but
in many cases that portion of the wall in which the entrance is inserted
is made to project forward beyond the general face, which projection is
finished either with plain horizontal capping, or a high-pitched gable.
[Illustration: _West Doorway Rochester Cathedral_
Duncan Moul.]
Norman porches thus have generally but little projection, and are
frequently so flat as to be little more than outer mouldings to the
inner door. They are, however, often richly ornamented and have rooms
above, which rooms are wrongly called "parvises." The shallow aperture
often follows the form of the arch, but is frequently square-headed,
having a semi-circular tympanum of masonry filling the space between the
lintel of the door and the intrados of the arch.
[Illustration: Tympanum of Norman Doorway.
Fordington S. George, Dorset. _Drawn by E. M. Heath._]
These tympana are usually sculptured in low relief with a representation
of some scriptural or traditional event, while the assertion of the
Apostle that "we must, through much tribulation, enter into the kingdom
of God," may account for the fondness of the Norman sculptors in
representing different stages of martyrdom on the tympana of their
doors. A very singular tympanum is that on the door of the church of
Fordington S. George, at Dorchester, whereon is represented some
incident in the life of S. George. The principal figure is on horseback
with a discus round his head. The other figures are in hauberks and
chausses, and generally bear, in point of costume, much resemblance to
the figures on the famous Bayeux tapestry. Barfreston church, Kent, has
an interesting tympanum, as also has Patrixbourne church in the same
county, where the sculpture shows the Saviour with dragons and at his
feet a dog. At Alveston church, Warwickshire, the sculpture shows two
quadrupeds with enormous tails, fighting, with between them a small
bird, possibly intended for a dove. Our best example of a Norman doorway
and tympanum is generally considered to be the west doorway of
Rochester Cathedral, where the sculpture is of a very advanced character
for its date, which is probably about 1130-40.
[Side note: Piers.]
A distinctive feature of the Norman style are the massive pillars,
usually circular, and with capitals either of the same form, or square;
occasionally in plain buildings the pillars themselves are square with
very little or no ornamentation. Towards the end of the period, an
octagonal pillar was often used, having a much lighter appearance than
the earlier forms.
[Illustration: Examples of Capitals.
Norman. Transitional. Norman.
Crypt, Winchester. Christ Church, Oxford. Winchester Cathedral.]
Besides these plain styles, compound or clustered piers are very
numerous, differing considerably in plan; the simplest consists of a
square having one or more rectangular recesses at each corner, but one
more frequently met with has a small circular shaft in each of the
recesses and a larger semi-circular one on each side of the square.
[Side note: Capitals.]
Norman capitals are very varied, having many different forms of
ornamentation; the commonest is one which resembles a bowl with the
sides truncated, reducing the upper part to a square; sometimes the
lower part is cut into round mouldings and ornamented, but it is
frequently left plain. The Norman capital in its earliest style was of
short proportions, but afterwards it became longer, with lighter
ornamentation, gradually merging into the Early English.
[Illustration: A Curious Norman Capital. Seaford, Sussex.]
The bishops and abbots of this period appear to have possessed
considerable skill in architecture, for no fewer than fifteen of our
English cathedrals contain some important Norman work, as the older
portions of the cathedrals of Canterbury, Durham, Winchester,
Gloucester, Peterborough, Ely, Norwich, Lincoln and Oxford.
[Side note: Norman Buttresses.]
The Norman buttress, better described by Mr. Sharpe as a pilaster strip,
unlike those of the later period, projects but very little from the
wall, and this is especially so in buildings of the earlier part of the
period. They are usually quite plain and are more used for finish than
actual support; the Norman builder relying principally upon the thickness
and weight of his walls to sustain any roof thrust (_see page 17_).
[Side note: The Round Churches.]
There are in England a few round churches which are thought to have been
built by the Knights Templars, a religious community banded together for
the purpose of wresting the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem from the
Saracens. Their object was to defend the Saviour's tomb and to guard
Palestine, for which purpose they built numerous monasteries throughout
the Holy Land and fortified them like castles.
Another famous order which combined the religious instincts of the
cloister with the military ardour of the warrior was that of the Knights
of S. John Baptist or Knights Hospitallers, who, besides fighting, were
to tend the sick and provide for the welfare of all Christian travellers.
The churches belonging to the Templars were usually built in circular
form in imitation of the church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. They
were capped with vaulted concave roofs said to be symbolical of the
vast circuit and concave of the heavens. Our best example is the Temple
Church, London, to which was added at a later period, a beautiful Early
English Gothic extension. Other round churches are those of S. Sepulchre,
Cambridge; S. Sepulchre, Northampton; Temple Balsall, Warwickshire, and
of Little Maplestead, Essex, which last, although the smallest, is by no
means the least interesting. It is attributed to the Hospitallers, an
order founded about the year 1092, and introduced into England in the
reign of Henry I. At Clerkenwell may still be seen the ancient gateway
leading to their hospital. The order was suppressed in 1545. The church
at Little Maplestead was built early in the 12th century, and in 1186
the adjoining manor was given by Juliana Doisnel to this order, which
gift was confirmed by King John and Henry III. This church is thought to
reproduce with more fidelity than the others the original church of the
Holy Sepulchre.
[Illustration: Norman and Early English Doorways.
Showing the transition from one style to another.
Dunstable Priory Church. _Drawn by Worthington G. Smith._]
These famous Norman round-chancelled churches have much in common with
the old basilica form.
It must be pointed out that the arbitrary divisions into which
architecture has been divided--Norman, Gothic, etc., are pure figures of
the imagination, as by a series of easy transitions, one style became
gradually merged into the next without any hard and fast dividing lines
whatever. The periods during which one style became gradually blended
into another are called the periods of transition.
[Side note: The Transition.]
Architecture being progressive, it was only by the gradual development
of one style from another that the art was enabled to advance with
social progress, the literature and other arts of the country. The
transition from the Norman to the Early English style may be ascribed to
a period somewhat earlier than the 12th century, when a great change in
the construction of the arch began to manifest itself. Alone, however,
the form of the arch is no real test, for many pure Norman works have
pointed arches. The square abacus may be taken as the best test. In its
incipient state the pointed arch exhibited a change of form only, whilst
the accessories and details remained the same as before; and although
this change gradually led to the Early Pointed style in a pure state,
with mouldings and features altogether distinct from those of the
Norman, and to the general disuse, in the 13th century, of the
semi-circular arch, it was for a while so intermixed as, from its first
appearance to the close of the 12th century, to constitute that state of
transition called the semi-Norman.
[Illustration: Windows showing the Origin of Tracery.]