[Transcriber's Notes:
Inconsistencies in spelling (for example "fogliami" vs. "foliami") have
generally been preserved as originally printed. All corrections made to
the text are listed at the end of this ebook.]
SEVEN
CENTURIES
OF LACE
_BY_
MRS. JOHN HUNGERFORD POLLEN
WITH A PREFACE BY ALAN COLE, C.B.
AND 120 FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS
NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
LONDON: WILLIAM HEINEMANN
MCMVIII
_Printed in England_
PREFACE
DEAR MRS. POLLEN,--Having examined the admirable photographs to your
lace collection, and the letterpress which you have written to accompany
them, with a view to meet your wish that I should make revisions and
suchlike where I thought necessary, please allow me in the first place
to thank you for having entrusted me with what has been a very congenial
work, and to say that I really have but few suggestions to offer. Such
as they are, they amount to little more than amplifying, and slightly
modifying here and there, what you have written.
Your glossary of terms used in describing lace and cognate work is very
full, and contains several Italian terms which strike me as being
unquestionably of technical value in supplementing information put
forward in the best English works on lace-making.
Upon the introductory part of your attractive letterpress you also asked
me to freely express an opinion, giving it such a shape as to make it
suitable for use as a preface to your work. I now do this with
considerable diffidence, notwithstanding that during a good many years I
have had a large number of specimens of lace before me, including
probably some of the finest ever made. You had the initial advantage of
inheriting lace of incontestable origin and antiquity, and also of
finding specimens in different countries where facts and traditions of
their manufacture could be ascertained on the spot.
For so long a period as that from, say, the sixteenth to the eighteenth
centuries, men derived as much satisfaction in acquiring and wearing
laces as women then did. But _autres temps, autres mœurs_, and
closely as our sex may at one time have run yours in the appreciation of
lace, yours has outstripped and beaten ours. This, of course, is as it
should be, for skill in all forms of needlework and dainty thread-work
has practically been the monopoly of women from the time of Penelope
forwards, notwithstanding the strict observance of the rule laid down by
St. Benedict that the members of his Order should be expert in the use
of both pen and needle (as they were for centuries); or the records of
the seventeenth century, that boys attended lace-making schools in
Devonshire, and that English tailors and labouring men often made good
saleable lace in their leisure time during the eighteenth century.
With your suggestion that many sorts of white thread ornamental work,
from which a development of needle-made and bobbin-made laces can be
traced, are of earlier date than the sixteenth century, I entirely
agree; and in corroboration of this, various public collections, within
comparatively recent times, have secured from disused ancient Coptic
cemeteries in Egypt fragments of elaborate nettings and Saracenic
examples of that kind of work which you identify with the Italian
"Sfilatura" and "punto a stuora." This last-named stitch is virtually
the stitch used in tapestry-making, and it often appears on a small
scale in intricate, drawn and whipped thread Persian linen embroidery,
the practice of which is assuredly of great age. These methods of
stitching for ornamental purposes appear to have been well known in
countries coming at some time or another under the direct influence of
Saracenic embroiderers; but it is interesting to note they are not
identical in character with that of buttonhole stitching, which plays so
important a part in lace-making.
The essential feature of the fabric now recognised as lace lies in its
being wrought independently of any visible foundation such as linen or
net; it is essentially a textile ornamentation depending upon special
design, which can be rendered, so far as needle-point lace is concerned,
by variations of the buttonhole stitch--the "punto a festone" in Italy,
and "point noué" in France--which is distinctively a looping, and not a
whipping or weaving, stitch; and so far as bobbin-made lace is
concerned, by twisting and plaiting threads together.
The genesis of ornamental design for such laces is, I fancy, pretty well
established through the classification of kindred designs, beginning
with those involving simple abstract and geometric forms; these are
gradually succeeded by others with conventional and more varied devices,
suggesting plant and animal life; and these followed by others in which
definitely realistic renderings of actual things are aimed at. Thus,
very broadly, we have three typical groups, and of the first your
photographs Nos. 3, 6, 7, with 29, 30, and 86, give examples; of the
second group there are examples in photographs Nos. 11, 12, 16, 17, &c.;
and the third group is illustrated by Nos. 36 and 37, 90 to 93, and 116.
The sixteenth-century Italian pattern books are mainly concerned with
designs for lace of the first group as distinct from embroidery on linen
or net. The period of the second group is established by the laces one
finds represented in paintings by such painters as Vandyck, Rembrandt,
Gonzales Coques, Mignard, and Hyacinthe Rigaud, whilst the generality of
the designs in the third group is safely attributable to designers
employed towards the end of the seventeenth century, and during the
eighteenth by the Royal or State subsidised manufactories of France,
about which several local records, quoted by Mademoiselle Despierre in
her book on the Points d'Alençon, are particularly interesting. Laces of
rather indeterminate design, such as those which we call peasant laces,
have, as a rule, a quaint treatment of pattern, the origin of which is,
I think, almost invariably to be referred to some carefully designed
prototype; but the charm of such peasant laces lies chiefly in the
goodness of their texture combined with a distortion of forms, which
arises from the workers' naïveté in misunderstanding the parent design.
The really valuable work was that of sympathetic and skilled workers,
done directly from well-designed patterns.
Now the origin of needle-point and bobbin-made laces is, I think,
Occidental, or European, and not Oriental; and the three broadly
indicated pattern groups are accompanied by three equally recognisable
sorts of texture. The first of them is comparatively stiff and wiry; the
second more lissom and inclined to tapiness; and the third, still more
lissom, becoming gauzy and filmy in quality. Delicate, filmy laces,
common to the eighteenth century, could not, therefore, I think, have
been dreamt of in the sixteenth century; neither at that time was there
a conception of the tapey, and at times linen-like, laces made in the
early part and middle of the seventeenth century. Hence we seem able to
rely upon an apparent procession of design types, running concurrently
with an equally apparent procession of qualities of texture. By keeping
in mind these combined successions of pattern and texture one is enabled
not only to classify laces, but also to account for later survivals of
old types, as well as for the approximate dates when old and new types
severally have arisen.
It is evident that the French word "dentelle," which is a comprehensive
term for laces, came from the "dents," or tooth-shaped borders and edges
of lace made soon after the beginning of the sixteenth century. At the
same time, there had been during two centuries earlier, a fashion of
jagging or cutting into points or scallops the borders of cloth silk and
velvet costumes, gowns, hoods, and long sleeves. But when the notably
increased use of linen shirts, with cuffs and small collars just showing
beyond the outer garments occurred in the sixteenth century, white and
coloured thread purlings and taut fringings or edgings were made for
them, and so came to be called "points," "dents" and "punti" as the cut
borders of cloth costumes had been. The latter fashion gradually
obscured the former, and thus the terms "point," "dent," and "punto"
were almost solely applied to ornamentation in real lace or in lace-like
fabrics. In still later times, as you notice, point lace is generally
understood to be the designation of needle-point lace, or "dentelle à
l'aiguille," as distinct from the "dentelle au fuseau," bobbin or
pillow-made lace.
I have been tempted to touch upon this matter of lace points, vandykes,
and scallops because the border of the alb, said to have been worn by
Pope Boniface VIII., consists of scallops of bobbin-made thread-work,
and of a type of pattern and texture which I should say cannot very well
be earlier in date than the middle of the sixteenth century. On the
other hand, the ornamental thread-work done in "punto di treccia" and
"punto a stuora," which fills large and small squares and remarkable
five-sided figures, seems to have some Saracenic or Moorish character,
and may possibly not be assignable to the sixteenth century with the
same cogency of inference as applies to the scallops of Italian
"merletti a piombini" on the border of the alb.
Whatever may be the result of further inquiries concerning the tradition
of Pope Boniface having worn this alb, and therefore establishing its
date as being late thirteenth century, I hope that you will retain it as
an illustration in your book.
Whilst the majority of your photographs are from generally well-known
varieties of lace, those from the earlier drawn thread-works and darning
upon different makes of square mesh, net, or grounds of radiating,
intertwisted threads, are particularly interesting--and the entire
series, accompanied by your descriptions, forms a most valuable
encyclopædia of designs and textures to be seen in laces and cognate
fabrics.
Believe me to be,
Yours very truly,
ALAN S. COLE.
CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE BY MR. A. COLE v
INTRODUCTION 3
GLOSSARY 9
NEEDLEPOINT LACE 21
BOBBIN-MADE LACE 43
INDEX 55
LIST OF PLATES
PLATE
I. The Alb, preserved at Assisi, said to have been worn by St.
Francis
II. The Alb which is said to have been worn by Pope Boniface,
A.D. 1298
III. (1) Detail of the Alb of Pope Boniface VIII.
(2) Detail of the Assisi Alb
IV. Three Pieces of Needlework from Egypto-Roman or Coptic Tombs
of the Second and Third Centuries
V. (1) A Piece of Bobbin-made Lace
(2) Darned Work with White Linen Thread
(3) Portion of a Mummy Cloth
VI. Two Examples of Italian Tela Tirata and Punto Reale
VII. An Example of Early Lacis or Sfilatura
VIII. Seven Enlarged Stitches used in Lacis and Linen Lace
IX. Five Enlarged Varieties of Réseaux
X. Seven Enlarged Varieties of Réseaux
XI. Border of Lacis or darned Square Mesh Net Punto a Tela or
Linen-Stitch
XII. Border of Square Mesh Lacis
XIII. Two Examples of Lacis Work
XIV. Part of a Quilt
XV. Lacis Table-Cover
XVI. No. 1. Vandyke Border of Lacis
No. 2. Part of a Quilt of Squares of Lacis
XVII. Border of Lacis with the Twisted Mesh called Buratto
XVIII. Two Borders of Lacis called Buratto
XIX. Band of Tela Tirata or Drawn Work
XX. Part of a Cover of Tela Tirata or Drawn Work
XXI. Band or Flounce of Tela Tirata or Drawn Work
XXII. An Infant's Swaddling Band or "Fascia" of Tela Tirata
XXIII. Band of a Variety of Tela Tirata
XXIV. Linen Cloth with Border
XXV. Two Bands
XXVI. Pyx Veil of Tela Tirata, or Drawn Thread Work
XXVII. A Portion of the Pyx Cloth, to show both sides of the work
XXVIII. Three Cloths, Fringed
XXIX. Two Borders
XXX. Two Borders
XXXI. Two Examples
XXXII. Chalice Cover of Reticello and Punto in Aria
XXXIII. A Reticello Pattern worked in very fine Punto in Aria and
Punto Avorio
XXXIV. Scalloped Border of a Corporal of Flat Needle-Point Lace,
called Punto in Aria
XXXV. A Cloth with Insertion and Border of Punto in Aria
XXXVI. Needle-Point Border of Flat Needle-Point Lace, called Punto
in Aria
XXXVII. Ornament for the Neck of an Alb of Punto in Aria
XXXVIII. Border and Edging
XXXIX. A Lady's Camisia or Shirt
XL. Bed-Cover of Cut Linen Lace (Tela Tagliata a Foliami and
Punto a Festone)
XLI. Rabat of Flat Needle-Point Lace à Brides
XLII. Part of a Dress Trimming of very fine Needle-Point, called
Rose-Point
XLIII. Parts of a Collar of Needle-Point, called Rose-Point or Point
de Venise
XLIV. Stomacher (for a Dress) of Needle-Point, called Rose-Point or
Point de Venise
XLV. Part of a Flounce of Needle-Point, called Rose-Point or Point
de Venise
XLVI. Part of a Beautiful Flounce of Delicate Needle-Point of Raised
or Rose-Point Lace, known as Point de Venise
XLVII. Portion of XLVI., actual size
XLVIII. Paten Cover of Needle-Point Raised, or Rose-Point Lace, very
similar in style and gracefulness to that of No. XXXIII.
XLIX. A Portion of XLVIII., magnified to show the stitches
L. Three Borders of Delicate Needle-Point Raised, or
Rose-Point Lace
LI. Deep Flounce of Needle-Point Lace à Brides Picotées, usually
called Point de France
LII. Portion of LI., enlarged
LIII. Border of Needle-Point Raised Lace, called Spanish Rose-Point
LIV. Two Specimens of Needle-Point Raised Lace, called Spanish
Rose-Point
LV. Two Examples of Needle-Point Lace
LVI. Cap of Needle-Point Lace à Réseau
LVII. A Border of Needle-Point Lace, Venetian Point à Réseau
LVIII. Two Examples of Venetian Point à Réseau
LIX. A Border of Needle-Point Lace, possibly Venetian, though the
style is French
LX. Two Patterns Needle-Point Lace à Réseau, called Point D'Alençon
LXI. Two Borders of Needle-Point Lace à Réseau, called Point
D'Alençon
LXII. Four Borders of Needle-Point Lace à Réseau, called Point
D'Alençon
LXIII. Cap-Border of Needle-Point Lace à Réseau, called Point
D'Alençon
LXIV. Beautiful Lappet of Needle-Point Lace à Réseau, called Point
D'Alençon
LXV. Three Patterns of Needle-Point Lace à Réseau, called Point
D'Alençon
LXVI. Two Patterns of Needle-Point Lace à Réseau, called Point
D'Alençon
LXVII. Cape of Needle-Point called Point D'Alençon
LXVIII. Two Borders of Needle-Point Lace
LXIX. Lappet of Needle-Point Lace, called Point D'Argentan
LXX. Three Specimens of Needle-Point Lace
LXXI. Lappet of Needle-Point Lace
LXXII. Part of a Scarf
LXXIII. Flounce of Machine-made Net with Pattern darned on it
LXXIV. Part of Full-Size Cotta of Net with Large Flower Pattern
darned in Silk into it
LXXV. A Specimen of the Embroidered Muslin Work called Tönder Lace
LXXVI. Two Specimens of the Embroidered Muslin Work called Tönder Lace
LXXVII. Three Patterns of Muslin Lace
LXXVIII. Four Patterns of Dutch Linen Lace
LXXIX. (1) Manila Lace
(2 and 3) Lace Worked in Needle-Point
LXXX. (1) Infant's Baptism Cap
(2) A Cap Border
LXXXI. Three Specimens of Early Irish Needle-Point Lace
LXXXII. Specimen of Knotted and Twisted String or Thread Work, called
Macramé
LXXXIII. Flounce
LXXXIV. Two Patterns of Bobbin-made Lace
LXXXV. Four Bobbin-made Laces (reduced in size)
LXXXVI. Four Bobbin-made Laces (reduced in size)
LXXXVII. Bobbin-made Lace
LXXXVIII. Five Bobbin-made Laces
LXXXIX. Six Specimens of Lace made before 1850
XC. Two Borders of Bobbin-made Lace à Brides
XCI. Flounce of Bobbin-made Lace à Brides, in which the Toilé is
well developed
XCII. Flounce of Bobbin-made Lace
XCIII. Lace as XCII., actual size
XCIV. Flounce of Bobbin-made Lace
XCV. Part of a Flounce for an Alb, of Bobbin-made Lace à Réseau
XCVI. Flounce for an Alb of Bobbin-made Lace à Réseau
XCVII. Two Borders of Bobbin-made Lace
XCVIII. Three Borders of Bobbin-made Edging
XCIX. Bobbin-made Lace à Réseau
C. Cap of Bobbin-made Lace, called Point de Flandre à Bride
Picotées
CI. Three Patterns of Bobbin-made Mechlin Lace
CII. Three Borders of Bobbin-made Mechlin Lace
CIII. Four Specimens of Bobbin-made Lace called Binche Lace
CIV. Three Borders of Bobbin-made Lace à Vrai Réseau de Bruxelles,
called Point D'Angleterre
CV. Lappet of Bobbin-made Lace, called Point D'Angleterre
CVI. Two Parts of a Border of Bobbin-made Lace, called Brussels
Point
CVII. (1) A Scarf
(2) A Cap
CVIII. Three Borders of Bobbin-made Lace, called Valenciennes Point
CIX. Four Borders of Bobbin-made Lace, called Valenciennes Lace,
with Square Mesh Réseau
CX. Border of Bobbin-made Lace, with a Point de Paris Réseau
CXI. Flounce for a Dress, of Bobbin-made Silk Lace
CXII. Three Borders of Bobbin-made Lace, with a réseau of Maglia di
Spagna
CXIII. Mantilla or Scarf of Bobbin-made Black Silk Lace
CXIV. Two Examples of Bobbin-made Insertions
CXV. Four Patterns of Italian Gold and Silver Bobbin-made Lace
CXVI. Two Lappets of Bobbin-made Black
CXVII. Two Borders of Bobbin-made Lace
CXVIII. Border, Cap, and Crown of Bobbin-made Lace
CXIX. Lappet of Bobbin-made Lace
CXX. Two Borders of Appliqué Lace, one with a vandyke edge and one
with a mitred or scalloped edge
INTRODUCTION
The idea of giving, by means of photography, full-sized reproductions of
my specimens of ancient needle and bobbin-made lace, originated from a
desire to avoid unfolding these delicate fabrics when my friends wished
to see them. By arranging carefully that several of the photographs
should give the exact size of each stitch of the work, seeing and
handling the originals have been rendered practically unnecessary.
Though many books on lace exist giving most valuable historic, artistic
and technical data, none with which I am acquainted give the practical
information I have found most desired, that is to say, full-sized
representations of the pieces of lace. I therefore think that such
reproductions of my specimens may have a wider interest than I had
originally imagined, and accordingly I have now prepared them for
general publication.
It is impossible to judge of lace from a mere picture of pretty and
artistic drapery, or from portraits of great personages wearing lace
collars or dress trimmings. Lace in pictures has, in the first place,
been interpreted by the painter, and no pencil or brush can show more
than the general effect. The stitches in the toilé, or ground of
needle-point lace, amount sometimes to several thousand in every square
inch; and the almost incredible fineness of the twists in the réseau of
pillow laces makes identification very difficult, unless it is founded
on observation of actual portions of the fabric. It can hardly be
contested that, apart from some generally accepted deductions as to
design and time of execution, the chief means of judging lace correctly
lies in studying the toilé or clothing, and the groundwork of meshes or
réseau. To assist in this, many of the examples of my lace in their
actual size, and in some cases greatly enlarged photographs, are given.
I have illustrated and described only fabrics which, if not in my
possession, have actually come under my observation, such as the two
ancient albs of Eastern design, which, although hitherto unnoticed by
Italian writers on lace, may, I think, claim to have formed a very
interesting link between the Coptic or Egypto-Roman design, and that of
the early Italian lace. To aid in a judgment on this point, I also
illustrate some designs from early Coptic tombs.
The pre-Reformation "Pyx Veil" of needle-point linen work or tela tirata
remains the property of the parish of Hessett in Suffolk. It is a
supremely interesting object and unique, as far as I know, in the way it
is worked. I therefore give two illustrations of it among the early
sixteenth-century linen laces.
The period to which I confine my treatment of this art prevents my
giving any account of the very successful and extensive revival of
lace-making which has taken place all over Europe during the last sixty
years. Italy, France, and Great Britain have already some hundreds of
lace centres, while, from Denmark to Madagascar, Sweden to Ceylon, I
have specimens of most excellent and praiseworthy industries. That
these, as well as the very beautiful fabrics made now by lace machines,
may prosper, must be the wish of all--and I believe that to study more
and more carefully the models of the past will be the secret of success.
I classify lace as needle-point and bobbin-point. Numerous varieties
occur in each, but I will only mention the three chief divisions I make
in each class.
The three chief kinds of needle-point, "Trine ad Ago," are:
1. Lacis (or Modano) and Buratto work. (_See_ Plates 8, 11, 17.) I
include also under Lacis those varieties which are called in
Italy Sfilature, as the ancient specimens are, I find, usually
worked on a foundation of knotted lacis. _See_ Plate 7.
2. Linen lace, comprising reticello work and tela tirata. _See_
Plates 14, 19, 25.
3. Punto in aria--of which all later needle-point laces are
varieties. _See_ Plates 31 and 32.
The three chief ways of making bobbin-lace, "Trine a fuselli," are:
1. A tape, sometimes plain, sometimes ornamented, is made on the
pillow. This tape is placed and arranged as wished and joined up
on the pillow, but it is not cut or finished off, but continues
to form the pattern until the lace is completed. _See_ Plates 83
and 84.
2. Complete sprays or patterns are made on the pillow and finished
off; these are afterwards joined by brides or by a réseau. _See_
Plates 90 and 91.
3. The bobbins first used, continue and complete both pattern and
ground of the whole length of the lace. _See_ Plate 97.
I here give a Glossary, the result of inquiries tabulated during a stay
in Italy some years ago. I cannot find any authoritative translation of
the technical terms used to describe ancient lace, so I give my
interpretations for what they are worth.
GLOSSARY
À JOURS or MODES _See_ Fillings.
ALB The long linen robe (worn under the chasuble
by priests at the altar) which is sometimes
enriched with a border of lace, as well as
with lace on the cuffs.
APPLIQUÉ When the ornamentation made separately is
fixed and sewn by hand to a complete ground
of bobbin or machine-made net.
ARGENTELLA A name given sometimes to lace made with
either fillings or a complete background of
the réseau called rosacé. This very pretty
work occurs in both Venetian and French
needle-point of the eighteenth century. (_See_
Plate 60.) But it is a mistake to use the
word as denoting a distinct make of lace.
AVORIO _Ivory._ _See_ PUNTI.
BOBBIN-MADE LACE _See_ PILLOW-LACE.
BONE POINT _See_ CORDONNET. This term was also applied
to early bobbin-made lace made in England
with bone bobbins.
BRIDES, or BARS Ties or loops between the edges of details,
forming the pattern, and connecting them
together. Brides are often adorned with
picots, or little knots, and are then called
brides picotées, when they have no picots
they are brides claires. Brides occur both in
needlepoint and in bobbin-made lace.
BUTTON-HOLE STITCH _See_ PUNTO A FESTONE.
BURATTO Lacis, with a twisted instead of a knotted
foundation.
CLOTHING _See also_ FOND and TOILÉ.
CORDONNET One or more threads used to outline or define
the forms composing patterns of lace. The
cordonnet in the heavier Venetian and Spanish
point is usually substantial and bold, and in
parts gradually swelling and diminishing to
form reliefs on the lace, which then suggests
an effect of carved bone or ivory. This gave
rise to one of the meanings of the term, bone
point. These relief portions were often enriched
by rows or tiers of picots. In Alençon
lace a horsehair instead of a stout thread was
sometimes used as a foundation for the cordonnet,
which was closely over-cast with
button-hole stitches.
COTTA The short white linen robe worn by servers
and at times by priests. This, like the alb,
is sometimes trimmed with lace.
FILET _See_ LACIS.
FILLINGS These are termed in French modes or à jours,
and are the ornamental work (made either
by needle or by bobbins) introduced into any
enclosed place in the toilé, or elsewhere in
the lace.
FOND _See also_ CLOTHING and TOILÉ. The word
fond, or foundation, denotes the close parts
in either needle-point or pillow lace, which
were made first, and then joined together by
bars or brides, or by a réseau. In some
laces the whole work proceeds concurrently.
FUSELLI Bobbins.
GROPPO A knot.
GUIPURE A term long used for any lace of a heavyish
texture made without réseau. It is now
often used for lace made with a tape, but
it applies more correctly, perhaps, to gimp
work.
IVORY STITCH Or PUNTO-AVORIO. So called because the
effect when closely worked makes a surface
like ivory, as it is quite without the slight rib
which shows in punto a festone, which is the
stitch usually found in the various punti in
aria. _See_ No. 6, Plate 8.
LACIS OR LASSIS Derived from Latin _laqueus_, a noose, in
English, Lace. A foundation of net, or filet,
with a pattern darned into it. The net for
the Italian lacis, called punto a maglia quadra,
as well as for the French filet or lacis, was
made very much as fish-nets are now
made; the darning-stitch was called punto
a rammendo.
In Buratto lacis, sometimes called punto
di Ragusa, the twisted network was made by
passing the foundation threads forwards and
backwards in a frame. (_See_ No. 3, Plate 8.)
The name Buratto comes from the sieves
made in this way in Italy for sifting grain
and meal.
MACRAMÉ Derived from the Arabic. It is a hand-made,
knotted fringe, called Moresco in Spain.
MAGLIA Mesh.
MEZZO PUNTO A description of lace in which the pattern
is formed with a braid or tape, and the brides
and fillings are of needle-point work. _See_
Plate 55.
MODANO A general name in Italy for lacis work with
square mesh.
MODES _See_ Fillings.
PICOTS Loops or knots added to brides, or, indeed,
to any part of the lace, for its enrichment.
PILLOW LACE Lace made with bobbins on a pillow; this
lace is called in Italian trine a fuselli, or
sometimes merletti a piombini, as in making
the coarser lace the workers attach pieces of
lead to the bobbins.
POINT LACE Strictly speaking, should always mean needle-made
lace, as the term is used too generally
in respect of either needle-made or pillow-made
lace to be of much value as a definition
without further qualification.
POINT DE NEIGE A name sometimes given to fine Venice
needle-point lace, with many small raised
flowers and clusters of picots--which give the
effect almost of snowflakes. _See_ Plate 50.
PUNTO A stitch.
PUNTI In the earliest needle-point lace-work on linen
or net the punti, or stitches, were as follows:
PUNTO A RAMMENDO (sometimes called PUNTO DI GENOA). Darning
or ladder stitch. This is the stitch used
in lacis work. _See_ enlarged stitch Nos. 1
and 3 of Plate 8.
PUNTO A STUORA Matting stitch. This stitch is used to make
the centres of geometrical patterns in lacis and
reticello work. It looks like the centre of a
round mat or basket. _See_ enlarged stitch,
No. 1, Plate 8.
PUNTO TAGLIATO Work on cut linen.
PUNTO A TELA Linen or cloth stitch.
PUNTO TIRATO Work on linen, which is begun by pulling
threads from the linen without cutting it.
_See_ TELA TIRATA, enlarged stitch, No. 5,
Plate 8.
PUNTO TRECCIA Or tress stitch--so called from the threads
of linen being left loose, and only caught here
and there by a few stitches, so looking like
a tress of hair. _See_ Plate 8, and top border
of No. 2, Plate 29. Treccia also means
plait.
Later stitches were:
PUNTO AVORIO _See_ IVORY STITCH, enlarged stitch, No. 6,
Plate 8.
PUNTO IN ARIA Needle-point lace worked without any foundation
of net or linen, hence the term, aria--in
the air. _See_ Plate 31.
PUNTO A FESTONE Buttonhole stitch: in French point noué.
The term "a festone" comes from festoon--a
garland hanging in a curve--the stitch being
often used when edging lace to form curves or
festoons round the edge or the patterns of
lace. The buttonhole or looped stitch is
used in constructing the toilé, or fond, and
also to cover the cordonnet and brides of
needle-point lace. Until the advent of the
réseau this stitch was almost the only one
used in Venetian needle-point. _See_ enlarged
lace Plate 49, and Plate 52.
PUNTO RICCIO Literally curled stitch: this is a variety of
punto scritto, but the name will easily be
understood on looking at the specimens--as
they are adorned with the tendril-like curls,
which gives the name to this stitch. _See_
No. 3, Plate 28.
PUNTO REALE This is really an embroiderer's stitch, and in
English called satin stitch; in linen lace it is
usually associated with punto tirato.
PUNTO IN RILIEVO Raised or rose stitch.
PUNTO SCRITTO Literally writing stitch, as this stitch is used
for marking names and generally for outlining
work. In English it would be called short
stitch.
QUADRO A square (as in punto a maglia quadra, or
square mesh net).
RÉSEAU Term used for what may be called the mesh
background of both needle and bobbin-made
lace. The réseau connects the toilé, or more
solid parts of the patterns together by filling
the spaces between them with fine meshes, the
make of which is very varied especially in the
pillow laces.
The two réseaux of Alençon needle-point
are shown in No. 1, Plate 9, and the réseau à
feston of Argentan is shown in No. 3, Plate 9,
the réseau of the Venice point à réseau in
No. 2, Plate 9. The needle-point réseau of
the Brussels lace is No. 4, Plate 9; and the
bobbin-made Brussels, now called vrai réseau,
is No. 5, Plate 9. The réseaux of the bobbin
laces are shown on Plate 10.
NO. 1 The maglia di Spagna, or Spanish mesh;
this was also much used for fine silk laces or
ruffles. _See_ Plate 112.
NO. 2 The réseau called sometimes point de Paris,
and also fond chant; it was used for Paris
pillow-made laces, as well as at Chantilly for
silk Blonde laces. It also occurs in pillow
laces from Italy and Flanders.
NO. 3 The réseau of early Valenciennes, called the
round réseau. _See_ Plate 108.
NO. 4 Réseau of Mechlin lace. In this two sides of
each mesh are of plaited threads, the other
four of twisted threads.
NO. 5 Réseau called cinq trous, characteristic of
much Flemish lace. _See_ Plates 99 and 100.
NO. 6 Réseau of later Valenciennes, called square
réseau, and of late years almost the only
réseau used in Yprès lace. _See_ Plate 109.
NO. 7 Réseau of Buckingham lace. This also
corresponds with the réseau used in Lille
and Arras pillow laces. _See_ Plate 107.
RETICELLO The word is derived from rete, a net, and is
usually descriptive of the patterns in which
repeated squares, with wheel or star devices
and such-like, depending upon the diagonals
of each square, are the prevailing features.
In needle-point lace these openwork patterns
are usually of buttonhole stitching. The
squares are partly cut out of the linen
material, the threads not cut are sewn over
with punto a rammendo forming a frame for
the rest of the work. (Plate 29.) The
reticello pattern is also carried out in early
bobbin-made lace. _See_ Plate 86.
ROSALINE A modern Italian name for the fine Venetian
point called point de neige. _See_ Plate 50.
ROSE-POINT Any needle-point with raised work on it.
This raised work may be sometimes suggestive
of recurrent blossoms, but the word
"rose" in this connection is technical, and
merely means raised.
SFILATURA Drawn thread work. A variety of lacis. _See_
No. 1, Plate 28.
TELA TIRATA Or drawn work. The linen is sometimes
"drawn," that is to say, threads of both warp
and woof are removed from the entire piece to
be worked, only leaving three or four threads
each way. The pattern is then darned in so
as to appear like the original linen. I believe
the identical threads drawn out are sometimes
used for this. The remaining threads are
then sewn over to form the background of
small squares. (_See_ No. 5, Plate 8.) A
second way is only to draw threads from the
background, cutting some of the cross threads,
and leaving the original linen to form the
pattern, as in No. 4, Plate 8.
TOILÉ Is the clothing, "fond," or closer texture in
the pattern of both needle- and bobbin-made
lace. Toilé is so called because it resembles
toile or linen. The various details of the toilé
in needle-point lace are usually outlined by a
buttonhole stitch cordonnet, or sometimes
merely by a single thread, and are then fitted
to each other to form a complete design.
This fitting together of the several parts is
well exemplified in No. 40, Venetian cut linen
lace, in which the fond is really of toilé, cut
and joined by brides. In all the other
specimens the toilé is wholly of needle-point
work. In the earlier needle-point laces brides
were used, but in later ones the whole background
usually consists of a réseau.
TOMBOLO Lace pillow.
TRINA Lace. TRINE AD AGO, needle-made laces;
TRINE A FUSELLI, bobbin-made laces--Italian
terms in present use.
SEVEN CENTURIES OF LACE
Many books giving patterns for lace-making were produced in the
sixteenth century, but few of them afford any technical instruction in
the art, and all assume that lace was already in demand throughout
Europe. We need not therefore take these interesting little books into
consideration in determining the antiquity of lace, although they are of
great assistance on the question of design, as they constantly show by
introducing the gammadion and other symbols, the survival of the
Oriental tradition.[A] This is also clearly shown in the numerous
specimens of embroideries and woven silks made in Sicily and Spain in
the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, and preserved in our own and
Continental museums.
[A] Eyn neu Kunstlichbuch, &c. Metre piere quinty Cologne, 1527.
The earliest specimens of lace stitches in my possession are on pieces
of Coptic linen work from tombs of the third to the fifth century from
the collection of Mr. R. de Rustafjaell. The threads purposely left
loose in the weaving are held by punto a rammendo worked in white linen
thread. A background of coloured worsted is afterwards added,[B] (_See_
Plate 4.) It is interesting to compare the towel, NO. 1 in Plate 28,
which in my opinion has probably been worked in the same way, that is,
the weaver has omitted the woof threads, leaving only the warp threads
to be drawn together by needlework. The bobbin-lace found in the same
tomb is illustrated in Plate 5.
[B] Darning stitch exists in the British Museum on a piece of
material woven from flax, and found in an Egyptian tomb. And chain
stitch is seen on a fragment of Greek work of the fourth century,
B.C., at the Hermitage, St. Petersburg.
The first mention of lace-making in Europe that I know of is an old rule
of the thirteenth century for English nuns, cautioning them against
devoting too much time to lace and ornamental work to the detriment of
work for the poor.[C]
[C] "Ne makie none purses ... ne _laz_ bute leave, auh schepied, and
seouwed, and amended cherche clodes, and poure monne clodes."
"Do not make no purses ... nor _lace_, without leave, but shape and
sew, and mend, church-vestments and poor people's clothes."
"The Ancren Riwle" (The Nun's Rule), p. 420, h. A.D. 1210. Morton's
edition, Old English, 1853.
This _laz_ or lace was doubtless lacis. This lacis or network, now
called modano in Italy, was the earliest foundation for the work of
needle-made lace "trine ad ago." We find in the Appendix to Dugdale's
History of St. Paul's mention of work of "albo filo nodato" knotted
white thread. This was noted at a Visitation made in 1295.[D] But pieces
of this opus sfilatorium have also been found in Egyptian tombs. Early
specimens often have the gammadion or symbol of the cross. _See_ Plate
4.
[D] Dugdale, "St. Paul's," p. 316.
A roll of the possessions of the Templars after their suppression in
1312 includes an inventory of the goods of Temple Church. One item of
this is "one net which is called _Espinum_ to cover Lectern, 2_s._"[E]
We must look to the specimens existing from early times in Europe, and
to contemporary testimony, whether of painting or sculpture, to enable
us to fix the date of these interesting productions of human
industry--the early lacis and linen laces. Embroidery on silk, in which
many of the lace stitches were used, has a very early record.
[E] "Norfolk Archæology," vol. v. (Norwich 1859), p. 91.
Here we need only cite the many magnificent examples of embroidered
Church vestments, chasubles, copes, &c., so freely produced from the
thirteenth century onwards, of which the wonderful Dalmatic of the ninth
century in the Vatican Treasury, the Syon Cope of the thirteenth
century in the Victoria and Albert Museum, together with others, are to
this date in excellent and almost perfect condition.
Now, if we remember that albs and other linen vestments used at Mass
have been for centuries as necessary and important as the outer ones of
silk, it must be allowed that while such a wealth of decoration was
lavished on the latter, adornment of the former was not likely to have
been omitted. I am, therefore, of opinion that much of the lacis, tela
tirata, and reticello work generally ascribed to the fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries, may more correctly be considered to be earlier in
date. That few of such ancient specimens remain is no doubt due to the
linen thread being less durable than the silk and also to that arch
enemy of lace in all ages, the washerwoman. As silk and gold embroidery
could not be washed, it survived. All who have to care for Church
vestments at the present time know that albs and other linen objects for
Church use are comparatively short-lived, and it must be remembered that
lace in early times was chiefly made for Church purposes.
After consulting illuminated manuscripts of the eighth and ninth
centuries, I have come to the conclusion that there is in them strong
evidence of lacework having been employed to ornament the albs worn even
at those periods. St. Mark, in a Gospel (now in the Bibliothèque
Nationale, Paris) said to have been written for Charlemagne, wears an
alb which appears to me to be of this kind. Also in the Bibliothèque
Nationale, Paris, is a twelfth-century Bible, called the Bible of St.
Martial, in which the Bishop is pictured wearing a highly ornamental alb
under his gothic-shaped chasuble. He grasps his pastoral staff in one
hand, and with the other he receives the precious Book.[F]
[F] Vol. viii., Plate 245, of Bastard's "Peintures et Ornements des
MSS." Paris, 1832-69.
On the question of design, as indicating the date of lacework, I am of
opinion that the early geometric character of primitive design was
sooner modified than is generally thought to be the case.
We find, for instance, in an eighth-century "Gospel" in the Bibliothèque
Nationale of Paris, a scroll ornament painted with vine leaves, grapes,
&c.
Why should not this have inspired a laceworker of the same period to
attempt a similar design? At a little later date a "Sacramentaire" has
most realistic flowers and leaves ornamenting the initials in the
Manuscript. These beautiful works of art were executed by religious
persons and monks, probably of the Benedictine Order. A great part of
the lace made at the same time was undoubtedly the work of nuns. What
more likely than that mutual assistance was given to carry out the
principal aim of both--the ornamentation and glory of the Sacred
Scriptures, and the services of the Church?
Many of the earlier albs are decorated with passemens or apparels, which
are squares or oblongs of ornamental work often enriched with gold
thread. These were sewn on the lower part of the front of the alb and on
the cuff of the sleeve. The alb preserved at the Cathedral of Sens, and
said to have been worn by St. Thomas of Canterbury, is ornamented in
this way. In some of the old books of patterns for lace, the
straight-edged laces are all called passemens, and only the pointed ones
dentelles, or pizzi.
Later the apparels gave place to ornament worked on the linen itself,
and often forming a continuous band of decoration more or less wide
round the edge. A tombstone on the floor of the church of St. Sabina in
Rome has a recumbent figure with an alb decorated with a band of this
kind. The inscription denotes that the figure represents a German abbot,
named Egidius Varnsprach; the date is 1312. Later still, lace of all
kinds was merely sewn on to the alb as a flounce, in the way usually
adopted at the present time.
As far as I am aware, only two complete albs of early linen lace exist.
They are both of very fine texture, the thread of the linen having been
spun with great care and the weaving very closely done. The oldest is
the alb, Plate 1, which is said to have been woven and ornamented by
St. Clare of Assisi and her nuns, and is still preserved in the
monastery of that place. The tradition is that it was worn by St.
Francis of Assisi. I was fortunately able to examine it closely and to
obtain details of the lacework, which is worked on the linen itself in
tela tirata and punto reale. Symbolic animals and chimeras are
introduced, but the polygonal character of the design is preserved
throughout, and establishes, I consider, its Coptic derivation.
To confirm this, I need only instance the fact that these, and other
earliest known specimens of lacis and linen lace existing, are almost
identical in design with the forms familiar to us from the discoveries
in Coptic tombs in Egypt from the first and third centuries onwards.
These designs, simple and formal as they appear, are really full of
meaning. Mr. Albert Gayet has pointed out, in his history of Coptic art,
that the law of polygonal evolution only completed in the eleventh
century the course it had steadfastly pursued from the beginning. He
continues: "It seems a far cry from the early Greek tradition to this
time. But the Coptic artist was never in sympathy with the Greek
striving towards realism. He wished to express, not the image itself,
but the impression conveyed by the image. He preferred the thought to
the concrete form. The divine idea, which to the Greek must mean a
precise representation, he prefers to render quite otherwise. The
fidelity of the Coptic artist to this polygony renders it the key to all
his art. His first efforts are blunders, but he is not discouraged, he
continues without hesitation to follow his ideal. He finds in the
philosophy of the polygon the impression he wishes to convey of the
ideal and the invisible. His composition, according to the Gnostic
definition, has its secret side, hidden under the emblem shown, while
the emblem shown has also a hidden side. Then by the superposition of
_entrelacs_, or strap-work, he conveys the idea of evolution, or things
(mysteries) turning and repeating themselves indefinitely, but always in
an inflexible circle." For example, a number of star-centred octagons,
formed by a network of lines, will have a cross in the centre--other
little crosses may be traced in each star--and in the arabesques of the
corners crosses may also be found. "Everywhere, even in the most closely
packed work, this symbol can be found; the most abstract geometrical
combinations are still subject to the same system. Polygony places
everywhere and always the sign of the Faith."[G]
[G] Gayet, A., "L'art Copte." Paris, 1902.
I must also make a quotation from the learned Dr. Rock, which, though
written nearly forty years ago, is so apposite while considering this
beautiful lacework from Assisi and its Eastern derivation.
Strengthening our idea that the old Egyptians had borrowed the cross as
a spell against evil, and a symbol of eternal life, is a passage set
forth by Rufinus, A.D. 397, and by Socrates B.C. 440.
"On demolishing at Alexandria a temple dedicated to Serapis, were
observed several stones sculptured with letters called hieroglyphics,
which showed the figures of a cross. Certain Gentile inhabitants of the
city who had lately been converted to the Christian faith, initiated in
the method of interpreting these enigmatic characters, declared that the
figure of the cross was considered as the symbol of future life."[H]
[H] "Hist. Eccles.," lib. v., c. 17.
"We know that modifications of the form of the cross have been found on
monuments already discovered; others may turn up with the so-called
'gammadion' found upon Egyptian stuff of such an early date. The
recurrence of the gammadion upon Christian monuments is curious. It is
shown in the catacombs, and in numerous later instances. Christianity
widened the meaning of this symbol and made it teach the doctrine of the
Atonement of Calvary, and that Christ is our corner-stone. In the
thirteenth century it was taken to be an apt memorial of His five wounds
and, remembering the stigmata of St. Francis of Assisi, this gammadion
became the favourite device of such as bore that Saint's name."[I]
[I] Dr. Rock, "Introduction to Textile Fabrics at South Kensington
Museum" (Chapman and Hall, 1870), p. cxxxix.
No less than twenty varieties of these polygonal ornaments, many of them
introducing the gammadion, are to be found in the lacework of the Assisi
alb. _See_ Plate 3.
The tradition mentioned by Dr. Rock of the device of the gammadion being
identified with St. Francis may, I think, have originated in the
circumstance of his having worn this alb. In Plate 6 I give two examples
of early Italian punto reale of the same kind although very inferior in
variety and in workmanship, but in most of these early "cartiglia," as
this work is called in Italy, the polygonal idea is still predominant.
The other complete alb is also of linen lace, and is said to have been
worn by Pope Boniface VIII. in 1298. (_See_ Plate 2.) It is preserved in
the Treasury of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican, where I had an
opportunity of examining it closely and of obtaining the technical
details I give. As to its possible history I may note that St. Nilos and
his monks were driven from the East by the Saracens at the end of the
tenth century, and came to Italy, where they were welcomed by Pope
Gregory V. He established them in the monastery a few miles from Rome,
where their successors still worship with their Eastern rites. The
famous alb may have been brought by these very monks or those who
followed them from the East.[J]
[J] "The Pope, Gregory V. (996-999), and the Western Emperor, Otho
III. (993-1002), who was then also at Rome, went out to meet the
strangers beyond the walls, and received them with all possible
honour and respect. And out there in the Campagna, at Grottaferrata,
St. Nilos at last built a home for his monks, and there he died.
Grottaferrata has stood unchanged till now, no Pope has tried to
destroy or Latinise it; after ten centuries, its monks sing out
their Greek office in the very heart of the Latin Patriarchate,
while outside the Latin olives shelter its Byzantine walls."--"The
Orthodox Eastern Church," Adrian Fortescue, D.D. London, 1907.