MUSCLES OF THE FACE.
Muscles of the upper part of the face: _Occipito-frontalis_
(attention); _orbicularis palpebrarum_ of the eyelids, superior
_orbital_ portion (reflection); _pyramidalis nasi_ (menace);
_superciliary_ (_corrugator supercilii_) (pain).--Muscles of
the middle region of the face: _Great zygomatic_ (laughter);
_lesser zygomatic_ and _levator labii superioris_ (tenderness,
sorrow); _levator labii superioris alæque nasi_ (weeping
bitterly), _compressor naris_ (lewdness).--Muscles of the
lower region of the face: _Orbicularis oris_; _buccinator_;
_depressor anguli oris_ (contempt); _depressor labii inferioris_
(disgust); _platysma_ muscle of the neck.--Classification into
muscles completely expressive and expressive by complement.--Of
associations possible and impossible with regard to mechanism
and with regard to the nature of the emotions.--Conclusion.
The muscles of the face, which are attached to the skin, move and
alter the shape of its folds and apertures. These different cutaneous
parts are very complex, but at the same time known to persons who are
the greatest strangers to anatomy. For them even it is unnecessary to
describe here the eyebrows, the eyelids, the palpebral fissure, the ala
or wing of the nose, and the lips. We will only point out, with regard
to these parts, the significance of their various anatomical names, the
employment of which will be useful in abridging the descriptions that
follow.
On the _eyebrow_ we distinguish a broad internal part (towards the
median axis of the face) called the _head_ of the eyebrow, and an
external part called the _tail_ of the eyebrow, which becomes thinner
as it is removed from the middle line.
On each palpebral fissure, at its inner end, is a small perforated
papilla--the _lachrymal papilla_--the perforation in which is named
the _punctum lachrymale_, carrying the tears from the surface of the
eye into the nose by special ducts. Each of the two extremities of
the palpebral fissure bears the name of the _canthus_, or _angle_. We
distinguish, therefore, on the eyelids an _external canthus_ or _angle_
characterised by its pointed form, and an _internal_ characterised by
its rounded form, bounding a small oval space called the _lachrymal
lake_, at the bottom of which a rose-coloured fleshy tubercle projects
(the _caruncula lachrymalis_). External to this is a pale fold, the
_plica semilunaris_, a rudiment of the third eyelid (found in birds).
We also give the name of _commissure_ (or angle) to each extremity of
the buccal aperture (_commissure of the lips_). The groove extending
from the septum of the nose to the centre of the upper lip is known as
the _philtrum_.
Lastly, we must note a fold which normally exists in a more or less
marked degree in every subject, and the changes of which take a great
part in the expression produced by the various muscles of the cheeks.
This is the _naso-labial fold_, so named because, arising from the
region bounded by the cheek and the side of the nose, it is directed
obliquely downwards and outwards, passes at a short distance from the
posterior border of the wing of the nose, and terminates near the
commissure of the lips. In the subject who served for the experiments
of Duchenne (Fig. 99, page 320) this fold was strongly marked, as it
generally is in all old people.
The human head and face, the features, and the muscles which underlie
the skin have, it is supposed, undergone progressive and retrogressive
changes in the process of evolution. The cranium has expanded with the
evolution of the brain, while the face has become smaller and feebler,
and the teeth have shown distinct signs of degeneration and diminution,
both in size and number.
Of the soft parts of the face, the apertures of the eyes and mouth
have increased in mobility and functional power and refinement of
expression; while the nasal apertures and the ears illustrate a
retrogression in evolution. The interior of the nasal cavity as well as
the nostrils presents a simpler or more degenerate type in man than in
the lower animals, in whom the sense of smell is so much more highly
developed. The external ear is a good example of a _rudimentary organ_.
Its parts have a definite form, and each wrinkle or corrugation has
a separate name (see Fig. 93). It is composed of a mass of _elastic_
cartilage (except in the tip or lobule) which penetrates into the
passage of the ear in a tubular form. This cartilaginous _pinna_ is
the shrivelled-up remains of the mobile funnel-shaped ear of the
lower animals; and the _tip_ of the ear is represented by an angular
projection (Darwin’s tubercle) placed on the edge of the rim of the ear
(_helix_).
The lobule is soft, and consists of a mass of fat enclosed in the skin.
It is usually free from the neck, but in some cases (as, for example,
in the right ear of the poet Byron) the lobule is attached to the skin
of the neck, and is not in full relief. The muscles of the nose and
ear are also degenerate, and the movements of the nostrils and of the
ears are only rudimentary.
In the same way the arrangement of the muscles underlying the skin of
the neck and head presents examples of advance or retrogression when
compared with the similar muscles of lower animals.
[Illustration: FIG. 93.
THE EXTERNAL EAR.--H. helix;--F.H. fossa of the helix;--A.H.
anti-helix;--F.A.H. fossa of the anti-helix; C. concha;--T.
tragus;--A.T. anti-tragus;--L. lobule;--D. Darwin’s tubercle.]
In hairy animals the body is covered all over by a thin layer of muscle
which underlies the skin, and is called the _panniculus carnosus_.
In man the body has become almost denuded of hair, except on the head
and face, and at the same time his capacity of facial expression is
vastly greater than in one of the lower animals.
The effect of these changes is seen in the condition of the panniculus
carnosus. It has degenerated over the hairless trunk, and only remains
normally as the _platysma myoides_ of the neck. But, on the other hand,
the parts of the panniculus carnosus which have swept over the face
and have surrounded the apertures of the eye and mouth in particular,
have become differentiated into the complicated series of muscles of
expression, rudimentary and feeble on the scalp and in relation to the
pinna and the nasal opening, but highly organised in relation to the
apertures of the eye and mouth.
It is for the most part these highly differentiated muscles which have
to be dealt with in this chapter in connection with the expression of
the emotions.
The muscles of expression (Fig. 94) are arranged in three series:
one around the eyes and eyebrows, occupying the upper region of the
face; the second about the nose; and the third around the aperture
of the mouth, occupying the middle and especially the lower region
of the face. The first series includes the _occipito-frontalis_, the
_corrugator supercilii_, and the _orbicularis palpebrarum_; the second
includes the _pyramidalis nasi_, _compressor naris_, and _dilator alæ
nasi_; the third set is most numerous, comprising the _levator labii
superioris alæque nasi_, _levator labii superioris_, _zygomaticus
major_ and _minor_, the _levator anguli oris_, the _orbicularis oris_
(to which we may add the _buccinator_), the _risorius_, _depressor
anguli oris_, and _depressor labii inferioris_. Finally, in the neck
and extending up to the lower jaw is the _platysma myoides_, which
takes a considerable part in certain powerful expressions of the face.
[Illustration: FIG. 94.
(_From Cunningham’s “Text Book of Anatomy.”_)
THE MUSCLES OF THE FACE.--1, frontalis;--2, attrahens
aurem;--3, epicranial aponeurosis;--4, attolleus aurem;--5,
occipitalis;--6, retrahens aurem;--7, trapezius;--8,
parotid gland;--9, sterno-cleido-mastoid;--10, orbicularis
palpebrarum;--11, pyramidalis nasi;--12, compressor naris;--13,
levator labii supertoris alæque nasi;--14, levator labii
superioris;--15, levator anguli oris;--16, depressor alæ
nasi;--17, zygomaticus major;--18, Stenson’s duct;--19,
orbicularis oris,--20, risorius;--21, buccinator;--22,
depressor anguli oris;--23, depressor labii inferioris;--24,
masseter;--25, platysma myoides.]
In the study of these muscles we will enter but little into anatomical
details, but will content ourselves with pointing out the situation
of the muscle, its fixed attachments to the bones of the face, its
direction, and, lastly, the point on the skin where it takes its
insertion. On the other hand, we must carefully inquire into its
mechanism and the manner in which its contraction produces alterations
in the skin of the face, and the nature and direction of the folds
which it marks thereon. We must ask ourselves what expression results
by the occurrence of these alterations in the face. And, lastly, we
will endeavour to give a diagram of this expression after the mode of
representation employed by Humbert de Superville (page 298).
[Illustration: FIG. 95.
CONTRACTION OF THE FRONTAL MUSCLES
(expressions of _attention_ and _astonishment_).]
A.--MUSCLES OF THE UPPER PART OF THE FACE (FOREHEAD, EYEBROWS,
EYELIDS, AND ROOT OF NOSE.)
1st. _Occipito-frontalis muscle_ (muscle of _attention_).--This
muscle (1, Fig. 88, page 285) (Fig. 94) consists of an anterior and
a posterior belly, connected by an intermediate membranous tendon
covering the scalp. Its anterior belly extends as a fleshy sheet,
quadrilateral in form, over each lateral half of the forehead. The
muscles of each side are continuous with one another across the middle
line. The anterior muscular portion is the _frontalis_. Its lower
border is attached to the skin of the eyebrow, and blends with the
orbicularis palpebrarum. From this origin its fibres ascend vertically
and parallel to each other towards the region of the roots of the hair,
and become continuous, at this level, with the membranous expansion of
the _epicranial aponeurosis_. This aponeurosis, which covers the vault
of the skull and is adherent to the skin of the scalp, is prolonged
backwards to the occipital region, where it terminates in a bilateral
fleshy layer, the _occipitalis_ muscle, attached to the superior curved
line of the occipital bone.
[Illustration: FIG. 96.
Diagram of the _frontal muscles_ (_attention_).]
In order to understand the mechanism of the occipito-frontalis muscle
it is necessary to consider it as taking its fixed origin at the
posterior part of the skull, through the medium of the epicranial
aponeurosis and the occipitalis portion of the muscle; its insertion is
its attachment to the deep surface of the skin of the eyebrow and the
orbicularis palpebrarum. It has no bony attachment in the region of the
forehead. The frontalis, therefore, in contracting, draws the skin of
the eyebrow and the upper eyelid from below upwards, and consequently
raises the eyebrow, and causes transverse folds to appear in the skin
of the forehead.
In examining (Fig. 95) a face in which this muscle is contracted we
perceive that it expresses _attention_; if the contraction of the
muscle is very great this expression of attention changes to that of
_astonishment_. In entering into the detail of the changes that the
face then presents we see that the eyebrow is raised and its superior
convexity is very marked, that the eye is widely opened, clear, and
brilliant, and that the forehead is furrowed on each lateral half by
curved folds concentric with the curve of the eyebrows, continued more
or less from one side to the other, and describing curves in the middle
line with the concavity upwards. In a child or young woman, in whom
the skin is supple and elastic, it does not give rise to the formation
of folds, and the skin of the forehead remains quite smooth during
the contraction of the frontal muscle, and then the elevation of the
eyebrow, the exaggeration of its curve and the state of the eyes, open
and bright, are sufficient to give the expression of attention.
[Illustration: FIG. 97.
THE UPPER PART OF THE ORBICULARIS PALPEBRARUM (_reflection_).]
Figure 96 is the representation of _attention_, characterised here
solely by the form of the eyebrows and the frontal folds.
2nd. _The orbicularis palpebrarum_ (6, Fig. 88, and 10, Fig. 94).--The
orbicular muscle of the eyes is a very extensive muscle which encircles
the palpebral orifice. It is composed of numerous portions which
can act more or less independently, and which have not all an equal
importance in the expression of the face.
_a._ One part of this orbicular muscle, called the _palpebral part_,
is contained in the thickness of the eyelids, and produces by its
contraction the closing of the eyes. If this contraction is moderate
it produces only a certain drawing together of the eyelids and reduces
the opening of the eyes to the form of a linear slit. This state of
the palpebral opening does not constitute by itself an expression,
properly speaking, but it may be complementary to various expressions;
thus, associated with a slight contraction of the triangular muscle of
the lips, which is the muscle of disgust and discontent (page 333), it
gives to the countenance the expression of disdain and contempt.
[Illustration: FIG. 98.
Diagram representation of _reflection, meditation_.]
_b._ A second part of the orbicular muscle is arranged in a circular
manner on the outer side of the eyelids, and corresponds exactly to
the contour of the orbital orifice of the skeleton (Fig. 58, page 174,
and Fig. 88, page 285). This portion, which we may call the _orbital
portion_, is divided into two parts: one, the _inferior fibres_, the
contraction of which moves the lower eyelid slightly upwards and
causes a furrow at its junction with the cheek, and without being
expressive by itself, completes the expression of laughter by giving
to it a character of frankness and truth; and the _superior fibres_,
which merit more detailed study, for they produce by their action a
characteristic expression of reflection, meditation, and contemplation.
This _superior orbital_ portion of the muscle (muscle of _reflection_)
is placed beneath the skin of the eyebrow, and its fibres, like it,
describe an arc with the concavity downwards, of which the inner
extremity is adherent to the internal border of the orbital opening.
The mechanism, therefore, of this muscle is easily foreseen; for,
like all curved muscles, more or less fixed at their extremities, it
must in contraction straighten its curve. It accordingly acts in this
way on the eyebrow, to the skin of which it is adherent, and effaces
its curve, rendering it straight transversely; and it depresses,
and consequently makes tense, the skin of the forehead, causing its
wrinkles to disappear.
[Illustration: FIG. 99.
SUPERCILIARY MUSCLE (_sorrow_).]
In examining a face in which this muscle is contracted we perceive
that it expresses reflection. In Figure 97, owing to the excessive
development of the eyebrow, which is greatly lowered, the hairs descend
over the eyes, and the expression is rather that of painful reflection
or of intense application of the mind pre-occupied with sadness; but
we see in every case that this expression is obtained essentially by
the lowering and straight direction of the eyebrow, which veils the
eye and effaces all wrinkles on the forehead. This alteration in the
features is precisely the reverse of that produced by the frontalis
muscle, as is shown by the comparison of Figures 95 and 96, and in
fact the two states of mind corresponding to the expression given by
each of the muscles are precisely the reverse of each other. We cannot
be at the same time attentive to an external object and meditating in
reflection. Usually the succession of these states of mind and facial
expression is as follows:--We are attentive to that on which we are
looking, the eye open, brilliant, the eyebrow raised, and the forehead
wrinkled (contraction of the frontal muscle); afterwards we reflect on
what we have seen, and are, so to speak, abstracted from the external
world--the eyebrow is lowered, the forehead smooth, and the eye veiled
(by contraction of the superior fibres of the orbicularis palpebrarum),
or the eyes may be closed (by contraction of the whole of the muscle).
[Illustration: FIG. 100.
Diagram representation of _sorrow_.]
Figure 98 is the representation of _reflection_, characterised by
the absence of the frontal folds, the depression of the eyebrows and
the presence of two small vertical folds in the space between the
eyebrows, to which the depression of the eyelid gives rise (Fig. 97).
This representation of reflection (Fig. 98) does not acquire its full
demonstrative significance until we compare it with that of attention
(Fig. 96).
3rd. _Pyramidalis nasi muscle_ (or _muscle of menace_).--This small
muscle, situated in the space between the eyebrows on a level with
the root of the nose (11, Fig. 94) (9, Fig. 88, page 285), is formed
by short vertical fibres, which is attached by its lower end to a
membranous expansion over the nasal bones (Fig. 58, page 174), and by
its upper end to the deep surface of the skin of the space between the
eyebrows.
[Illustration: FIG. 101.
GREAT ZYGOMATIC MUSCLE (expression of _gaiety_, of _laughter_).]
The contraction of this muscle therefore produces the following
result:--Taking its fixed insertion at the nasal bones, it draws
downward the skin of the space between the eyebrows, forming short
transverse folds, and depressing slightly the inner part of the eyebrow.
In a face in which this muscle is contracted (see the atlas of
Duchenne) the expression is that of harshness, menace, and aggression.
Looking at the expression of countenance which Duchenne reproduced by
this contraction, we can readily believe that if the subject had been
represented in full, its attitude would have been one of menace; and
the individual would be shaking his fist or brandishing a weapon.
Moreover, anything which throws a shadow or a dark look between the
eyebrows gives to the physiognomy a character of harshness, as when the
contraction of the pyramidalis produces the transverse folds in this
region. Therefore, in those persons in whom the eyebrows seem to meet,
owing to an exaggerated development of hair in the space between, the
physiognomy always presents at first sight the stamp of severity and
harshness, which may not agree in the least with the true character of
the subject. The expression of the pyramidalis is too delicate, and due
to a change of the features too local and slight for us to express it
by a drawing, as we have done in the case of the preceding muscles.
4th. _Superciliary muscle_ (_corrugator supercilii_, or muscle of
pain).--This short muscle is deeply hidden beneath the skin of the
region of the head of the eyebrow. Its fixed attachment is to the
frontal bone, above the superciliary arch; from this origin its fibres
are directed outwards and slightly downwards to be inserted into the
deep surface of the skin at the middle of the eyebrow.
Its mechanism consists in drawing the eyebrow inwards and slightly
upwards, and as it is attached to the middle of the eyebrow it draws
it together at this point, namely, towards its inner part. The eyebrow
is therefore, so to speak, abruptly hooked upwards and inwards, like
a curtain that has been tucked up and attached to a fixed point. It
therefore produces on the skin of the forehead folds concentric to
this gathering together of the eyebrow and situated in the middle of
the forehead, besides producing the vertical furrows, obvious in the
figures, between the eyebrows.
Figure 99 represents, after a photograph of Duchenne, the state of
the physiognomy caused by the contraction of the superciliary muscle.
This physiognomy has an expression characteristic of suffering, and
any greater accentuation of the action of the muscle shows in a marked
degree the expression of physical or mental agony.
We see that the only parts changed in this expression (compare Fig.
95, page 315) are the inner half of the eyebrow and the region between
the eyebrows on the forehead; pain, therefore, is expressed by the
raising of this part of the eyebrow and its gathering together abruptly
in the middle of the forehead, and by the presence of the short folds
immediately above this and the more extended folds occupying the middle
region of the forehead.
Figure 100 is a diagrammatic representation of pain, expressed only by
changes in the neighbourhood of the inner part of the eyebrow (contrast
with Fig. 102 following).
B.--MUSCLES OF THE MIDDLE REGION OF THE FACE.
5th. The _great zygomatic muscle_ (_zygomaticus major_, muscle of
_laughter_).--This muscle (17, Fig. 94, and 11, Fig. 88) has its fixed
attachment on the cheek-bone; from this origin it is directed obliquely
downwards and forwards, to be inserted into the deep surface of the
skin near the angle of the mouth.
6th. _Elevator of the angle of the month._--_The levator anguli
oris_ is a muscle which largely aids the great zygomatic muscle in
its action. It arises from the canine fossa of the upper jaw, and is
directed downwards towards the angle of the mouth. It is inserted into
the skin, and blends with the orbicularis oris (15, Fig. 94).
[Illustration: FIG. 102.
Diagram representation of _laughter_.]
The mechanism of these muscles consists in drawing the angle of the
mouth upwards and outwards, an action which results in some complex
changes in the expression of the countenance. At first the orifice
of the mouth is enlarged transversely, and its direction ceases to
be straight, so that each lateral half is directed obliquely upwards
and outwards. As the naso-labial line (Fig. 95) passes, at its lower
end, near the commissure of the lips, this also is carried upwards,
describing a slight curve concentric to the commissure of the lips,
while the upper part of the line describes a curve with its convexity
downwards. The skin of the cheek gathered up towards the cheek-bone
becomes more prominent, and forms, below the outer angle of the eye,
several radiating folds (commonly called crows’-feet), which throw a
slight shadow beneath the external angle of the eye; this makes it
appear as if the line of the eyelids is a little raised on the outer
side (or oblique upwards).
Figure 101, representing the contraction of the great zygomatic
muscle, illustrates in a diagram the frank expression of gaiety and
laughter, and we see that the alterations of expression take place
only, as we have already said, in the line of the lips, the naso-labial
line, and the external angle of the eyes.
[Illustration: FIG. 103.
Diagram representation of the _external common elevator_ (muscle
of _grief_).]
Figure 102, giving the representation of laughter according to the
preceding description of the great zygomatic muscle, is very similar
to the corresponding figure of Humbert de Superville (Fig. 92, page
299), only, in order to express the reality without having regard here
to appearances, we have drawn the lines of the eyes horizontal; and,
again, the naso-labial furrow has been represented with its form convex
downwards and inwards for the upper two-thirds, and with the slight
hook which its inferior extremity describes. This naso-labial furrow is
of the utmost importance in the expressions produced by all the muscles
belonging to the lips, as we shall see in the following description.
7th. The _lesser zygomatic_ (_zygomaticus minor_) _and elevator of the
upper lip_ (_levator labii superioris_, muscle of _grief_).--On the
inner side of the great zygomatic muscle there exists frequently (10,
Fig. 88, page 285), but not constantly, a small muscular fasciculus
which arises from the anterior part of the cheek-bone and descends
to be inserted into the thickness of the upper lip. This muscle,
called the _lesser zygomatic_, does not take part in the expression
of laughter; in fact, it changes the naso-labial furrow in the same
manner as the following muscle (the external common elevator), and so
expresses, as we shall see, emotion, sadness, and grief.
8th. The _elevator_ of the upper lip (_levator labii superioris_)
arises (14, Fig. 94, and 14, Fig. 88, page 285) from the inferior
border of the bony margin of the orbit and descends to the upper lip.
[Illustration: FIG. 104.
Diagram representation of the _internal common elevator_
(muscle of _grief_ with tears).]
Its contraction raises the upper lip itself, but not the labial
commissure, so that each half of the line of the lips, raised within
and remaining depressed at its outer extremity, becomes slightly
oblique from above downwards and from within outwards (the reverse of
the obliquity produced by the great zygomatic muscle); at the same time
the centre of the naso-labial furrow is raised and the furrow becomes
curved with its concavity downwards and inwards (the reverse of the
curve produced by the great zygomatic).
By means of these changes the countenance takes on the expression of
discontent, emotion, and grief (see the atlas of Duchenne).
We give here only one drawing (Fig. 103) in which are shown the two
essential changes produced by this muscle (obliquity of the line of the
lips and curve of the naso-labial furrow), which seems to us to show in
a satisfactory manner the expression of grief in tears. We comprehend
the value of this drawing better by comparing it with Figure 102.
We see that the changes produced by the muscle of grief (lip and
naso-labial furrow) are precisely the reverse of those produced by
the muscle of laughter (_zygomaticus major_), just as the two
corresponding emotions are the reverse of each other. We remark also
how slight is the distance which separates these two muscles, and how
delicate are the shades of anatomical arrangement which separate them,
so delicate that authors do not agree as to whether the muscle found
between them, the lesser zygomatic muscle, when it exists, should be
considered as associated with the great zygomatic or, as we think,
with the common elevator of the nose and upper lip. Beyond doubt their
anatomical relations should remind us, in the nature of the emotions
and their expression, how small a distance there is between laughter
and tears.
9th. The elevator of the nose and upper lip (_levator labii superioris
alæque nasi_, muscle of sobbing, of weeping bitterly).--This muscle
(13, Fig. 94, and 7, Fig. 88) arises above from the inner border of
the orbit; it descends almost vertically to be inserted by some of its
fibres into the wing of the nose, and by the majority into the upper
lip, not far from its central portion.
It therefore raises the middle part of the lip, the labial commissure
remaining fixed, and gives accordingly to each half of the line of the
lips a direction oblique downwards and outwards (like the preceding
muscle, but in a more characteristic manner); at the same time it
dilates the nostril by raising the wing of the nose; lastly, by the
traction that it exercises vertically on the skin of the naso-labial
furrow, it raises _en masse_ the inner and upper part of this
furrow and renders it straight, causing it to form a species of groove
wherein the tears flow when they pour abundantly from the inner angle
of the eyelids. These changes (see the atlas of Duchenne) give to the
countenance the expression of grief with abundant tears, or of weeping
bitterly.
The drawing of Figure 104 renders this expression to a certain degree,
but it is difficult to realise it with the simple elements we use in
these formulæ. We see that all the folds of the face converge towards
the inner angle of the eye, or towards the point of attachment of this
muscle.
10th. _Transverse muscle of the nose_ (_compressor naris_, muscle
of _lasciviousness_).--This muscle (12, Fig. 94, and 9, Fig. 88) is
attached at its origin to the skin of the cheek on a level with the
side of the nose, and is directed transversely forwards over the nose
to join a thin aponeurosis which stretches over the bridge of the nose,
and receives the insertions of these two muscles, and that of the
pyramidalis nasi.
This aponeurosis, which covers the bridge of the nose, forms a fixed
point towards which these muscles draw the skin of the cheek and nose,
so as to mark on the lateral surface of the nose a series of vertical
folds (perpendicular to the direction of the muscle).
Duchenne considered the change produced by these muscles to be
characteristic of the expression of lasciviousness. Perhaps this muscle
by itself is not sufficiently expressive, but when its contraction
accompanies that of certain other muscles, we find very clearly in the
physiognomy the element of lewdness pointed out by Duchenne. In his
atlas this author gives the photograph of a countenance in which he
had produced contraction of the frontalis, the great zygomatic, and
the compressor naris; a countenance of which the expression may be
directly interpreted as that of an old man in whom the _attention_
(frontalis muscle) is _agreeably_ excited (great zygomatic) by
a spectacle arousing _lewd_ ideas (compressor naris); the face
produced by Duchenne would be, for example, a study in physiognomy for
the head of the old man in the classic subject of Susanna in the bath.
We have not attempted to represent by a drawing an unsatisfactory and
perhaps doubtful idea of the expression of this muscle.
C.--MUSCLES OF THE LOWER PART OF THE FACE.
11th. _Orbicularis muscle of the lips_ (_orbicularis oris_).--In the
substance of the lips, as in the eyelids, a muscle is found, the fibres
of which surround the orifice of the mouth--the orbicularis oris (19,
Fig. 94, and 15, Fig. 88). This muscle principally possesses functions
not primarily pertaining to expression, but to the various uses of
the lips--prehension of food, mastication, speech, suction, etc.; the
part it takes in physiognomy, although of importance, is secondary to
these elemental functions. As in the orbicular muscle of the eyelids,
we distinguish in it internal fibres corresponding to the free border
of the lips and external fibres more peripherally placed. If the
inner fibres only contract (internal orbicular) they close the mouth,
and, diminishing the size of the orifice, cause the red surfaces of
the lips to be brought closely together in their whole extent. If the
outer fibres (external orbicular) contract only, they project the lips
forwards and render their surfaces prominent and rounded, as in the
expression of _pouting_ or in _kissing_.
We need not dwell at length on the muscle which constitutes the fleshy
layer of the cheeks and forms the lateral walls of the cavity of the
mouth. This muscle, called the _buccinator_ (_buccinare_, to play the
trumpet), is a thin sheet of muscle (21, Fig. 94) lining the hollow of
the cheek in front of the line of the masseter. It is separated from
that muscle posteriorly by a pad of fat (the remains of a suctorial
pad), which in the infant is an important aid in suckling, and may
be seen projecting into the side of the mouth. It takes a part in
movements associated with the actions of the tongue and lips; it plays
an important part in mastication by bringing beneath the crown of the
teeth the food which passes outside the alveolar arches. It also aids
in the articulation of sounds (speech) and in whistling and the playing
of wind instruments (whence its name of _buccinator_), for it is the
contraction of this muscle that expels from the mouth the air which
inflates the cheeks. By its insertion into the angle of the mouth,
where its fibres decussate with those of the orbicularis muscle, the
buccinator is able to some extent to assist in the retraction of the
mouth, as in grinning or snarling.
12th. _The depressor of the angle of the mouth_ (_depressor anguli
oris_, muscle of _contempt_).--This muscle belongs to the lower lip.
It forms (22, Fig. 94, and 16, Fig. 88) a triangular layer, of which
the base is attached to the lower jaw, external to the symphysis of the
chin, and from this origin its fibres converge towards the angle of the
mouth, where, by its apex, it is inserted into the deep surface of the
skin.
[Illustration: FIG. 105.
TRIANGULAR MUSCLE OF THE LIPS (expression of _discontent_, of
_contempt_).]
This muscle depresses the labial commissure, and therefore renders the
line of the lips oblique in a direction downwards and outwards; again,
it draws downwards the lower extremity of the naso-labial furrow so as
to render this furrow almost straight, except at its lower end, which
describes a slight curve embracing the labial commissure.
The expression produced by a slight contraction of this muscle is
that of _sadness_; marked contraction produces the expression of
_contempt_. We have already seen (page 319) that a partial closing of
the eyelids usually helps to complete the expression of contempt. Two
other movements assist in this expression--a contraction of the common
elevator of the nose and upper lip, raising the ala of the nose and
curling the lip upwards; and a movement of the head to the opposite
side. All these movements may have, as Darwin pointed out, a rational
physical basis--the expression of the mouth implying a disagreeable
taste, the uplifting of the nose an unpleasant smell, and the aversion
of the head a disgusting sight.
[Illustration: FIG. 106.
Diagram representation of the expression of _discontent_, of
_contempt_.]
Figure 105, copied from Duchenne, renders well, by the contraction
only of the two triangular muscles of the lips, the expression of
discontent and scorn. The depression of the angles of the mouth is
characteristic, and the naso-labial furrow, very marked in the subject
under experiment, is greatly changed in its direction and in the form
of its inferior extremity, according to the mechanism that we have
explained.
Lastly, the drawing of Figure 106 gives, so to speak, a diagrammatic
formula of contempt by means of the form of the inferior part of the
naso-labial furrow, and the concentric folds which it produces below
the angle of the mouth.
13th. The _depressor of the lower lip_ (_quadratus menti: depressor
labii inferioris_, muscle of _disgust_).--This muscle (23, Fig. 94, and
17, Fig. 88), partly hidden by the depressor anguli oris, arises from
the anterior part of the body of the lower jaw; from this origin the
fibres ascend obliquely upwards and inwards to be inserted into the
whole length of the lower lip.
This muscle’s action is to depress the lower lip, turning it outwards
more or less strongly, so as to produce the grimace characteristic of
a person who, having introduced into the cavity of the mouth a morsel
of food which he does not find to his taste, rejects it forcibly,
forming a species of groove with the lower lip turned outwards; if the
contraction is less energetic the physiognomy expresses disgust.
We must refer to the atlas of Duchenne for the reproduction of this
expression, always more or less rude, and have not attempted a drawing
with a simple line as an indication of the labial fissure.
14th. _Platysma muscle of the neck_ (_platysma myoides_).--In each
lateral half of the anterior surface of the neck is a thin muscular
sheet situated beneath the skin (25, Fig. 94, and 25, Fig. 74, page
217). This platysma muscle is attached below to the upper part of the
chest, from which origin its fibres are directed obliquely upwards and
forwards towards the lower jaw, to be inserted into the edge of the
jaw, and the skin of the chin, of the lower lip, and the commissure
of the lips; the more superior fibres sweep forwards in a horizontal
direction across the cheek towards the labial commissure, and
constitute the _risorius muscle_ of Santorini (20, Fig. 94).
The platysma, which is not of itself essentially a muscle of
expression, adds its contraction to that of various muscles of the
face, so as to give to the corresponding expression a character of
terrible energy; the _risorius_ muscle does not therefore produce the
expression of laughter (of gaiety), but only that of _grinning_, of
forced laughter, threatening or sneering. The platysma in all these
cases acts by depressing the lower jaw, slightly opening the mouth,
and drawing the labial commissure downwards; it marks at the same time
a series of transverse folds on the skin of the neck. These elements
are capable of giving to the physiognomy a terrible character, which
Leonardo da Vinci has well observed, in his chapter on the mode of
representing a person in a state of violent anger, where he says, “it
makes the sides of the mouth into a bow, the neck thick and swollen,
and marked with wrinkles in front.”
If the characteristic changes produced by the contraction of the
platysma of the neck occur along with the contraction of the frontalis
muscle, the countenance, as shown in Duchenne’s series of photographs,
takes on an expression of attention and astonishment such as might be
produced by a terrible spectacle. Associated with the contraction of
the _superciliary_ muscle, the expression becomes that of acute pain,
as, for example, in a wretch under torture, or a victim torn by a beast
of prey. If the contraction of the _pyramidalis nasi_ is accompanied by
that of the platysma we have the expression of a savage and barbarous
threat.
_General considerations._--_Associations and combinations._--From the
enumeration we have made of the facial muscles from the forehead to
the neck, we must perceive that among these muscles there are some
which are by themselves completely expressive (_e.g._, the frontal,
superciliary, and great zygomatic), and others which are expressive
only in a complementary sense, or intended only to complete or change
an expression produced by another muscle (such are the palpebral
portion of the orbicularis of the eyelids, and the platysma of
the neck), and lastly, others which are almost non-expressive, but
yet associated with the true muscles of the expression (_e.g._
the buccinator). But we have not space here to dwell on these
classifications.
A more important question is that of the association of the action of
various muscles, and especially of the muscles which are completely
expressive by themselves. The expression peculiar to each of these
muscles is, so to speak, one of the syllables or words of the language
of physiognomy, but, like every other language, physiognomy associates
these syllables and words to arrive at its expressions. Now experience
shows that usually the associations and combinations are composed of
few elements. Usually two suffice; three muscles are sometimes in play
simultaneously, hardly ever four.
Again, if we endeavour to realise these combinations theoretically by
supposing the contractions of two muscles associated at random, we
soon perceive that among the combinations some are easy and ordinary,
and this is on account of the nature of emotions which we suppose
associated, and the mechanism of the corresponding muscles, while
others are impossible for the same reason.
The following is an example of easy combination related at the same
time to the emotions and also to the muscular mechanism--viz., the
combination of the contraction of the frontalis and of the great
zygomatic muscles, as expressive of attention and laughter. On the one
hand, attention (frontalis) might be excited by a spectacle which
provokes laughter (zygomatic); on the other hand, the frontal muscle
and the great zygomatic being situated the one in the forehead and
the other in the cheek, acting, one on the eyebrow, the other on the
lips, the mechanism of one is independent of that of the other; this,
however, from an anatomical point of view, does not prevent the two
contracting simultaneously, exactly as the biceps might contract in
order to flex the forearm, at the same time that the common extensor of
the fingers extends the digital phalanges.
On the other hand, as impossible combinations discordant both to
sentiment and muscular mechanism, we may, for example, consider the
simultaneous contraction of the frontalis and the superior orbital
portion of the orbicularis muscles of the eyelids. The first muscle
expresses attention, the second reflection, or two opposite states of
the mind, which cannot at the same time be open to external phenomena,
and meditating on internal analyses. Again, the first muscle raises,
the second depresses the eyebrow, which cannot be at the same time
drawn in two opposite directions; just as, to take an example from the
muscles of the limbs, the forearm cannot be at the same time flexed by
the action of the biceps and extended by that of the triceps.
By submitting them to the same analysis we see that nothing is easier
or more concordant to their mechanism and to the emotions than the
simultaneous contraction of the frontalis and the depressor anguli
oris (attention and contempt), of the superciliary and the depressor
labii inferioris (pain and disgust), the pyramidalis and the common
elevator of the nose and upper lip (menace and sorrow), etc. On the
contrary, for the same double series of reasons we find impossible and
discordant associations, such as those of the great zygomatic and the
depressor labii inferioris (gaiety and disgust), the pyramidalis and
the superciliary (menace and pain), and of the common elevator of the
nose and upper lip and the great zygomatic (sorrow and laughter).
There are, however, combinations which at first sight appear discordant
to the nature of the passions, but which are found, notwithstanding,
not to have any obstacle to their realisation in the mechanism of the
countenance. We take, for example, the superciliary and the great
zygomatic: one expresses pain, the other laughter--two expressions of
an opposite nature; however, as these muscles correspond, one belonging
to the head of the eyebrow, the other to the labial commissure, they
can act without one counteracting the other, and we may well understand
their simultaneous contraction. Now on reflection we find that this
association, anatomically possible, is often realised, notwithstanding
the apparent incompatibility of the corresponding passions. In the
midst of violent physical pain, which causes the involuntary and
irresistible contraction of the superciliary, a serene and powerful
will finds still the energy to smile. In order to find the realisation
in a work of art it is sufficient to study the expression of the
countenance of Seneca in the painting by Giordano. A similar example
is offered by that of a young woman who has become a mother, and who,
though still quivering with the pain of childbirth (_superciliary_
muscle), is divided betwixt the physical pain and the mental joy of
seeing the infant to whom she has given birth and at whom she smiles
(_great zygomatic_ muscle).
These latter examples show that the anatomical conditions take the lead
up to a certain point of those conditions which result from the nature
of the emotions, and that a combination of expressions is possible only
when it can be realised by the action of the facial muscles.
We will finish here these short studies of the anatomy of the face,
happy if we have been successful in showing the artist that in the
movements of the face there is neither fancy, caprice, nor inspiration,
but that all is subject to exact and precise rules which are the
orthography of the language of physiognomy, and that the possible
combinations are both large and varied, so that the artist can preserve
his liberty of action while conforming to these rules, as the poet
observes those of grammar without being on that account embarrassed in
the scope of his genius.
INDEX
A
Abdomen, Form of, 199
Abdomen, Muscles of, 198
Abduction and Adduction, 118, 121
Abductor Pollicis, 248
Acetabulum, 106
Achilles, Tendon of, 277
Acromio-clavicular Articulation, 57
Acromion Process, 57
Adductor Muscles of Hand, 248
Adductor Muscles of Thigh, 262
Agony, Expression of, 324
Alar Ligaments, 144
Alveoli, Dental, 178
Anatomical Neck of humerus, 60
Anatomical Snuff-box, 246
Anatomy, Definition and History of, 7
Anconeus Muscle, 240, 242
Anger, Expression of, 335
Angular Processes, 168
Ankle-joint, 148
Annular Ligament, Anterior of Wrist, 88
Anterior Triangle of Neck, 283
Antinöus, Measurement of, 187
Antithesis of Expression, 306
Apollo, Measurement of, 187
Arm, 67, 77
Arm, Muscles of, 224
Arm-pit, Hollow of, 215
Arthrology, 19
Articular Processes, 30
Association of Expressions, 336
Astragalo-calcaneo-scaphoid Joint, 157
Astragalo-scaphoid Articulation, 157
Astragalus Bone, 148, 152, 155
Athletes, Ancient, 11
Atlas, Vertebra, 32
Atmospheric Pressure, Influence of, 123
Attention, Expression of, 316
Auditory Canal, 169
Auditory Meatus, 169
Axilla, 215
Axis, Vertebra, 32
B
Back, Muscles of, 205
Bell, Sir Charles, 296
Bertini, Ligament of, 119
Biceps Brachialis, 224
Biceps Femoris, 266
Biceps Muscle, 222, 224
Bicipital Groove, 61, 67
Bicipital Tubercle, 78
Bigelow, Ligament of, 119
Blanc, Charles, 99
Bone, Structure of, 25
Brachial Index, 100
Brachialis Anticus Muscle, 228
Brachio-radialis Muscle, 238
Brachycephalic of Skull, 172
Breast, 196
Buccinator Muscle, 331
Buttock, 121
C
Calcaneum, 152
Camper on Facial Angle, 181, 296
Canalis Tarsi, 155
Canine Fossa, 176
Canine Teeth, 175
Canons, 99, 189
Capitellum, 68
Carpo-metacarpal Articulation, 92
Carpus, 87
Carpus, Muscles of, 239
Cartilages, 26
Caruncula Lachrymalis, 311
Caucasian Race, Facial Angle of, 184
Cephalic Index, 171
Cephalic Vein, 219
Cervical Vertebræ, 32
Cheek, Prominence of, 176
Chest, 41, 51
Chin, 177
Chondro-costal Articulation, 52
Chondro-sternal Articulation, 52
Clavicle, 55, 65
Coccyx, 104
Combination of Expressions, 336
Commissure of Eyelids, 319
Commissure of Lips, 311
Complexus Muscle, 211
Condyle of Jaw, 178
Condyles of Femur, 133
Condyles of Humerus, 69
Condyles, Occipital, 165
Conoid Ligament, 59
Contempt, Muscle of, 332
Coraco-brachialis Muscle, 215, 222, 227
Coracoid Process, 58
Coronal Suture, 167, 170
Coronoid Fossa, 69
Coronoid Process, 70, 178
Costal Cartilages, 51
Cotyloid Ligaments, 118
Coxo-femoral Articulation, 108
Cranium, 164
Cricoid Cartilage, 284
Crucial Ligaments, 136, 141
Crureus Muscle, 261
Cubitus, 69
Cuboid Bone, 152, 158
Cucullary Muscle, 208
Cuneiform Bones, 88, 152, 156, 157
Curves of Vertebral Column, 36
D
Darwin on Expression of Emotions, 304
Deltoid Impression, 68
Deltoid Muscle, 216
Diaphyses, 24
Digastric Muscle, 288, 289
Discontent, Expression of, 333
Discs, Intervertebral, 34
Discs, Vertebral, 28
Disgust, Expression of, 333
Dissections, 9, 12
Dog, Facial Angle of, 184
Dolichocephalic of Skull, 172
Dorsum Ilii, 106
Duchenne of Boulogne, 301, 308
E
Ear, 312
Egyptian Art, 2
Egyptian Canon, 99
Elbow, Articulation of, 71
Elbow, Hollow of, 234
Elevators of Lips, Muscles, 326
Ensiform Cartilage, 42
Epicranial Aponeurosis, 317
Epigastrium, 53
Epiphyses, 24
Erector Spinæ, 214
Expression, Antithesis of, 306
Expression, Muscles of, 294
Expressions, Combination of, 336
Extensor Brevis Digitorum, 279
Extensors of Fingers, Muscles, 239
Extensors of Toes, Muscles, 269
Eye, 312
Eye, Muscles of, 318
Eyebrow, 310
Eyelids, 319
F
Face, Muscles of, 291, 310
Face, Skeleton of, 173
Facial Angle, 181
Fascia Lata, 256
Female Figure, Formulæ of, 125
Femur, 116, 131
Femur, Neck of, 117
Fibula, 135, 147
Fingers, 93
Flexor Carpi Radialis, 235
Flexors of Fingers, Muscles, 237
Flexors of Toes, Muscles, 278
Foot, 151, 155, 160
Foot as a Canon, 185
Foot, Muscles of, 278
Foramen Magnum, 165
Forearm, 77
Forearm, Muscles of, 232, 244
Forehead, Muscles of, 316
Formulæ of Male and Female Figures, 125
Frederick of Germany, Edict of, 12
Frontal Bone, 166
Frontal Muscle, 316
Frontal Sinuses, 168
G
Galen, 9
Gastrocnemius Muscle, 273
Gemelli Muscles, 256
Gerdy on Canons, 185
Gladiator, Measurement of, 187
Glenoid Cavity, 59, 180
Gluteal Muscles, 252
Gracilis, 264
Grecian Art, 3
Grief, Muscle of, 326
Grinning, Expression of, 334
Groin, Fold of, 112
Groove, Bicipital, 61, 67
Gullet, 284
Gymnasium and Anatomy, 11
H
Hamstring Muscles, 265
Hand, 87
Hand, Muscles of, 232, 247
Head as a Canon, 185
Head, Bones of, 164
Head, Movements of, 33
Head, Muscles of, 291
Hip-bones, 105
Hip-joint, 118
Hips, Measurements and Proportions of, 124
Humerus, 60, 67
Hypothenar Eminence, 248, 249
I
Iliac Fossa, 108
Ilio-costalis Muscle, 214
Ilio-femoral Articulation, 118
Ilio-femoral Ligament, 119
Ilio-lumbar Ligament, 111
Ilio-pectineal Line, 107
Ilio-tibial Band, 144, 257
Ilio-trochanteric Band, 121
Ilium, 105
Incisive Fossa, 176
Incisor Teeth, 179, 180
Index, Brachial, 100
Index, Cephalic, 171
Index Finger, 91, 246
Infra-hyoid Muscles, 285
Infra-orbital Foramen, 174
Infra-spinatus Muscle, 212, 219
Inter-carpal Joint, 89
Inter-condyloid Notch, 133
Interosseous Ligament, 156
Interosseous Membrane, 147
Interosseous Muscles, 250
Interosseous Space, 80, 147
Inter-phalangeal Articulation, 94
Ischium, 105
J
Jaw, Articulation of, the, 180
Jaw, Muscles of, 292
K
Kissing, Expression of, 331
Knee, Articulation of, 131
Knee, Form of, 144
Knee, Ligaments of, 139
L
Lachrymal Lake, 311
Lambdoid, Suture, 170
Laocoon, Measurement of, 187
Larynx, 284
Lasciviousness, Muscle of, 329
Latissimus Dorsi Muscle, 209
Laughter, Expression of, 326
Lavater on Physiognomy, 297
Le Brun on Studies of, Expression, 296
Leg, 135, 146
Leg, Muscles of, 268
Ligamenta Subflava, 35
Ligamentum Nuchæ, 36
Ligamentum Teres, 116, 122
Linea Alba, 198
Linea Aspera, 133
Linea Semilunaris, 199
Lineæ Transversæ, 203
Lips, 311
Lips, Muscles of, 326, 330
Longissimus Dorsi Muscle, 214
Lumbricales Muscles, 237, 250
Luzzi, Mondino di, 12
M
Malar Bone, 176
Male Figure, Formulæ of, 125
Malleoli, 149
Mandible, 177
Manubrium of Sternum, 45
Masseter Muscle, 292
Masticating Muscles, 291
Mastoid Process, 169
Maxillary Bone, Inferior, 177
Maxillary Bone, Superior, 176
Menace, Expression of, 322
Mental Foramen, 178
Mental Process, 177
Mesaticephalic of Skull, 172
Metacarpo-phalangeal Articulation, 93
Metacarpus, 90
Metatarsus, 159
Michael Angelo, 14
Middle Finger, 91
Middle Finger as a Canon, 185
Modern Art, 5
Molar Teeth, 179
Mongols, Facial Angle of, 184
Monkeys, Facial Angle of, 184
Mouth, 312
Mouth, Muscles of, 325
Muscles in General, 189
Muscles, Movement of, 189
Muscles, Nomenclature of, 191
Mylo-hyoid Muscle, 288, 290
N
Nasal Bones, 168
Nasal Eminences, 168
Nasal Fossa, 175
Naso-labial Fold, 311
Naso-lachrymal Groove, 174
Navicular Bone, 152, 156, 158
Neck, Movements of, 282
Neck, Muscles of, 281, 334
Neck, Region of, 208
Negro, Facial Angle of, 183, 184
Neural Arch, 29
Neural Canal, 29
Nipple of, Breast, 196
Nomenclature, 22
Nose, Muscles of, 328
Nostrils, 312
O
Oblique Muscles of the Abdomen, 198
Obturator Foramen, 106
Obturator Membrane, 111
Obturator Muscle, 256
Occipital Bone, 164
Occipital Condyles, 165
Occipital Muscle, 316
Odontoid Process, 32
Œsophagus, 284
Olecranon, 70
Olecranon Fossa, 69
Olecranon Process, 71
Omo-hyoid Muscle, 286
Opponens Muscles, 248
Opposition, Movements of, 92
Optic Foramen, 175
Orbicular Muscle of Eyelids, 318
Orbicular Muscle of Lips, 330
Orbicularis Palpebrarum, 318
Orbital Processes, 176
Orbits, 173
Os Calcis, 152
Os Magnum, 88
Ossa Innominata, 105
Osteology, 19
P
Pain, Expression of, 335
Palmar Fascia, 248
Palmaris Brevis, 249
Palmaris Longus, 235
Palpebral Muscle, 318
Panniculus Carnosus, 313
Parietal Bones, 166
Patella, 134
Patella, Ligament of, 142, 260
Patellar Surface, 133
Pectineus Muscle, 262
Pectoral Muscles, 193
Pelvis, 103
Pelvis, Muscles of, 252
Perineum, 112
Peroneal Muscles, 158, 160, 271
Petrous Portion, 168
Phalanges of Fingers, 93
Phalanges of Toes, 160
Pharynx, 284
Philtrum, 311
Physiology, 9
Pinna, 312
Pisiform Bone, 88
Plantar Ligaments, 156
Plantaris Muscle, 277
Platysma Muscles, 211
Platysma of Neck, 334
Plica Semilunaris, 311
Pomum Adami, 284
Popliteal Space, 142
Posterior Triangle, 210
Poupart’s Ligament, 111
Pouting, Expression of, 331
Processes of Vertebræ, 30
Pronation, 82
Pronator Quadratus, 237
Pronator Radii Teres, Impression for, 78
Pronator Teres, 233
Proportion of Arm, 97
Proportion of Clavicle, 46
Proportion of Foot, 163
Proportion of Hips, 124
Proportion of Leg, 162
Proportion of Lower Limb, 161
Proportion of Pelvis, 114
Proportion of Sternum, 46
Proportion of Upper Limb, 96
Proportion of Vertebral Column, 38
Psoas Muscle, 263
Pterygoid Muscle, 292
Pubis, 105
Pyramidalis Abdominis Muscle, 204
Pyramidalis Muscle of Face, 322
Pyriformis Muscle, 256
Q
Quadratus Femoris, 256
Quadratus Menti, 333
Quadriceps Extensor Muscle, 259
Quadrumana, 148
R
Radial Head, 68
Radial Muscles, 239
Radio-carpal Articulation, 78
Radio-carpal Joint, 89
Radio-ulnar Articulation, 82
Radius, 70, 77
Ramus of Lower Jaw, 178
Rectus Abdominis, 202
Rectus Femoris, 259
Reflection, Expression of, 320
Renaissance Art, 4
Rhomboid Muscles, 212
Ribs, 46
Risorius Muscle of Santorini, 334
Roman Art, 4
S
Sacro-sciatic Ligaments, 105, 111
Sacrum, 103
Sadness, Expression of, 332
Sagittal Suture, 170
Salvage and Malgaigne’s Formula, 125
Sappey, Professor, on Canons, 188
Sartorius Muscle, 258
Scaphoid Bone, 88, 152, 156, 158
Scapula, 56
Scapulo-humeral Articulation, 60, 61
Scarpa’s Triangle, 263
Sciatic Notch, 109
Scorn, Expression of, 333
Semi-lunar Bone, 88
Semi-lunar Fascia, 225
Semi-lunar Ligaments, 137
Semi-membranosus Muscle, 267
Semi-tendinosus Muscle, 266
Serratus Magnus Muscle, 215, 220
Sexes, Formulæ of, 125
Shin Bone, 135
Shoulder, 55
Shoulder Blade, 56
Shoulder Joint, 61
Shoulder, Muscles of, 215
Sigmoid Cavities, 70
Sigmoid Notch, 178
Skeleton, Subdivisions of, 27
Skin, Muscles of, 292
Skull, 164
Sobbing, Muscle of, 328
Sole of Foot, 151, 160, 278
Soleus Muscle, 276
Sorrow, Expression of, 332
Sphenoid Bone, 170
Sphenoidal Fissure, 175
Spinal Crest, 37
Spinous Processes, 30
Spiral Groove, 68
Splenius Muscle, 211
Spring Ligament, 157
Sterno-cleido-mastoid Muscle, 281
Sterno-hyoid Muscle, 287
Sterno-thyroid Muscle, 287
Sternum, 41
Stomach, Pit of, 53
Stylo-hyoid Muscle, 287, 289
Styloid Process, 79, 136, 169
Subscapularis Muscle, 220
Sue on Physiognomy, 297
Superciliary Muscle, 323
Superville, Humbert de, 298
Supination, 80
Supinator Muscles, 238
Supinator Radii Brevis, 239
Supra-condyloid Ridge, 69
Supra-hyoid Muscles, 287
Supra-orbital Arches, 168
Supra-spinatus Muscle, 215, 219
Sustentaculum Tali, 155
Sutures of Skull, 170
Symphyses, Sacro-iliac, 110
Symphysis of Pubis, 110
T
Talus Bone, 152
Tarsus, 151, 155, 279
Teeth, 179
Temporal Bones, 168
Temporal Fossa, 170
Temporal Muscle, 293
Temporal Ridge, 166
Temporo-maxillary Articulation, 180
Tendo Achillis, 277
Tendons in General, 190
Tensor of Fascia Lata, 256
Teres Muscles, 212
Thenar Eminence, 248
Thigh, 116
Thigh, Muscles of, 256
Thorax, 41, 51
Threatening Expression, 335
Thyro-hyoid Muscle, 287
Thyroid Body, 285
Thyroid Cartilage, 284
Thyroid Foramen, 106
Thumb, 91
Tibia, 135, 146
Tibia, Tubercle of, 144
Tibialis Anticus, 268
Tibialis Posticus, 278
Tibio-astragaloid Articulation, 153
Tibio-fibular Articulation, 148
Titian and Andreas Vesalius, 14
Toes, 151
Toes, Muscles of, 269
Tongue, 284
Trachea, 284
Transversalis Muscles, 202
Trapezium, 88
Trapezius Muscle, 205
Trapezoid Bone, 88
Trapezoid Ligament, 59
Triangular Fibro-cartilage of Wrist, 79
Triangular Ligament of Hip-Bone, 111
Triceps Muscle, 223, 229
Trochanters, 116, 129
Trochlea, 68, 71
Trunk, Muscles of, 192
U
Ulna, 69, 77
Unciform Bone, 88
V
Vasti Muscles, 260
Vertebra, 29
Vertebra Prominens, 33
Vertebral Column, 27
Vertebral Furrow, 37
Vesalius, Andreas, 14
Vinci, Leonardo da, 13, 295
W
Weeping, Muscle of, 328
Windpipe, 284
Wrist, 87
Wrist Joint, 89
Wrist, Muscles of, 239
X
Xiphoid Cartilage, 42
Y
=Y=-shaped Ligament of Bigelow, 119
Z
Zona Circularis, 119
Zygomatic Arch, 169, 176
Zygomatic Muscles, 324
Zygomatic Process, 169, 176
PRINTED BY CASSELL AND COMPANY, LIMITED, LA BELLE SAUVAGE, LONDON,
E.C.4 15719
FOOTNOTES:
[1] P. N. Gerdy: “Anatomy of the Forms of the Human Body for Painting,
Sculpture, and Surgery.” Paris, 1829.
[2] It is not always thus abroad. Thus in Germany there is the work
of E. Harless (“Lehrbuch der Plastischen Anatomie für Akademische
Anstalten.” Stuttgart, 1876: 2nd edit.).
[3] We must look for other reasons than ignorance or indifference to
explain the fixed scapulæ in pre-Phidian sculpture, or the exaggerated
forms given to the extensor brevis of the foot and other muscles. This
qualification is necessary to this general statement.--ED.
[4] See Ludwig Choulant. _Gesichte und Bibliographie des Anatomischen
Abbildungen._ Leipzig: 1852. (A very curious work wherein is found
much information respecting the connection of anatomy with the plastic
arts.)
[5] Seroux d’Agincourt. _History of Art by its Monuments._ Paris:
1811. Vol. i., p. 177.
[6] Pierre Camper. “Dissertations sur les différences rúlles que
présentent les traits du visage chez les hommes de différents pays et
de différent âges.” (Œuvres posthumes. Paris, 1786.)
[7] See especially; _Conférences sur l’expression des differents
charactères des passions_, Paris, 1667. (These essays have been
reprinted in the edition of Lavater, by Moreau. Vol. ix., 1820.)
[8] _The Anatomy and Physiology of Expression_ (3rd edition, 1884,
published after the death of Sir Charles Bell, and containing his last
corrections.)
[9] The edition to consult is that issued in 1820, in ten volumes, by
Moreau.
[10] Charles Darwin. _The Expression of the Emotions in Man and in
Animals._
[11] Albert Lemoine: _De la Physionomie et de la Parole_. Paris,
1865. Pierre Gratiolet: _De la Physionomie et des Mouvements
d’Expression_. Paris, 1865. Piderit: _Wissenschaftliches System
der Mimik und Physiognomik_. 1867.
Transcriber’s Notes:
1. Obvious printers’, punctuation and spelling errors have been
corrected silently.
2. Some hyphenated and non-hyphenated versions of the same words have
been retained as in the original.
3. Italics are shown as _xxx_.