DUVAL’S ARTISTIC
ANATOMY.
Completely Revised
with additional Original Illustrations.
Edited and Amplified by
A. MELVILLE PATERSON, M.D.
LATE DERBY PROFESSOR OF ANATOMY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL
[Illustration]
FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY
New York and London
First published _September_ 1884
_Reprinted_ 1885, 1888, 1890, 1891, 1892, 1894, 1896, 1898, 1899,
1901, 1903, 1904
Revised and Enlarged Edition 1905. _Reprinted_ 1907, 1911, 1914,
1916, 1919
PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION
Few words of preface are needed here. The preface of the original
edition still holds good, and sufficiently defines the aims and scope
of the book. The first object aimed at is to facilitate the study of
artistic anatomy by the demonstration of the meaning of the appearances
presented by the various parts of the body. Incidentally it is hoped
that through close study the powers of observation will be quickened.
By a simple narration of the structure of the body and its mechanism,
particularly in relation to surface forms, it is hoped that the student
of art may correctly and intelligently appreciate the why and wherefore
of the parts which he is called upon to paint or model.
One would reiterate and emphasise the necessity of two additional
aids to this end. In his studies the student should have and use the
opportunity of seeing and handling the separate bones and also an
articulated skeleton; and where possible, he should have access to a
fully equipped anatomical museum. He should further take advantage
of all means of studying on the living model--on himself, on other
models--and in casts, the movements, attitudes, and gestures of the
body, and the resulting surface forms. By these two studies it becomes
possible to correlate properly the superficial appearances with the
deeper structures, such as bones, joints, and muscles, which are mainly
responsible for the characteristic features presented in the living
state.
I have to express my indebtedness to my friend Dr. Thurstan Holland
for the radiograph (Fig. 25, p. 80) specially prepared by him for this
work; and to the publisher of Cunningham’s Text Book of Anatomy for
permission to use the figure (p. 315) of the muscles of expression.
A. M. P.
_Liverpool_, _July_, 1905.
AUTHOR’S PREFACE
This little work is an epitome of a course of lectures which for about
ten years I had the honour of delivering at the École des Beaux-Arts.
If during that time I have arrived at a right understanding of the
teachings of anatomy, I owe it to the great interest taken in the
subject by my listeners of all ages; and my first duty is to thank
them for their free interchange of ideas with me, thus enabling me
to understand their requirements and the mode of satisfying them.
But if the mode of exposition I have adopted is to be rendered clear
to a constantly renewed audience, I must, in publishing this work,
first explain to the reader how the lectures are to be used, and the
principles which guided me in their production.
This summary of anatomy is intended for those artists who, having
commenced their special studies, have drawn the human form either from
the antique or from the living model--who, in a word, have already what
may be termed a general idea of forms, attitudes, and movements. It
is intended to furnish them with a scientific notion of those forms,
attitudes, and movements. Thus it is far less a description of the
forms of a particular region than the anatomical explanation of those
forms, and of their modifications in a state of repose or movement,
that we have in view. That is why, instead of proceeding from the
surface to the deeper organs and to the skeleton, we take the latter as
the starting-point of our studies. In this way alone can we determine
the laws which govern the movements of the adjacent segments of the
limbs upon each other, and the movements of the limbs with regard to
the trunk, as also the reciprocal action of these segments towards each
other and in relation to the whole body.
When to these fundamental notions is added a knowledge of the muscular
masses which move these bones, the artist will at once be enabled to
analyse through the skin, as through a transparent veil, the action of
the parts which produce the various forms with their infinite variety
of character and movement.
This method of teaching, which may be said to proceed by synthesis,
differs from that followed by the generality of works on this
subject--books which treat by analysis. We make special allusion to the
treatise of Gerdy,[1] which is about the most careful work on plastic
anatomy yet published, but which errs in a somewhat too lengthy
description of external form, whilst sufficient space is not devoted
to explaining the anatomical reasons of those forms. On the other
hand, the remaining anatomical works in the hands of the students in
our art schools generally comprise a volume of text and an illustrated
atlas.[2] Under these conditions, may I be allowed to remark, somewhat
severely, it may be, that our young artists study the atlas by copying
and re-copying the plates, but do not read the text? Thus it will be
understood why, in this work, a different method has been pursued;
and the fact of the plates being intermixed with the text, and in
such a way that they cannot well be understood without the aid of the
accompanying pages, will in all probability result in the student
thoroughly and carefully perusing the text.
Passing on to the manner of using the present work, we must acknowledge
that reading anatomical details is at first dry; it will always be
so, unless proceeded with in a simple and systematic manner. In the
oral courses, the lecturer, handling the objects, and aided by his
improvised drawings on the blackboard, can make the most complex parts
interesting; and by adroit repetitions and varied illustrations, fix
the attention and render the subject comprehensible, whereas it is
quite different in a written description. In this case it is the reader
who must animate the text for himself by examining and manipulating the
parts needful for the elucidation of the descriptions. For this purpose
a skeleton and a good plaster cast will suffice. On the cast, with the
aid of the plates which accompany the text, it will be easy to follow
the course of the muscles; and in this way alone will the study of them
become profitable, the student being enabled to examine the model on
different sides. By handling the bones, by placing the articulating
surfaces in contact, the dry descriptions of the mechanism of the
joints will take a tangible form, and will henceforth remain impressed
on the memory. For example, notwithstanding our diagrams of the
movements of pronation and supination, it is only by handling the bones
of the forearm that the student will be enabled to fully appreciate the
marvellous mechanism by which the rotation of the radius round the ulna
is effected, allowing the hand to present alternately its palmar and
dorsal surface; and the same is the case in regard to the skeleton of
the foot and head, and the movements of the lower jaw, &c.
The artist will find in this book some pages devoted to the
_facial angle_, to the forms of the head, _brachycephalic_ and
_dolichocephalic_ heads, and to some other questions of anthropology,
and will doubtless thank us for having considered here ideas which are
daily becoming familiar to the general public.
Our only regret concerning these anthropological studies is that the
limits of this volume did not permit us to go deeper into the teachings
of the anthropological laboratory, the direction of which was confided
to me after the loss of our illustrious master, Broca.
I take this opportunity of expressing my gratitude to my excellent
master, Professor Sappey, who allowed me to borrow from his
magnificent treatise on anatomy the figures on osteology and myology
which constitute the chief merit of this work; and to my friend and
colleague, E. Cuyer, whose skilful pencil reproduced the figures from
the photographic atlas of Duchenne, as well as the two illustrations of
the Gladiator, and the sundry diagrammatic drawings which complete the
theoretical explanations of the text.
M. DUVAL.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I. INTRODUCTION TO THE REVISED EDITION 1
II. INTRODUCTION.--PLASTIC ANATOMY: ITS HISTORY,
IMPORTANCE, AND OBJECTS--ORDER OF THESE
STUDIES--DIVISION OF SUBJECT 7
First Part.--THE SKELETON, ARTICULATIONS,
PROPORTIONS.
III. OSTEOLOGY AND ARTHROLOGY IN GENERAL--NOMENCLATURE
--VERTEBRAL COLUMN 19
IV. SKELETON OF THE TRUNK (THORAX)--STERNUM--RIBS--THORAX
AS A WHOLE 41
V. SKELETON OF SHOULDER--CLAVICLE--SCAPULA--HEAD
OF HUMERUS--SHOULDER JOINT 55
VI. HUMERUS AND ELBOW JOINT 67
VII. SKELETON OF FORE-ARM--RADIUS AND ULNA--MOVEMENTS
OF PRONATION AND SUPINATION 77
VIII. SKELETON OF THE HAND--WRIST (CARPUS)--HAND AND
FINGERS (METACARPAL BONES AND PHALANGES)--PROPORTIONS
OF THE UPPER LIMB--EGYPTIAN CANON--BRACHIAL INDEX 87
IX. SKELETON OF THE HIPS--PELVIS (ILIAC BONES AND
SACRUM)--THE PELVIS ACCORDING TO SEX 103
X. THE FEMUR AND THE ARTICULATIONS OF THE HIPS--PROPORTIONS
OF THE HIPS AND SHOULDERS 116
XI. THE FEMUR AND THE ARTICULATION OF THE KNEE JOINT;
THE SHAPE OF THE REGION OF THE KNEE 131
XII. SKELETON OF THE LEG: TIBIA AND FIBULA, THE MALLEOLI
OR ANKLES--GENERAL VIEW OF THE SKELETON OF THE FOOT;
TIBIO-TARSAL ARTICULATION 146
XIII. SKELETON OF THE FOOT; TARSUS; METATARSUS; TOES AND
FINGERS--PROPORTIONS OF THE LOWER LIMB--THE FOOT
AS A COMMON MEASURE 155
XIV. SKELETON OF THE HEAD: SKULL (OCCIPITAL, PARIETAL,
FRONTAL, TEMPORAL BONES); SHAPES OF THE SKULL
(DOLICOCEPHALIC AND BRACHYCEPHALIC HEADS) 164
XV. SKELETON OF THE FACE: THE ORBITAL CAVITIES; LOWER
JAW; TEETH; FACIAL ANGLE OF CAMPER 173
Second Part.--MYOLOGY.
XVI. OF THE MUSCLES IN GENERAL--MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK:
ANTERIOR REGION (PECTORALIS MAJOR; THE OBLIQUE
AND RECTI MUSCLES OF THE ABDOMEN) 189
XVII. MUSCLES OF THE BACK: TRAPEZIUS, LATISSIMUS DORSI,
AND TERES MAJOR MUSCLES 205
XVIII. MUSCLES OF THE SHOULDER: DELTOID: SERRATUS MAGNUS;
THE HOLLOW AND SHAPE OF THE ARM-PIT 215
XIX. MUSCLES OF THE ARM: BICEPS; CORACO-BRACHIALIS:
BRACHIALIS ANTICUS; TRICEPS; SHAPE OF THE ARM 224
XX. MUSCLES OF THE FORE-ARM AND HAND: THE ANTERIOR,
EXTERNAL, AND POSTERIOR SUPERFICIAL MUSCLES 232
XXI. MUSCLES OF THE FORE-ARM AND HAND (_continued_):
THE DEEP POSTERIOR MUSCLES OF THE FORE-ARM
(ANATOMICAL SNUFF-BOX); MUSCLES OF THE HAND 244
XXII. MUSCLES OF THE PELVIS; THE GLUTEAL MUSCLES; FASCIA
LATA; MUSCLES OF THE THIGH; SARTORIUS, QUADRICEPS,
ADDUCTORS, &C. 252
XXIII. MUSCLES OF THE LEG; TENDO ACHILLIS; MUSCLES OF THE
FOOT 268
XXIV. MUSCLES OF THE NECK: STERNO-CLEIDO-MASTOID,
INFRA-HYOID, AND SUPRA-HYOID MUSCLES 281
XXV. MUSCLES OF THE HEAD; MUSCLES OF MASTICATION; MUSCLES
OF EXPRESSION: HISTORY (LEONARDO DA VINCI; HUMBERT
DE SUPERVILLE; DUCHENNE OF BOULOGNE, AND DARWIN) 291
XXVI. MUSCLES OF EXPRESSION; POSSIBLE AND IMPOSSIBLE
COMBINATIONS OF CERTAIN CONTRACTIONS OF THE MUSCLES
OF THE FACE 310
DUVAL’S
ARTISTIC ANATOMY
ARTISTIC ANATOMY
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTION TO THE REVISED EDITION.
In offering instruction in anatomy to artists, one feels compelled
at the outset to attempt an answer to the question: Of what use is
anatomy, scientifically considered, in the training of the artist?
The artist requires to know his technique, just as an architect or an
engineer needs to start with a knowledge of his materials.
Looking backward, we see that science and art have ever progressed side
by side. The history of Egypt, of Greece, of the Renaissance, shows
glorious traditions of art, along with a full development of learning
and philosophy. The advancement of science and of art has always
occurred simultaneously, and there never has been a time when they have
been divorced from one another.
This is _par excellence_ the age of technical education. There
is no questioning the importance of science, or the aid the arts
have received from it. We see it in architecture, in the influence
of terra-cotta and steel frames; and in art, in the introduction of
aniline colours.
Painting and sculpture are the earliest of the arts, and have produced
some of the most cherished monuments of history; and originally the
chief object portrayed was the human form, in action or repose.
Let us for a moment consider to what extent art has been indebted to
anatomy in the production of the masterpieces of the past.
1. EGYPT.--Egypt presents the first great School of Art, as of letters
and philosophy, and from Egypt knowledge and culture flowed to Greece
and Italy.
The vestiges of Egyptian art extant to-day comprise for the most part
statues--some of them portraits--coins, sculpture (in low relief),
and flat, painted outlines. As a rule, the representations of the
human form pretend to no exact representation of detail of form
or expression, and for the most part are executed in a formal and
stereotyped fashion.
The amount of anatomical knowledge demanded by the art of Egypt could
obviously be acquired by direct observation of the nude or semi-nude
figures of the living. The history of Egypt, profoundly interesting
from all points of view, is of special interest to the anatomist, and
centres round the mode of treatment of the dead.
Ascribed usually to a belief in the immortality of the soul, the
ceremonial treatment of the body after death was elaborate, and
essentially religious. The body was regarded as sacred, and the
process of embalming was a religious rite, entrusted to a band of
the priesthood--Charhebs or Paraschistes--and no greater detail of
anatomical examination was permitted than was deemed necessary for
the proper preservation of the body. This band of the priesthood was
moreover shunned and outcast, and yet with all these disadvantages some
knowledge of anatomical structure must have been obtained.
It was only later, when Greek influence became felt, that a study
of anatomy arose in the Medical School of Alexandria. Egypt was the
nursing mother of medical teaching, and Alexandria was the first
great medical school. Erasistratus (B.C. 285) was the first
great anatomist, and he utilised condemned criminals for dissection.
Herophilus, a Jew, is said to have dissected 600 bodies.
2. GREECE AND ROME.--The historical importance of Egyptian art and the
Alexandrine School of Anatomy lies in the influence which they exerted
upon the culture of Greece and Italy.
Science and art were introduced directly into Greece and Italy
from Egypt. Anatomical knowledge in Greece begins with Hippocrates
(B.C. 400), who studied in Egypt under Democritus of Abdara.
Galen, later (A.D. 131), the great Roman physician, was a
Greek by birth, and was taught his anatomy by Heraclianus at
Alexandria.
Art in those days had ideals. Its aims were the perpetuation of the
godlike, the heroic, the representation of perfect beauty and manly
strength. Every reproduction was required to be, if possible, more
beautiful than the original--virtually, as Lessing says, a law against
caricature. “By no people,” says Winckelmann, “was beauty so highly
esteemed as by the Greeks.”
Moreover, the Greek artist was surrounded by a crowd of witnesses,
in the masterpieces of sculpture, and in the living active forms
of perfect manhood and womanhood. In the games there were ample
opportunities for the study of the nude; and every evanescent, subtle
movement could be noticed of the lithe and supple frame of the athlete.
Marked attention was given to physical culture; clothing was light,
movements free, so that the environment was perfect for the purposes of
the sculptor or figure-painter. Prizes were given for beauty, and the
artists were the judges.
The work of the artistic anatomist of those days was superficial in a
double sense. Cremation was the usual mode of burial, the anatomist
dissected apes, and beyond an occasional opportunity of handling human
bones, little exact anatomical knowledge was available. But from the
artist’s point of view all the anatomy they needed was before their
eyes. The best models procurable were before them; and an art that in
some respects is perfect owes nothing to the science of anatomy.
3. THE ART OF THE RENAISSANCE.--Egyptian art shows knowledge of form;
Greco-Roman art, knowledge of form and proportion; the art of the
Renaissance reaches a higher platform, in its portrayal of movement and
the expression of emotion.
Three factors combined to give the impetus to art at the time of the
revival of learning. In 1315 Mondino di Luzzi made the first public
demonstration of the anatomy of the human body. In 1400–1420 the
process of wood-engraving, and subsequently the art of printing, were
invented. Linked with these two facts, and with the general advance
of learning, science, and art, was the great religious revival of
that period. The religious sentiment gave the keynote to the artistic
pre-eminence of the old masters. Their themes were great, and the
result was a grandeur and a power that no merely decorative or
realistic school can ever attain.
In the 15th and 16th centuries, artists and anatomists are constantly
found in association as fellow-workers and as personal friends. The
great work of Andreas Vesalius on Anatomy was illustrated in an
exact and artistic manner by Jan van Calcker, Titian’s favourite
pupil. Leonardo da Vinci and Della Torre; Michael Angelo and Colombo;
Benvenuto Cellini and Da Carpi; and other names might be cited to show
the close relations of the artists and anatomists of those days.
There is little doubt that the old masters seized every opportunity of
becoming acquainted with anatomical structure. Vasari used to advise
his pupils to study “the antique, the nude, and dissections from
nature.” Michael Angelo was in the habit of first sketching his figures
in the nude condition, and afterwards clothing them with the necessary
drapery. Leonardo da Vinci has left few complete pictures; but there
are numerous sketches in existence (notably at Milan) in which he has
drawn with precision, dissections--_e.g._, of the knee joint, with
bones, ligaments, and muscles in proper position. Ruskin says of him:
“We have in this great master a proof of the manner in which genius
submits to labour in order to attain perfection.”
4. MODERN ART.--For many reasons modern art is more dependent
than ever upon anatomical knowledge. Not to dwell upon the ennobling
power of religious feeling--notably absent from modern art--the artist
of the present day suffers from the plutocratic conditions of modern
life, the inartistic fashions of modern dress, and the difficulty of
obtaining accurate and well-formed human models; and is compelled to
depend more and more upon a scientific knowledge of anatomy.
Among the old masters there is often an excessive exhibition of
anatomical structure, and this is liable to occur even more in some of
the work of modern artists. A little knowledge is a dangerous thing;
and it is of supreme importance that the anatomical knowledge used
by the painter or sculptor should be properly applied, so that form,
proportion, contour, and expression may all have equal value.
It is too common, unfortunately, for present-day models to be
disproportionate in form and deficient in muscular development, and the
mistakes of nature are too often reproduced, in the form of defects or
exaggerations, in modern sculpture and pictures. The student should
seize every opportunity of studying the well-developed living nude form
in action in order to obtain an adequate idea of the pattern which he
desires to copy.