CONDENSERS
Charge. A conducting body insulated from all other bodies will
receive and hold a certain amount of electricity (a charge), if
subjected to an electrical potential. Thus, referring to Fig. 119, if
a metal plate, insulated from other bodies, be connected with, say,
the positive pole of a battery, the negative pole of which is
grounded, a current will flow into the plate until the plate is raised
to the same potential as that of the battery pole to which it is
connected. The amount of electricity that will flow into the plate
will depend, other things being equal, on the potential of the source
from which it is charged; in fact, it is proportional to the potential
of the source from which it is charged. This amount of electricity is
a measure of the capacity of the plate, just as the amount of water
that a bath-tub will hold is a measure of the capacity of the
bath-tub.
Capacity. Instead of measuring the amount of electricity by the
quart or pound, as in the case of material things, the unit of
electrical quantity is the _coulomb_. The unit of capacity of an
insulated conductor is the _farad_, and a given insulated conductor is
said to have unit capacity, that is, the capacity of one farad, when
it will receive a charge of one coulomb of electricity at a potential
of one volt.
Referring to Fig. 119, the potential of the negative terminal of the
battery may be said to be zero, since it is connected to the earth. If
the battery shown be supposed to have exactly one volt potential, then
the plate would be said to have the capacity of one farad if one
coulomb of electricity flowed from the battery to the plate before the
plate was raised to the same potential as that of the positive pole,
that is, to a potential of one volt above the potential of the earth;
it being assumed that the plate was also at zero potential before the
connection was made. Another conception of this quantity may be had by
remembering that a coulomb is such a quantity of current as will
result from one ampere flowing one second.
The capacity of a conductor depends, among other things, on its area.
If the plate of Fig. 119 should be made twice as large in area, other
things remaining the same, it would have twice the capacity. But there
are other factors governing the capacity of a conductor. Consider the
diagram of Fig. 120, which is supposed to represent two such plates as
are shown in Fig. 119, placed opposite each other and connected
respectively with the positive and the negative poles of the battery.
When the connection between the plates and the battery is made, the
two plates become charged to a difference of potential equal to the
electromotive force of the battery. In order to obtain these charges,
assume that the plates were each at zero potential before the
connection was made; then current flows from the battery into the
plates until they each assume the potential of the corresponding
battery terminal. If the two plates be brought closer together, it
will be found that more current will now flow into each of them,
although the difference of potential between the two plates must
obviously remain the same, since each of them is still connected to
the battery.
[Illustration: Fig. 119. Condenser Plate]
Theory. Due to the proximity of the plates, the positive electricity
on plate _A_ is drawn by the negative charge on plate _B_ towards
plate _B_, and likewise the negative electricity on plate _B_ is drawn
to the side towards plate _A_ by the positive charge on that plate.
These two charges so drawn towards each other will, so to speak, bind
each other, and they are referred to as _bound charges_. The charge on
the right-hand side of plate _A_ and on the left-hand side of plate
_B_ will, however, be free charges, since there is nothing to attract
them, and these are, therefore, neutralized by a further flow of
electricity from the battery to the plate.
[Illustration: Fig. 120. Theory of Condenser]
Obviously, the closer together the plates are the stronger will be the
attractive influence of the two charges on each other. From this it
follows that in the case of plate _A_, when the two plates are being
moved closer together, more positive electricity will flow into plate
_A_ to neutralize the increasing free negative charges on the
right-hand side of the plate. As the plates are moved closer together
still, a new distribution of charges will take place, resulting in
more positive electricity flowing into plate _A_ and more negative
electricity flowing into plate _B_. The closer proximity of the
plates, therefore, increases the capacity of the plates for holding
charges, due to the increased inductive action across the dielectric
separating the plates.
Condenser Defined. A condenser is a device consisting of two
adjacent plates of conducting material, separated by an insulating
material, called a _dielectric_. The purpose is to increase by the
proximity of the plates, each to the other, the amount of electricity
which each plate will receive and hold when subjected to a given
potential.
Dielectric. We have already seen that the capacity of a condenser
depends upon the area of its plates, and also upon their distance
apart. There is still another factor on which the capacity of a
condenser depends, _i.e._, on the character of the insulating medium
separating its plates. The inductive action which takes place between
a charged conductor and other conductors nearby it, as between plate
_A_ and plate _B_ of Fig. 120, is called _electrostatic induction_,
and it plays an important part in telephony. It is found that the
ability of a given charged conductor to induce charges on other
neighboring conductors varies largely with the insulating medium or
dielectric that separates them. This quality of a dielectric, by which
it enables inductive action to take place between two separated
conductors, is called _inductive capacity_. Usually this quality of
dielectrics is measured in terms of the same quality in dry air, this
being taken as unity. When so expressed, it is termed _specific
inductive capacity_. To be more accurate the specific inductive
capacity of a dielectric is the ratio between the capacity of a
condenser having that substance as a dielectric, to the capacity of
the same condenser using dry air at zero degrees Centigrade and at a
pressure of 14.7 pounds per square inch as the dielectric. To
illustrate, if two condensers having plates of equal size and equal
distance apart are constructed, one using air as the dielectric and
the other using hard crown glass as the dielectric, the one using
glass will have a capacity of 6.96 times that of the one using air.
From this we say that crown glass has a specific inductive capacity of
6.96.
Various authorities differ rather widely as to the specific inductive
capacity of many common substances. The values given in Table VIII
have been chosen from the Smithsonian Physical Tables.
TABLE VIII
Specific Inductive Capacities
+-----------------------+------------------------+
|DIELECTRIC | REFERRED TO AIR AS 1 |
+-----------------------+------------------------+
|Vacuum | .99941 |
|Hydrogen | .99967 |
|Carbonic Acid | 1.00036 |
|Dry Paper | 1.25 to 1.75 |
|Paraffin | 1.95 to 2.32 |
|Ebonite | 1.9 to 3.48 |
|Sulphur | 2.24 to 3.90 |
|Shellac | 2.95 to 3.73 |
|Gutta-percha | 3.3 to 4.9 |
|Plate Glass | 3.31 to 7.5 |
|Porcelain | 4.38 |
|Mica | 4.6 to 8.0 |
|Glass--Light Flint | 6.61 |
|Glass--Hard Crown | 6.96 |
|Selenium | 10.2 |
+-----------------------+------------------------+
This data is interesting as showing the wide divergence in specific
inductive capacities of various materials, and also showing the wide
divergence in different observations of the same material.
Undoubtedly, this latter is due mainly to the fact that various
materials differ largely in themselves, as in the case of paraffin,
for instance, which exhibits widely different specific inductive
capacities according to the difference in rapidity with which it is
cooled in changing from a liquid to a solid state.
We see then that the capacity of a condenser varies as the area of its
plates, as the specific inductive capacity of the dielectric employed,
and also inversely as the distance between the plates.
Obviously, therefore, in making a condenser of large capacity, it is
important to have as large an area of the plate as possible; to have
them as close together as possible; to have the dielectric a good
insulating medium so that there will be practically no leakage between
the plates; and to have the dielectric of as high a specific inductive
capacity as economy and suitability of material in other respects will
permit.
Dielectric Materials. _Mica_. Of all dielectrics mica is the most
suitable for condensers, since it has very high insulation resistance
and also high specific inductive capacity, and furthermore may be
obtained in very thin sheets. High-grade condensers, such as are used
for measurements and standardization purposes, usually have mica for
the dielectric.
[Illustration: Fig. 121. Rolled Condenser]
_Dry Paper. _The demands of telephonic practice are, however, such as
to require condensers of very cheap construction with large capacity
in a small space. For this purpose thin bond paper, saturated with
paraffin, has been found to be the best dielectric. The conductors in
condensers are almost always of tinfoil, this being an ideal material
on account of its cheapness and its thinness. Before telephony made
such urgent demands for a cheap compact condenser, the customary way
of making them was to lay up alternate sheets of dielectric material,
either of oiled paper or mica and tinfoil, the sheets of tinfoil being
cut somewhat smaller than the sheets of dielectric material in order
that the proper insulation might be secured at the edges. After a
sufficient number of such plates were built up the alternate sheets of
tinfoil were connected together to form one composite plate of the
condenser, while the other sheets were similarly connected together to
form the other plate. Obviously, in this way a very large area of
plates could be secured with a minimum degree of separation.
[Illustration: Fig. 122. Rolled Condenser]
There has been developed for use in telephony, however, and its use
has since extended into other arts requiring condensers, what is
called the _rolled condenser_. This is formed by rolling together in a
flat roll four sheets of thin bond paper, _1_, _2_, _3_, and _4_, and
two somewhat narrower strips of tinfoil, _5_ and _6_, Fig. 121. The
strips of tinfoil and paper are fed on to the roll in continuous
lengths and in such manner that two sheets of paper will lie between
the two strips of tinfoil in all cases. Thin sheet metal terminals _7_
and _8_ are rolled into the condenser as it is being wound, and as
these project beyond the edges of the paper they form convenient
terminals for the condenser after it is finished. After it is rolled,
the roll is boiled in hot paraffin so as to thoroughly impregnate it
and expel all moisture. It is then squeezed in a press and allowed to
cool while under pressure. In this way the surplus paraffin is
expelled and the plates are brought very close together. It then
appears as in Fig. 122. The condenser is now sealed in a metallic
case, usually rectangular in form, and presents the appearance shown
in Fig. 123.
[Illustration: Fig. 123. Rolled Condenser]
A later method of condenser making which has not yet been thoroughly
proven in practice, but which bids fair to produce good results,
varies from the method just described in that a paper is used which in
itself is coated with a very thin conducting material. This conducting
material is of metallic nature and in reality forms a part of the
paper. To form a condenser of this the sheets are merely rolled
together and then boiled in paraffin and compressed as before.
Sizes. The condensers ordinarily used in telephone practice range in
capacity from about 1/4 microfarad to 2 microfarads. When larger
capacities than 2 microfarads are desired, they may be obtained by
connecting several of the smaller size condensers in multiple. Table
IX gives the capacity, shape, and dimensions of a variety of
condensers selected from those regularly on the market.
TABLE IX
Condenser Data
+------------+---------------+---------------------------------+
| | | DIMENSIONS IN INCHES |
| CAPACITY | SHAPE |----------+----------+-----------+
| | | Height | Width | Thickness |
+------------+---------------+----------+----------+-----------+
| 2 m. f. | Rectangular | 9-1/6 | 4-3/4 | 11/16 |
| 1 m. f. | " | 9-1/6 | 4-3/4 | 11/16 |
| 1 m. f. | " | 4-3/4 | 2-3/32 | 13/16 |
| 1/2 m. f. | " | 2-3/4 | 1-1/4 | 3/4 |
| 1 m. f. | " | 4-13/16 | 2-1/32 | 25/32 |
| 1/2 m. f. | " | 4-3/4 | 2-3/32 | 13/16 |
| 3/10 m. f. | " | 4-3/4 | 2-3/32 | 13/16 |
| 1 m. f. | " | 2-3/4 | 3 | l |
+------------+---------------+----------+----------+-----------+
Conventional Symbols. The conventional symbols usually employed to
represent condensers in telephone diagrams are shown in Fig. 124.
These all convey the idea of the adjacent conducting plates separated
by insulating material.
[Illustration: Fig. 124. Condenser Symbols]
Functions. Obviously, when placed in a circuit a condenser offers a
complete barrier to the flow of direct current, since no conducting
path exists between its terminals, the dielectric offering a very high
insulation resistance. If, however, the condenser is connected across
the terminals of a source of alternating current, this current flows
first in one direction and then in the other, the electromotive force
in the circuit increasing from zero to a maximum in one direction, and
then decreasing back to zero and to a maximum in the other direction,
and so on. With a condenser connected so as to be subjected to such
alternating electromotive forces, as the electromotive force begins to
rise the electromotive force at the condenser terminals will also rise
and a current will, therefore, flow into the condenser. When the
electromotive force reaches its maximum, the condenser will have
received its full charge for that potential, and the current flow into
it will cease. When the electromotive force begins to fall, the
condenser can no longer retain its charge and a current will,
therefore, flow out of it. Apparently, therefore, there is a flow of
current through the condenser the same as if it were a conductor.
Means for Assorting Currents. In conclusion, it is obvious that the
telephone engineer has within his reach in the various coils--whether
non-inductive or inductive, or whether having one or several
windings--and in the condenser, a variety of tools by which he may
achieve a great many useful ends in his circuit work. Obviously, the
condenser affords a means for transmitting voice currents or
fluctuating currents, and for excluding steady currents. Likewise the
impedance coil affords a means for readily transmitting steady
currents but practically excluding voice currents or fluctuating
currents. By the use of these very simple devices it is possible to
sift out the voice currents from a circuit containing both steady and
fluctuating currents, or it is possible in the same manner to sift out
the steady currents and to leave the voice currents alone to traverse
the circuit.
Great use is made in the design of telephone circuits of the fact that
the electromagnets, which accomplish the useful mechanical results in
causing the movement of parts, possess the quality of impedance. Thus,
the magnets which operate various signaling relays at the central
office are often used also as impedance coils in portions of the
circuit through which it is desired to have only steady currents pass.
If, on the other hand, it is necessary to place a relay magnet, having
considerable impedance, directly in a talking circuit, the bad effects
of this on the voice currents may be eliminated by shunting this coil
with a condenser, or with a comparatively high non-inductive
resistance. The voice currents will flow around the high impedance of
the relay coil through the condenser or resistance, while the steady
currents, which are the ones which must be depended upon to operate
the relay, are still forced in whole or in part to pass through the
relay coil where they belong.
In a similar way the induction coil affords a means for keeping two
circuits completely isolated so far as the direct flow of current
between them is concerned, and yet of readily transmitting, by
electromagnetic induction, currents from one of these circuits to the
other. Here is a means of isolation so far as direct current is
concerned, with complete communication for alternating current.