The lexicons seem tenacious that a very usual signification of the word
עבד _ebed_ is labour, both as a _noun_ and _verb_; and inasmuch as to
many there may seem some relation between the ideas _slavery_ and
_labour_, we wish to be particular in examining the Hebrew use of the
terms expressive of these ideas. It appears to us that the Hebrew word
יָגַע _yaga_, it simply our idea of labour, more closely than any other
word. Yet this word is never disconnected with the idea _fatigue_ and
_weariness_, and perhaps something of the same character will be
perceived to be attached to our word _labour_. In _Gen._ xxxi. 42, it is
used and translated, “the יְגִיֽעַ _labour_ of my hands.” xxv. 18, “and
when thou wast faint and וְיָגִ֑עַ weary.” 3: “And make not all the
people to תְּיַגַ֥ע _labour_ thither.” xxiv. 13: “And I gave you a land
for which you did not יָגַ֣עְתָּ _labour_.” 2 _Sam._ xvii. 2: “And I
will come upon him while he is יָגֵעַ weary.” _Neh._ v. 13: “So shall
God shake out every man from his house and from his וּמִ֣יגִיע֔וֹ
labour.” _Job_ iii. 17: “And the יְגִ֣יעֵי weary be at rest.” ix. 29:
“If I be wicked, why then אִיגָע֖ labour I in vain.” x. 13: * *
“despised the יְגִ֣יעַ work of thy hands * *.” xxviii. 18: “That which
he יָגָע laboured for shall he restore.” xxxix. 11: * * “Wilt thou leave
thy יְגִיעֶֽךָ֖ labour to him.” 16: * * * “ her יְגִיעָ֣הּ labour is in
vain without fear?” _Ps._ lxix. 4: “They that _hate_ me without a
cause;” the idea is, they that labour to injure, &c. “And their
וִ֜יגִעָם labour unto the locust.” cix. 11: “let the stranger spoil his
יְגִיע֥וֹ labour.” cxxviii. 2: “For thou shalt eat the יְגִ֣יעַ labour
of thy hands.” _Prov._ xxiii. 4: “תִּיגַע֥ _labour_ not to be rich.”
_Eccl._ xii. 12: “Much study is יְגִעַ֥ת weariness to the flesh.” _Isa._
xliii. 22, 23, 24: “But thou hast been יָגַ֥עְתָּ הֽוֹגַעְתִֽיךָ wearied
thee with incense.” “Thou hast הֽוֹגַעְתַּ֖נִי wearied me with thine
iniquities.” xlv. 14: “The יְגִ֨יעַ labour of Egypt.” xlvii. 15: “with
whom thou hast יָגָ֑עַתְּ _laboured_.” lv. 2: “And your וִיגִיֽעֲכֶם֖
_labour_ for that which satisfieth not.” lxv. 23: “They shall not
יִֽגְעוּ֨ labour in vain.” _Jer._ iii. 24: “For shame hath devoured the
יְגִי֥עַ labour.” xx. 5: “And all the יְגִיעָ֖הּ labours thereof.” xlv.
3: “I יָגַעְתִּי _fainted_ in my sighing.” The idea is, my sighing was a
labour of great weariness, &c. _Ezek._ xxiii. 29: “And shall take away
all thy יְגִיעֵךְ _labour_.” _Hag._ i. 11: “And upon all the יְגִי֥עַ
labour of thy hands.” _Mal._ ii. 17: “Ye have הֽוֹגַעְתֶּם֤ wearied the
Lord with your words, yet ye say, Wherein have we הוֹגָ֑עְנוּ wearied
him?” _Eccl._ i. 8: “All things are full of יְגֵעִ֔ים labour.” x. 15:
“The (עָמָל _amal_) _labour_ of the foolish (תִּיגָעֶנּוּ) every one of
them.” The word _labour_ in this sentence is translated from _amal_,
another Hebrew word, which signifies _labour_, but in its signification
is implied the association of the idea _grief_, _sorrow_, &c. The
adjective quality of this word is mental—in _yaga_, it is physical. This
word _amal_ seems to be derived from the Arabic عَملمنࣨ _amelan_, and
from thence the Syriac ܥܰܠܢܵܐ, having nearly the same signification. In
Arabic the signification is put down by Castell, _operator_,
_mercenarius_; and in Syriac, _labore defessus_. It is used in Hebrew as
follows: _Gen._ xli. 51: “And Joseph called the name of his first-born
Manessa; for God, said he, hath made me forget all my עֲמָלִי toil,”
(_labour_, _sorrow_.) The word _manessa_ means to forget, to cause to
forget, &c. _Num._ xxiii. 21: “He hath not beheld עָמָ֖ל _iniquity_ in
Jacob,” _i.e._ labour designed to give trouble, perplexity, or sorrow.
_Deut._ xxvi. 7: “The Lord heard our voice and looked upon our
affliction, and our עֲמָלֵנ֭וּ labour and our oppression.” _Judg._ v.
26: “And her right hand to the workman’s (עֲמֵלִי֑ם _labourer’s_)
hammer.” _Job_ iii. 10: “Nor hid עָ֜מָׄל sorrow from mine eyes.” 20:
“Wherefore is light given unto him that is in לְעָמֵ֣ל _misery_.” iv. 8:
“They that plough iniquity and sow עָמָ֣ל _wickedness_ shall reap the
same.” v. 7: “Yet man is born to לְעָמָ֣לtrouble.” vii. 3: “So I am made
to possess months of vanity, and עָ֝מָל wearisome nights are appointed
to me.” xv. 35: “They conceive עָ֭מָל mischief and bring forth vanity.”
xvi. 2: עָמָ֣ל “Miserable comforters are ye all.” xx. 22: “In the
fulness of his sufficiency he shall be in עָמֵ֣ל _straits_.” But it
should be remembered that the Hebrew copy of Job is itself a
translation. _Ps._ vii. 15: “He made a pit and digged it, and has fallen
into the עָ֜מָׄל _ditch_ (sorrow bringing labour) which he made.” 16:
“His עֲמָ֣לוֹ _mischiefs_ shall return upon his own head.” x. 7: “Under
his tongue is עָמָל mischief and vanity.” 14: “Thou beholdest עָ֘מָ֤ל
_mischief_ and spite.” xxv. 18: “Look upon mine affliction and my
וַֽעֲמָלִ֑י pain, and forgive my sin.” “Yet is their strength עָמָ֣ל
_labour_ and _sorrow_.” cv. 44: “And they inherit the וַֽעֲמַ֖ל _labour_
of the people.” cxxvii. 1: “Except the Lord build the house, they
_labour_ in vain.” _Prov._ xvi. 26: “He that עָֽמְל֣וּ _laboureth_
עָ֣מְׄלָה עָ֭מֵל _Isa._ liii. 11: “He shall see of the מֵעֲמַל _travail_
of his soul,” (labour producing sorrow, &c.) “And that write עָמָל
grievousness which they have prescribed,” (a labour producing sorrow,
&c.) _Jonah_ iv. 10: “Thou hast had pity on the gourd for which thou
hast not עָמַ֥לְתָּ _laboured_.” _Eccl._ i. 3: “What profit hath a man
of all his עֲמָלוֹ _labour_ which he taketh under the sun?” ii. 10: “For
my heart rejoiced in all my עֲמָלִי _labour_.” 11: “And then I looked on
all the work that my hands had wrought, and on all the וּבֶֽעָמָ֖ל
_labour_ that I had שֶֽׁעָמַ֣לְתִי _laboured_.” I hated all my עֲמָלִי
_labour_ which I had עָמֵ֖ל _taken_ (laboured) under the sun.” 19: “Yet
shall he have rule over all my עֲמָלִ֔י _labour_ wherein I have
שֶֽׁעֽמַ֥לְתִּי _laboured_.” 20: “Therefore I went about to cause my
heart to despair of all the הֶ֣עָמָל _labour_ which I שֶׁ֥עָמַ֖לְתִּי
took (laboured) under the sun.” 21: “For there is a man whose
שֶֽׁעֲ֗מָל֛וֹ _labour_ is in wisdom, and in knowledge, and in equity—yet
to a man that hath not עָ֥מַל _laboured_ herein shall he leave it for
his portion.” 22: “For what hath man of all his עֲמָל֔וֹ _labour_ and of
the vexation of his heart, wherein he hath עָמֵ֖ל _laboured_ under the
sun?” iv. 4: “Again I considered all עָמָל _travail_,” (labour and
sorrow.) 8: “Yet there is no end to all his עֲמָל֔וֹ _labour_, neither
saith he, For whom do I עָמֵ֗ל _labour_.” iii. 9: “What profit hath he
that worketh in that wherein he עָמֵ֥ל _laboureth_?” v. 18: “And to
enjoy the good of all his בַּֽעֲמָל֑וֹ _labour_.” vi. 7: “All the עֲמַ֥ל
_labour_ of a man is for his mouth.” ix. 9: “For that is thy portion in
this life and in thy וּבַעֲמָ֣לְךָ֔ _labour_.” x. 15: “The עֲמַ֥ל
_labour_ (_amal_) of the foolish תְּיַגְּעֶ֑נּוּ _wearieth_ every one of them.”
מְלָאכָה֜ _melahkah_ is also quite analogous in its signification to our
word _labour_, insomuch that our word _labour_ may be often used in
translation without impairing the sense. _Gen._ ii. 2: “On the seventh
day God ended his work,” מְלַאכְתּ֖וֹ _labour_. xxxix. 11: “Joseph went
into the house to do his _business_,” (labour.) _Exod._ xx. 9: “And do
all thy _work_,” מְלַאכְתֶּֽךָ 10: “In it thou shalt not do any _work_,”
(labour, מְלָאכָ֜ה.) xxxi. 3: “All manner of _workmanship_,” מְלָאכָֽה.
14: “For whosoever doeth any _work_,” מְלָאכָ֔ה. 15: “Six days may
_work_ מְלָאכָה֒ be done.” _Lev._ xiii. 48: “Of any thing _made_
מְלֶ֥אכֶת of skin,” (done, laboured, manufactured.) _Ezra_ iii. 8: “To
set forward the _work_ of the house.” 9: “To set forward the workman,”
הַמְּלָאכָ֖ה. _Esther_ iii. 9: “And those that have charge of the king’s
_business_,” הַמְּלָאכָ֔ה. ix. 3: “And officers הַמְּלָאכָה֙ of the
king. Without multiplying examples, it may suffice to say, that this
word, as expressive of _labour_, is ever associated with the idea of
particularity, or class of _labour_, _business_, _employment_ or _job_,
without reference to any other adjective quality; and hence it came to
mean a message, or one charged with a message, and is therefore
sometimes used to mean an angel, because they were supposed to be
messengers, charged to do a particular labour; hence, also, applied to a
prophet; and hence, also, the prophet Malachi’s name.
עָשָׂה _Asa_ properly means work or labour, as the result of _making_,
_procreating_, _producing_, _doing_, _acting_, or _performing_, without
any regard to the condition of the agent or actor. _Gen._ i. 7: “God
_made_ וַיַּעַשׂ the firmament.” 16: “God _made_ וַיַּעַשׂ two great
lights.” ii. 2: “God ended his _work_ מְלַאכְתּוֹ which he had _made_,”
עָשָׂ֥ה. This word is also used to express the _result_ of labour in
acquiring slaves and other property generally, as in _Gen._ xii. 5: “All
their substance that they had gathered, and the souls they had gotten in
Haran,” _i. e._ all the property and slaves that they had _laboured_
for, &c. עָשׂ֣וּ. _Exod._ xxxi. 4: “To work in gold and silver.” 5: It
is used with _malabkah_, thus: “to _work_ לַֽעֲשׂ֖וֹת in all manner of
workmanship,” (מְלָאכָֽה malakah.) These two words occur together again
in _Neh._ iv. 15, the iv. 21 of the English text: “So _we laboured_
עֹשִׂ֣ים _in the work_,” בַּמְּלָאכָ֑ה. _Ezek._ xxix. 20: “I have given
him the land of Egypt for his _labour_,” עָ֣שׂוּ. _Exod._ xxx. 25: “And
thou shalt make it (וְעָשִׂ֣יתָ labour it) an oil of holy ointment, an
ointment composed after the art of the apothecary.” Art is here
translated from מַ֥עֲשֵׂ֣ה _maase_, which is another word of very
similar import, and is derived from עָשָה, and expresses the idea of
labour, as of a _thing done_, or _wrought_, a _work_, _deed_, _action_,
_concern_, _business_, _i. e._ a labour emanating from a habit, or an
occupation of business. _Gen._ xliv. 15: “_What deed_ הַמַּעֲשֶׂ֥ה is
this that ye have done?” xlvii. 3: “What is your _occupation_?”
מַּֽעֲשֵׂיכֶ֑ם. _Exod._ xxiii. 16: “And the feast of the harvest, the
firstfruits of thy _labours_ מַֽעֲשֶׂיךָ, which thou hast sown in the
field, and the first of the ingathering, which is the end of the year,
when thou hast gathered in thy _labours_,” מַעֲשֶׂ֖יךָ. _Hag._ ii. 17:
“And I smote you with blasting and with hail in all the _labours_
מַֽעֲשֵׂ֣ה of your hands.” _Hab._ iii. 17: “Although the fig-tree shall
not blossom, neither shall fruit be in the vine, the _labour_ מַֽעֲשֵׂה
of the olive shall fail.”
סֵבֶל _sebel_ is sometimes translated _labour_, but it more often means
something consequent to labour, as the burthen of _labour_ is consequent
to the labour: it is sometimes used to mean the produce of labour, and
hence the Syrian Ephraimitish word סִבֹּלֶה _siboleth_, which is said to
mean an ear of corn, because an ear of corn was the produce of labour.
Hence, it is sometimes used to mean prolific and fruitful, because the
produce of labour is _prolific and fruitful_; and because to sustain a
burthen, as of labour, carries with it the idea of physical ability and
strength, it is used in the sense of bearing up, to elevate, to deliver
from, &c. A few instances of its use will suffice. _Exod._ i. 11: “To
afflict them with their _burthens_,” בְּסִבְלֹתָ֑ם. _Ps._ lxxxi. 7: “I
delivered מִסֶּ֣בֶל thee.” cxliv. 14: “That our oxen may be strong to
_labour_,” מְֽסֻבָּ֫לִים. The Hebrews had thus several ways by which
they could express the idea _labour_ accompanied with different
adjective qualities. So the word עֶבֶד _ebed_ may express the idea
_labour_; but when so, it is always _slave-labour_, the labour peculiar
to, or performed by a slave as in _Isa._ xix. 9: “They that _work_
עֹֽבְדֵ֥י in fine flax.” The meaning is, they that _labour_ or slave
themselves in fine flax. The working in fine flax was _slave-labour_. If
it were good English for us to say, _they that slave in fine flax_, it
would be exactly what the prophet did say in this passage. So in _Exod._
xx. 9: “Six days shalt thou _labour_ and _do all thy work_.” Here labour
is translated from _ebed_ תַּ֥עֲבֹ֔ד֮, as a verb “_do_” is from
וְעָשִ֣֭יתָ and “_work_” from מְלַאבְתְ֥ךָ. The literal meaning of this
is—Six days shalt thou slave and labour all thy work;—or, more
plainly—Six days shalt thou slave thyself (_i.e._ do slave labour) and
וְעָשִ֣֭יתָ _labour_, or make all thy מְלַאבְתְ֥ךָ particular,
accustomed, professional or usual work or labour. This command is
addressed to all mankind, and the propriety of it, as here explained,
will be seen in the succeeding verse. “But the seventh day is the
Sabbath of the Lord thy God; in it thou shalt not do תַֽעֲשֶׂ֣ה _any
work_ כָל־מְלָאכָ֜ה֡ thou nor thy son, nor thy daughter, nor thy
man-servant, (עַבְדְּךָ, _ebeddeka_, _slave_.)” So, then, if this
particular word had not been used, we could not have said that the
command applied to slaves.
But the Hebrews had a way of expressing the idea of labour alone,
associated with the idea of industry as its adjective quality: Should I
say; By your hands you shall be sustained, the idea would be that you
shall be sustained by your labour; that is, your personal industry. So
the Hebrews used the words עַל־יָד _el yod_, which means “_by hand_,”
and is used to mean labour. Thus, _Prov._ xiii. 11: “He that gathereth
by vanity shall be diminished, but he that gathereth by _labour_
(עַל־יָ֣ד _by hand_, _i. e._ by his own industry) shall increase.” Is it
not clear, then, that the Hebrews stood in no need of the word _ebed_ to
mean labour generally. They did use it to mean slave-labour, and
slave-labour alone, as we shall more fully see hereafter.
This language enabled its writers to express the distinctive shades of
meaning—those adjective qualities associated with the idea _labour_.
These facts may appear to the mere English scholar as matters of no
importance—not worth investigation. But, touching the Hebrew use of this
word עבד _ebed_ and its compounds, as it affects and expresses the
institution of slavery, amid the eras of Divine inspiration, we hope to
be sustained in the consideration of its very great importance.
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