Transcriber’s Notes:
Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_), and text
enclosed by equal signs is in bold (=bold=).
Additional Transcriber’s Notes are at the end.
* * * * *
The History Teacher’s Magazine
Volume I.
Number 2.
PHILADELPHIA, OCTOBER, 1909.
$1.00 a year
15 cents a copy
CONTENTS.
PAGE
GAIN, LOSS AND PROBLEM IN RECENT HISTORY TEACHING, by Prof.
William MacDonald 23
TRAINING THE HISTORY TEACHER IN THE ORGANIZATION OF HIS FIELD
OF STUDY, by Prof. N. M. Trenholme 24
INSTRUCTION IN AMERICAN GOVERNMENT IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS, by
Prof. William A. Schaper 26
LESSONS DRAWN FROM THE PAPERS OF HISTORY EXAMINATION
CANDIDATES, by Elizabeth Briggs 27
THE STUDY OF WESTERN HISTORY IN OUR SCHOOLS, by Prof. Clarence
W. Alvord 28
THE NEWEST STATE ASSOCIATION AND AN OLDER ONE, by H. W.
Edwards and Prof. Eleanor L. Lord 30
AN ANCIENT HISTORY CHARACTER SOCIAL, by Mary North 31
EDITORIAL 32
EUROPEAN HISTORY IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL, by Daniel C.
Knowlton 33
ENGLISH HISTORY IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL, by C. B. Newton 34
ROBINSON AND BEARD’S “DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN EUROPE,” reviewed
by Prof. S. B. Fay 35
AMERICAN HISTORY IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL, by Arthur M. Wolfson 36
JAMES AND SANFORD’S NEW TEXTBOOK ON AMERICAN HISTORY, reviewed
by John Sharpless Fox 37
ANCIENT HISTORY IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL, by William Fairley 38
FOWLER’S “SOCIAL LIFE AT ROME,” reviewed by Prof. Arthur C.
Howland 39
HISTORY IN THE GRADES--THE COLUMBUS LESSON, by Armand J.
Gerson 40
REPORTS FROM THE HISTORICAL FIELD, edited by Walter H. Cushing:
The Colorado Movement; Raising the Standard in Louisiana;
the North Central Association; Syllabus in Civil Government;
Report of the Committee of Eight; the New England Association;
Bibliographies; Exchange of Professors in Summer Schools 41
CORRESPONDENCE 44
Published monthly, except July and August, by McKinley Publishing Co.,
Philadelphia, Pa.
Copyright, 1909, McKinley Publishing Co.
* * * * *
Good Words from Correspondents Concerning the Magazine
“The first number of the ‘Magazine’ is exceedingly interesting, and the
program for the October number promises just as good a one.” J. C. E.
“I am delighted with it. There is a great field for just such a
magazine.... If future numbers are as good as the first, I shall have
spent few dollars to as good advantage.” R. O. H.
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helpful in my work.” M. S.
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longfelt need.” M. E. E.
“The copy of ‘The History Teacher’s Magazine’ reached me this morning,
and I am very much interested in and pleased with it. I wish you all
success in the undertaking.” M. M.
“After looking carefully over sample copy of ‘The History Teacher’s
Magazine,’ I find that I can use it to a great advantage in many
instances. It is the only magazine I have ever seen that dealt with the
subject of History from the teacher’s standpoint.” F. F. M.
“I have received ‘The History Teacher’s Magazine,’ and like it very
much.” L. R. H.
“‘The History Teacher’s Magazine’ is to the point. It will meet a very
real need.
“I am glad that the problems of college history teaching will find
space in the magazine. No teachers need more to exchange ideas at this
time than do college history teachers.” R. W. K.
“‘The History Teacher’s Magazine’ is excellent, and I have every reason
to believe that the following numbers will be just as good. This sort
of magazine is just what is needed by every teacher of history.” H. C.
S.
“I am delighted with your first copy of ‘The History Teacher’s
Magazine.’ It has long been needed. Every teacher of history will
welcome it.” R. R.
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teacher, and I find in it the needed help.” N. E. S.
“Allow me to congratulate you upon the idea of the magazine and upon
the excellent first issue. It ought to find a welcome everywhere.” C.
L. W.
“The first number of ‘The History Teacher’s Magazine’ reached me in due
course. Allow me to congratulate you on its practical value. I read
every word in it, and only wished there was more to be read. It will do
an untold good to teachers of history, young and old alike. For several
years I have been seeking just such a magazine, and am much gratified
now to find one that will meet so universal a need.” G. B. B.
* * * * *
Of Interest to Teachers of History and Geography in Schools, Academies
and Colleges are
THE McKINLEY OUTLINE MAPS
The series now comprises
OUTLINE WALL MAPS
of the Continents, the United States and its subdivisions, of Europe
and its several countries, of Palestine and of other parts suitable
for the study of geography and secular or church history. The maps are
printed upon strong paper, about 32 by 44 inches in size, and cost
singly only twenty cents each (carriage 10 cents each); in quantities
the price is as low as fifteen cents each (carriage 2 cents each).
Especially adapted for use in geography classes in elementary schools,
and in history classes in high schools, preparatory schools, and
colleges.
OUTLINE DESK MAPS
Three sizes of skeleton and outline maps for use by students in
geography or history classes. Sold in any desired quantity; small size
(5 by 7 inches), 35 cents a hundred; large size (8 by 10 inches), 50
cents a hundred; double size (10 by 15 inches), 85 cents a hundred. The
list includes the Continents, the United States, sections of the United
States and of Europe, and many maps for the study of ancient, medieval,
and church history.
OUTLINE ATLASES AND NOTEBOOKS
Composed of outline maps bound together to be filled in in colors by
students; arranged for nine periods of history.
Samples cheerfully furnished upon application by mail to
McKINLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY, PHILADELPHIA, PA.
The History Teacher’s Magazine
Volume I.
Number 2.
PHILADELPHIA, OCTOBER, 1909.
$1.00 a year
15 cents a copy
Gain, Loss, and Problem in Recent History Teaching
BY PROFESSOR WILLIAM MACDONALD, OF BROWN UNIVERSITY.
The newer methods of history teaching which were authoritatively set
forth for the first time in this country in the report of the Committee
of Seven of the American Historical Association, and which during the
past ten years have increasingly made their way in the better secondary
schools, have had for their aim the emancipation of history from the
bondage of mere mechanical routine, the clearer discrimination of
essentials and non-essentials, the use of comparison and judgment
as well as of memory in the mastery of historical knowledge, the
systematic exploration of books other than the textbook, and the
intelligent correlation of the subject with literature, art, economics,
geography, and other kindred fields.
That there should have been criticism, not seldom unfriendly, of the
new methods and their results is only natural. The new procedure had to
be learned by teachers as well as by pupils, and its application to the
conditions of particular schools determined by careful study of local
possibilities and needs. What was possible in a large and generously
supported school was not equally attainable in a small and poor one;
and it was inevitable that mistakes should be made even by those most
interested in making the new work a success. No more in history than
in language or mathematics, both of which have undergone pedagogical
reformation in our day, was perfection to be won at the outset.
All things considered, however, it seems to me indisputable that,
wherever there has been an honest and earnest attempt to make the new
methods successful, a gratifying and very considerable measure of
success has been attained. Broadly speaking, the formal recitation,
based mainly upon the study of a textbook, has been given up. The
history of England is no longer generally studied by the reigns of
sovereigns, nor the history of the United States by presidential
administrations. There is wide use of source books and documents,
and much intelligent reading in narrative histories, biographies,
journals, letters, travels, and other literature. Map-drawing is
extensively required, and illustrated lectures or talks and historical
excursions have been made to contribute their wealth of information
and interest. From every point of view, the position of history in the
school curriculum is more dignified and rational than it used to be,
its pedagogical method more intelligent, its fruition in knowledge and
power more valuable.
No method of teaching, however, is ever so bad that its abandonment is
not attended with some loss to the pupil. In spite of all the success
which has undeniably come about in these ten years of thoughtful and
friendly effort, there still remain a number of steps imperatively
to be taken before the teaching of history in secondary schools can,
without serious qualification, be pronounced satisfactory. There is
still a woeful need of trained history teachers. While the larger city
high schools and many private schools are praiseworthy exceptions,
it nevertheless remains true that the majority of schools do not yet
think it necessary to choose for the historical department a teacher
specially trained for that work. The subject is still too often
assigned to this teacher or that who happens to have the necessary
free time, but whose serious equipment lies in some other field.
Nothing short of sound and extended college training in history should
be deemed a sufficient preparation for the teaching of history in a
secondary school, just as nothing short of such training, and the frank
recognition of its importance by school authorities, will overcome the
unfortunate reluctance of the best college graduates to enter secondary
school work. No graduate of Brown University can receive from the
department of history a certificate of fitness to teach history in
a high school or academy who has not completed with credit at least
four courses, each of three hours a week for a year, and one of them a
course of research; and I should be glad did conditions in the schools
make it possible to raise, as they do make it increasingly easy to
enforce this minimum requirement.
A second crying need is for better equipment of the historical
department. The development of school libraries has not yet made
much progress, and the use of public libraries by large classes has
obvious practical limitations. Schools which willingly spend money
for scientific apparatus decline to spend money for books, pictures,
and other illustrative material. The equipment of wall-maps is often
exceedingly poor, historical maps being often lacking altogether
except in the field of ancient history. Until this lack is supplied,
we must expect that the teacher will from necessity rely mainly upon
the textbook, at the cost of failing to meet the most fundamental
condition of the newer methods of history teaching.
Perhaps the most serious charge that is lodged against the new
method is that it fails to give the pupil exact knowledge, and even
discriminates against exactness and precision. My observation as an
examiner of applicants for admission to college leads me to believe
that there is force in this charge. Undoubtedly the amount of ground
which is expected to be covered by those who take any one of the four
fields recommended by the Committee of Seven is very great, in the
field of medieval and modern European history quite too great. Where
the time allotted to the course in the curriculum is insufficient,
as it often is, or where the teacher is incompetent, or where the
facilities of the department are inadequate, it is inevitable that
the work should be slighted and the results upon examination appear
unsatisfactory. Undoubtedly, also, in our zeal for the broad view and
the vivifying treatment, we have tended unconsciously to depreciate
the value of exact knowledge, and have allowed ourselves to think that
because the function of memorizing may easily be overworked, the memory
has no place in the study of history at all.
The examiners in history for the College Entrance Examination Board
have learned that, unless they ask for dates, no dates will be
given; that the treatment of specific questions of limited scope is
prevailingly slovenly, indicative of loose thinking and tolerated
looseness of expression; and that the simplest questions will often be
carelessly misread. I am sure that we have not yet solved the problem
of examining in history either in school or in college, but I am also
compelled to think that the greatest weakness of history teaching at
present, in those schools in which the new program is being applied,
is that it so often fails to give the pupil a definite knowledge of
anything. I do not despair, however. There are signs of improvement,
growing in number and significance every year; and with the increased
employment of skilled teachers, the provision of better facilities for
teaching, and the more generous recognition of the importance of the
subject, we may, I think, confidently look for results commensurate
with those admittedly attained in other branches of the school
curriculum.
Training the History Teacher
The Organization of His Field of Study
BY NORMAN MACLAREN TRENHOLME, PROFESSOR OF THE TEACHING OF HISTORY,
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI.
Provided that the text-books have been selected and the courses to be
given arranged for by some higher power, the first problem that faces
the history teacher in the fall is that of properly organizing the
field or fields of study. Now we all know that many teachers do not
realize this problem or that if they do they shirk it and adopt a sort
of go-as-you-please plan of so many pages each day, irrespective of
topical or any other sort of unity, that usually results in careless
recitation work and an incomplete course. In some cases the teacher
seeks aid and guidance from a printed syllabus or outline of the course
to be covered, and if these are available and properly constructed in
connection with the text-books used, they can be of great service,
but they cannot wholly relieve the teacher of responsibility as to
the length and character of topics to be considered.[1] Even the best
teachers are inclined to adopt a day-to-day plan of organization and so
work blindly, not knowing how much of the text-book will, in the end
be left unstudied. Such unsatisfactory conditions as are here referred
to are totally unnecessary if history teachers will only learn to
organize their courses in advance of giving them and thus be able to
round out their work in a thoroughly satisfactory manner. The reason
that this is not done is that most of our high school teachers of
history have had little or no training in the teaching of their subject
and have not learned how to handle and interpret the subject matter
to the best advantage. What some lack in training they make up for in
enthusiasm and interest in their work, but there are, unfortunately
for the profession, many teachers of history who have neither training
nor enthusiasm. On the other hand, the number of trained, earnest
and enthusiastic teachers of history is constantly increasing, and
there are opportunities offered for every teacher to improve his or
her methods and enter more understandingly and more successfully into
the work of teaching the subject. The greatest danger in history
work in schools is the prevalence of matter over spirit, of facts
over thoughts and ideas, of mechanical memory work over constructive
thinking and reasoning. If teachers of history will learn to enter
into their work with more spirit and understanding the subject will
soon be regarded with respect on account of the vital interest that the
development of the present out of the past must always have. One way of
emphasizing historical unity or continuity is by a well-planned series
of recitation or discussion topics based on the text-book used in the
course, and it is the question of such organization of the field of
study that I wish to discuss in this article.
General Suggestions as to the Organization.
The history teacher who wishes to make a success of the courses given
must plan the work in advance according to certain common sense rules
and conditions. In the first place, the extent of the subject matter
to be covered must be carefully considered in connection with the time
allotted for its completion, and the relative emphasis to be placed
on the different portions of the period to be covered. Instead of a
haphazard assignment of so many pages each day irrespective of time
and subject matter, the length and character of the lesson assignments
should be plotted out in advance. If the number of pages of text-book
subject matter be accurately ascertained (many text-books have pages
of outlines, review questions, references, and so forth), and compared
with the number of recitation hours available, from which it is well
to deduct one-third or one-fourth for reviews, a mechanical basis of
assignments can be had. But a mechanical basis is not alone sufficient,
a topical one is necessary also. This is the most difficult and at the
same time the most vital part of organization and the part in which
most teachers fail on account of poor perspective as to important
and unimportant topics and a failure to realize the inner meaning
and significance of the external events with which they are dealing.
Fortunately most history text-books have been constructed on a skeleton
of topics, and even a poorly-trained teacher can, with a little care,
discover the proper lesson divisions. Some of the newer text-books go
so far, indeed, as to give a series of lesson topics which the teacher
can follow.[2]
A competent history teacher, however, should not need to depend
entirely on the text-book, outline, or syllabus, but should be able
to select his or her own topics with judgment and success. A teacher
properly trained to interpret the subject matter of the different
fields of study who will take into account the length of time
available and the extent of the text to be covered, can successfully
plan out any desired course of study from beginning to end. This plan
does not need to be absolutely rigid, but it will be a valuable guide
for the work of the year or half year and will lead to a successful
completion of the course of study. Instructors in normal schools and
in college departments of education can easily train the students in
courses on the teaching of history to make such topical outlines based
on standard text-books. It will be time well spent, as the student
will afterwards find in active teaching, as one such experience in
enlightened planning out of a field of study will lead to competent
handling of other fields.
Organization of the Ancient History Field.
If we say that this field of study should deal with the political,
governmental, social, and cultural development of the western portion
of the Ancient World under the three main divisions of (a) the Oriental
nations, excluding, of course, India, China and Japan; (b) the Greek
world, and (c) the Roman world--then we have a fairly comprehensive
definition of what is to be covered. If we add to this that the
chief teaching problem of the course is so to organize and interpret
the subject matter as to bring out in a clear and connected way the
really significant and essential movements and developments during
ancient times in connection with the leading historical peoples, we
are giving greater definiteness to the teaching work of the course.
But what are the really significant and essential movements in the
history of the ancient world from the pedagogical viewpoint? Can it
not be said that they are those that have most continuity with and
exerted most influence on later Mediterranean and European history?
To this end emphasis should be especially laid on the Greek world,
centering in Athens, and on Rome, centering in her great imperial
system. As a general rule, teachers of ancient history are inclined
to give too great a proportion of the time at their disposal to the
Oriental empires and their civilizations, to early Greek history and
archæology, to Roman legendary history, and the petty politics and
mythical conflicts of the early Roman republic, and the governmental
organization of the decaying republic, while Athenian life and thought,
Macedonian imperialism and its results, the rise and organization
of the great Roman empire, the causes of its strength, and of its
weakness and decline are not given sufficient time and attention.
In the general organization of the Ancient History field the topics
should be so planned that the teacher and class will work from a broad
study of the Oriental peoples of the eastern Mediterranean world and
of the early history of the Greek peoples and States to a more careful
and intensive examination into the Athenian world as typical of the
best of classic Greece, of Alexander and Macedonian imperialism, as
promoters of Hellenic culture. The early Roman period should be rapidly
covered and far less time spent on the republic and its government. The
object in organizing the Roman portion of the Ancient History field
should be to emphasize the growth of the Roman empire and the creation
of an imperial system. To this end as much attention as possible
should be directed to the provinces and to the general problems of
the imperial government. The influence of the Roman historians, Livy,
Suetonius, and even to some extent of Tacitus (I refer to the annals
and histories), and of teachers of the classics is responsible for much
wrong perspective in the teaching of Ancient History. Nor have we one
really well-proportioned textbook for this field, though several of
the existing ones are fairly satisfactory. The success and interest of
the ancient history course depends largely on the teacher’s power of
selection, organization, and interpretation.
Organization of the Field of Medieval and Modern History.
In organizing this field of study, while following the general rules
of organization, the teacher should remember that the object of this
course is above all else to make the student familiar with his present
historical environment and its immediate background. To this end it
is desirable that a large proportion of the time should be devoted
to bringing out and emphasizing movements and institutions that have
distinctly modern significance, and that recent European history should
be carefully studied. This does not mean, however, that the medieval
portion of the field should be neglected as an important contributory
factor in modern civilization. Emphasis should be laid on the
continuity of Roman influence, as seen in the imperial Church and the
imperial State and in Roman law, on the Christian religion as a factor
in advancing civilization, and on the contribution of political, social
and economic importance made by the Germans. The medieval world is
more foreign to the schoolboy mind than even that of Greece and Rome,
and the struggles of popes and emperors, the intricacies of feudalism,
and the ascetic and adventurous aspects of the Crusades are hard for
him to understand. But the feelings of nationality against imperial
control by Church or State, the growth of the towns and commerce, the
gradual development of representative government, the struggles against
despotism--these are things he can understand and appreciate and in
connection with which he can see the present emerging from the past.
Nor should the great personalities of medieval and modern history be
neglected, for they have historical interest and importance and serve
to give greater interest and definiteness to movements of which they
are a part. A little thought and care on the part of the teacher in
planning the lesson assignments and conducting the recitation will keep
the course from becoming dull and meaningless. The attention of the
class should always be drawn to the bearing of what they are studying
on present conditions and particular emphasis should be directed to
great international movements as well as to the growth and development
of the leading European countries. In no field of high school study
does careful previous organization lead to more satisfactory results
than in the medieval and modern field.
Organization of the English History Field.
The organization and treatment of this field should be based on the
idea of bringing out clearly the origin, growth and larger developments
of English political, social and economic institutions. The field
offers especial advantages for developmental study, as the history is
well connected throughout, and can be easily organized into topics
and problems. All that the teacher needs is a little insight into the
fundamental factors and influences in English history, and this should
be obtained from any well conducted general course in English history.
The history of England should always be organized and treated as being
the study of the growth of a great imperial nation out of various
elements and through different policies. The idea of the growth of
free, representative government (the power of the people, or democracy,
in government) is the predominant note, but the broader viewpoint of
the growth of national civilization as shown in policies, industry,
art, language and letters is also desirable and important. Among the
dangers to be avoided in teaching English history, and in teaching how
to organize it, is the temptation to emphasize the minor political
details relating to royalties, wars and so forth. The history of
England is after all closely related to the history of Europe, and the
two great questions of interest in her story are those of her internal
development along national lines and of her external policy and growth
along imperial lines. More attention than is now given could well
be bestowed on the British empire, and it is a pleasure to find one
text-book at least that attempts to do justice to this important phase
of English history and government.[3]
Organization of the Field of American History and Government.
Probably all teachers of American history will admit that broadly
stated the course in American history and government should be
organized with special emphasis on the national period, and should
represent an attempt to show how out of the diversity of the colonial
period there finally emerged the spirit of federal union, and how
American history largely centers around the erection of a sovereign
federal state, in face of English opposition, and the maintenance
of the union, in the face of internal dissensions, and finally, the
growth and expansion of the United States as a world power. The
European background, the native or American background, exploration,
colonization and colonial development must all be touched on lightly.
Then a careful study should be made of the steps leading up to union
and to independence, though the military side of the revolutionary
struggle is frequently over-emphasized, and the beginnings of national
government as we know it to-day can be studied in connection with the
formation of the constitution. Territorial expansion, foreign and civil
wars, colonial expansion and problems of internal development can all
be treated in relation with the central problem of successful federal
government and in relation with the present. Interwoven frequently
with American national history is the history of one’s own state, and
teachers can frequently use local interests to make the story of some
particular phase of national development more real and significant.
There is quite a marked tendency to separate American government from
American history in the fourth year of the high school, and to give
a half year’s work in each subject. If American government is taught
as a separate subject a text-book should be selected which allows the
teacher to organize the course so as to work from the familiar to
the unfamiliar aspects of government, from the local to the national
aspects of the field of study. Several good text-books of this
character have been recently published.[4]
The attempt has been made in this article to show how the history
teacher can be trained, or can train himself, to organize thoroughly
the field of study to be covered so as to complete the course in the
time allotted and also bring out the meaning and importance of the
study undertaken. Proper organization of the field of study will
undoubtedly aid the teacher greatly, but such organization must be
followed by successful recitation and class-room work. The next paper
in this department will therefore, be devoted to a discussion of the
training of history teachers in the organization of the recitation.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] Some useful outlines for high school work are: Newton and Treat,
“Outlines for Ancient, English and American History,” 3 vols. (25c.
each), American Book Co.; New England History Teacher’s Association,
“Outlines for Ancient, Medieval and Modern, English and American
History,” 4 parts (15c. each). Heath & Co.; Leadbetter, “Outlines of
Myers’ Ancient and Medieval and Modern Histories,” 2 vols. (35c. each),
Ginn & Co.; Trenholme, “Syllabus for the History of Western Europe
(Medieval and Modern),” based on Robinson’s text (60c.), Ginn & Co.
[2] As examples of the highly organized text-book with clear cut
lesson topics, the following might be cited: Morey, “Ancient History,”
American Book Co.; West, “The Ancient World,” Allyn and Bacon; and
Ashley, “American History,” Macmillan Co.
[3] The reference is to Cheyney’s “Short History of England,” Ginn and
Co., in which considerable attention is given to the present British
Empire.
[4] Among these might be especially mentioned: Ashley, “American
Government,” Macmillan Co.; James and Sanford, “Government in State and
Nation,” Scribners.
Instruction in American Government in Secondary Schools
A COMMENT ON THE REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF FIVE.
BY WILLIAM A. SCHAPES, Chairman of the Committee of Five, Professor of
Political Science, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
The American Political Science Association has taken an interest, not
only in the investigation and discussion of the scientific questions
arising within the field of Political Science, but has also paid
attention to the problem of improving the instruction in Government in
our schools and colleges. To further this work a section on instruction
in Political Science was organized at its first annual meeting. In 1906
the committee of five, originally of three members, was appointed to
complete certain investigations which had been started in the section
on instruction, the partial results of which had been published in a
paper by the writer in the proceedings for 1905. The committee was
required to ascertain the amount and kind of instruction in American
Government being offered in the secondary schools of this country and
make recommendations for the consideration of the association. In
accordance with these instructions the committee undertook to collect
its information directly by correspondence with the teachers in about
600 high schools distributed throughout the United States. The work
extended over more than two years, the final report being read at the
Richmond meeting in December, 1908, and published in the proceedings
for that year.
The point on which the report lays greatest stress, namely, the
necessity of teaching Government as a distinct subject in the secondary
schools, was expressly approved by the association without a dissenting
vote. It does not follow, of course, that the report expresses the
views of every member of that association, in every particular. In
fact it does not. The report does represent the views of the entire
committee after making an exhaustive study of the question.
The report covers 38 pages of the proceedings, and is therefore too
elaborate to be properly presented in a brief article. Only a few of
the essential features will be referred to.
At the very outset the committee was confronted with the pedagogical
question as to whether Government should be taught as a distinct
subject or whether it should be taught in connection with history.
The teachers are still somewhat divided on the subject, and practice
varies. The information collected indicates that the teaching of
American Government, Civil Government or Civics as it is still
barbarously designated, is suffering from a lack of proper recognition
in the school curriculum, for want of especially trained teachers, from
lack of a working school library on Government and from inadequate
text-books. It seems a curious thing that our public schools, which
were instituted and are operated by governmental agency to maintain
an enlightened citizenship, have taught every other subject excepting
Government. There can be little doubt that the rather confused and
contradictory recommendations of the Committee of Seven ten years ago
helped materially to spread the impression among high school teachers
that the subject of Government could not be successfully studied
apart from History, and that it is a sort of poor relation to it on
which little time need be spent. The suggestion of the Committee of
Seven that the subject might be taught in connection with American
History was adopted by a large number of schools. The results obtained
are generally considered to be unsatisfactory. In the West out of
240 schools heard from, 153 were offering separate instruction in
Government, 47 taught the subject in connection with History, and 40
failed to specify the plan in use. The teachers or principals in these
schools personally preferred the separate course by 158 to 30, 54
failing to commit themselves.
In the South 85 schools reported a separate course in Government, 53 a
combination course with History. The teachers or principals reporting
preferred the separate course by 111 to 33.
In the East and Mid-West 98 schools reported a separate course on
Government and 74 a combination course. The teachers or principals
expressed a personal preference for the separate course by 110 to 42.
It should be noted that the committee divided the States into three
more or less arbitrary sections; the West, embracing all the States
west of the Mississippi, excepting Missouri and the States to the
south; the South including all the States south of the Ohio River and
Mason and Dixon’s line and east of the Mississippi, but including
Missouri and the States to the south; the East and Mid-West including
the States east of the Mississippi and north of the Ohio River line.
The reports from all the sections show that experience is demonstrating
that the plan of teaching American Government and American History
as one subject is bad pedagogy and false economy. The fact that the
teachers personally prefer the separate course in Government by a large
majority in all three sections is significant. It means that experience
is a little ahead of practice, and that when practice has caught up
with the best experience, the combination course will be relegated to
the scrap-heap of discarded methods.
In its recommendations the committee urges the need of more and better
instruction in Government, throughout the entire school system from
the fifth grade up. There can be no question that improvements in the
administration of the government have not kept pace with the advances,
for example, in industry, in commerce, in transportation, or even in
pure science. It is a well-known fact that foreigners find much to
learn from this country in the organization of industry and in the
methods of conducting business, but they do not find so much to commend
in the administration of our governments. Yet it is in this very field
of politics and government that this country was long supposed to have
completely outstripped all the older countries. In the framing of
constitutions and in the inauguration of new systems of popularizing
political institutions America has led and contributed much, but in
the careful, efficient management of public affairs we have not been
so successful. In the management of our cities it is conceded that our
mistakes and failures are rather more conspicuous than our successes.
The question naturally arises whether the public schools have not
contributed to these mistakes and failures by neglecting to provide
adequate instruction in matters of Government. It may be difficult to
demonstrate that school training in the science of Government does
result in purer political methods and more efficient administration of
public business, but surely a citizenship whose political information
has been gleaned from election posters, stump speeches, newspaper head
lines, and highly colored magazine articles will not furnish a model of
civic enlightenment and success.
The duty of fitting the youth for the services and responsibilities
of citizenship in the Republic under the complex conditions which now
prevail, belongs primarily to the public school. It has not discharged
its highest function until it provides for every child adequate
instruction in the government of this country. So far the public school
has failed to do this. There are large cities in this country in which
no systematic instruction in Government is given in the otherwise
splendidly equipped high schools, nor is the subject taught in the
grades. Some of these cities are in the boss-ridden class. The question
naturally presents itself to our minds, is one circumstance the cause
of the other? Certainly a high school, situated in a large city, that
does not lead its boys to study the complex organization and functions
of the community in which they live fails in performing its first and
highest duty.
The Committee of Five therefore recommends that the instruction
in Government begin with the fifth grade. In the fifth, sixth and
seventh grades the subject should be presented in general school
exercises, in the subjects selected for language lessons, in connection
with geography and other exercises. In these grades the method of
instruction must be largely oral without a text. Such topics as the
fire department, the police, the water works, the parks, garbage
collection, the health officer, the light housekeeper, the life
saving station suggest subjects for discussion. The aim being to lead
the child to think of the community and realize that it has rights,
obligations, property, that it does certain kinds of work and that
every individual citizen has a part to play in the life and activities
of this community.
In the eighth grade more formal instruction on local, State and
national government may be given. A simple text should be selected, and
this should be supplemented. The main emphasis must be placed on the
study of local government to make the subject concrete and bring it
home.
The committee recommends that in the high school Government be
presented as a distinct subject of instruction following one semester
of American History. At least one-half year should be devoted to the
subject with five recitations per week or an entire year where the
three-recitation plan is in use.
Some high schools are indeed devoting an entire year to American
Government with excellent results. In fact, if the instruction in
all the high schools could be brought up to the level of a few
conspicuously advanced schools the main desires of the committee would
be fulfilled.
In selecting a text the teacher should avoid the old style manual,
consisting of the clauses of the constitution with comments. Such
books are entirely out of date. They represent the first attempts at
textbook making in this field. They never were good texts. It is rather
surprising that more than a score of high schools reporting still use
these useless books. The teacher should equally avoid the new hybrid
text which attempts to combine in one, a treatment of History and
Government. In the very nature of things such books must be confusing
and distracting to the beginner.
It is equally important that superintendents and principals stop the
practice of assigning the subject to any teacher on the force whose
time is not fully taken up with other duties. No one can hope to teach
Government with the best success who has not a genuine interest and an
appropriate training for the work.
Lessons Drawn from the Papers of Candidates of the College Entrance
Examination Board
BY ELIZABETH BRIGGS, TEACHER OF HISTORY AND CIVIL GOVERNMENT IN SACHS’
SCHOOL FOR GIRLS, NEW YORK.
In studying the reports of the secretary of the College Entrance
Examination Board, the history teacher learns the disheartening fact
that less than 60 per cent. of the candidates in history get 60 per
cent. or over in the examinations. The proportion of the whole number
of candidates in history who have received over 60 per cent. for the
past eight years is as follows:
1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909
% % % % % % % %
59.2 53.2 53.7 54 47.3 43.2 50.3 42.8[5]
It should be noted in passing that the lessening number of successful
candidates characterizes not only history, but the whole group of
entrance examination subjects. But further disquieting statistics
prove that history has generally fewer successful candidates than
most of the other subjects; in 1907 it was surpassed in this respect
only by physics; in 1908, by German, mathematics and zoölogy. Also in
the class of high ratings, 90-100, history comes near the foot of the
class; in 1907, all the other subjects ranked higher except physics and
chemistry; in 1908, all except Spanish, chemistry, botany, geography
and music. That is to say, history makes a poorer showing than all the
other large subjects, those offering a thousand candidates or more.
Granting that the demands of the examiners are reasonable, history
teachers must conclude that the necessary equipment is not being
furnished to their pupils. Although the questions are designed to
test something more than a superficial knowledge of events, such a
superficial knowledge, provided it be complete as to the whole field,
would enable a candidate to obtain a rating of 60. The papers of the
candidates are evidence that instruction has been generally omitted on
one point, and has been slighted on three others.
In all conferences of history teachers, much time is spent in
considering how best to inculcate historical mindedness, accurate
thought, cultivation of the imagination, and clear reasoning; primarily
it is acknowledged that there must be acquired a stock of definite
information, but the discussions seem to assume that the acquisition
of the information is an easy matter, and that the exercise of
observation, analysis and judgment, may occupy the greater part of the
time of pupil and teacher. In the classroom, however, both teacher and
pupil while trying to respond to the multiplicity of demands have been
unable to divide the time into enough fractions to go round, and the
teachers seem to have reached a consensus that the topic to be crowded
out shall be geography. In spite of the fact that the requirements in
history state that geographical knowledge will be tested by requiring
the location of places and movements on an outline map, in spite of the
fact that almost every set of questions for nine years has demanded
map work, the papers of candidates have shown that instruction in
geography, including the use of maps, has been signally neglected.
Year after year answers in this subject have been marked uniformly
low, seldom attaining a passing mark, being rated 1, 2 and 3, on a
scale of 10. In answers to questions which asked that Philadelphia,
Constantinople, Alexandria, Delos and Delphi, be marked on the map
and their historical importance be explained in the answer book,
Philadelphia was placed in North Dakota, Constantinople in India,
Alexandria on the Adriatic, Delphi in Italy, and Delos near Genoa; and
yet the answer books told correctly the historical importance of each.
How completely geography may be divorced from map work was illustrated
in a few answers to a question that asked for the marking on the map
of the English frontier on the European continent in the time of
William I, Henry II, and Henry V; several candidates wrote out their
answers in addition to indicating them on the map, with the curious
result of a correct list and an incorrect map, that is to say, the
memorizing of French provinces had been carefully done, but there had
been no practice in map work. A more vicious example of unintelligent
memorizing it would be hard to find. Countries as well as cities have
been misplaced; Ireland in Norway, Wales in Germany, China in Egypt.
That the ignorance here is due to the teachers and not to the pupils
is made apparent by the failure on this point in otherwise excellent
papers. There could have been no instruction, or the intelligent pupil
would have met the requirement. Another proof besides the mass of
incorrect answers that map work is neglected in the schools is the
fact that when the options permitted a choice between map work and
an explanation of geographic control, the choice fell on geographic
control. This choice was made not because the candidate was qualified
to write about the effect of geographical conditions on the history of
the early settlements in America, or on the Revolutionary struggle, but
because guessing seemed easy.
As for the other “eye of history,” chronology, there is a respectable
showing. The examination questions have not asked for lists of dates,
though a knowledge of dates has been frequently demanded by the nature
of the questions, and such demands have not found the pupils wanting.
An occasional anachronism has occurred, and has served to enliven the
reading, as the statements that the barons of the time of William the
Conqueror spent most of their time smoking and drinking, and that
Milton was effective by means of his efforts in the daily papers.
Occasionally a candidate would show what he could do by prefacing or
concluding his answer book with a chronological table for the whole
subject.
Answers to what may be called sweeping questions such as “Trace the
rise and fall of the naval power of Athens,” show a lack of practice in
reviewing by topics; though meagre, they suggest more acquaintance with
the subject than is written down, giving evidence of considerable drill
on isolated points, if not on the continuous story. All the history
papers since 1901 have had questions of this sort, and it would seem
likely that teachers would take the hint and exercise their pupils in
following a train of events from reign to reign, from administration
to administration, from century to century. The general failure with
this type of question and the general success in timing isolated events
leads to the fear that the history is studied wholly by reigns or
administrations without regard to the “ceaseless course” of Time.
The history examiners have also made a point of introducing questions
characterized by their timeliness, about Alfred the Great in the year
when the thousandth anniversary of his death was being celebrated, in
1904 on the Louisiana Purchase, in 1909 on Grover Cleveland, questions
which it was expected would receive unusually full treatment. The
expectation was disappointed, possibly because their “timeliness” did
not exist for the candidate; because current events have had no share
of his attention, though they might be taking the form of celebration
of the past. As for current events pure and simple, those that belong
to the present _per se_, any option on them is avoided. The only
subject of current interest on which information has seemed to be
widespread was the melodramatic experience of Miss Ellen Stone. Allied
to this ignorance of current events, is the ignorance of the nineteenth
century in Modern history and in English history. A candidate could
write a passable account of Charlemagne and fail on Bismarck, could
be accurate about Wolsey and yet state that Gladstone wrote standard
law books. For this knowledge of the remote past and ignorance of the
recent present, Dr. James Sullivan says that the text-books should be
held responsible, as few teachers are any better than their text-books.
In biography, whenever the options made it possible to write on several
persons rather than on one, the greater majority of the candidates
found it easier to present a few meagre facts about several individuals
than an extended account of one individual. Evidently biography in
school is confined to the foot notes or the descriptive introductory
paragraph on the page that mentions a new leader for the first time.
In fact one student apologized for his limited knowledge of Pitt and
Nelson on the ground that Montgomery gives no extended biographies.
Like Dr. Sullivan, he blamed the text-book. It should not be implied
that the reader finds no evidence of collateral reading. Indications of
it do appear, but they are rarer than oases in Sahara. Far from hinting
at collateral reading, many answers showed inadequate attention to the
slender material offered in the text-book. It seems not unreasonable to
expect that every student going up for examination in English history
should be able to place Milton and Nelson correctly, yet their names
have brought out such statements as, there is nothing recorded in
history showing any personal service that Milton did for the Roundheads
and that personally he was a Tory, that Milton wrote books of travel
and wild improbable adventures of sea and land; that Nelson explored
for England and went furthest north, that he sunk the Spanish Armada,
that he defeated the combined French and Spanish navies at Waterloo,
and that he signaled, “Don’t give up the ship.” The only satisfactory
item to be credited to these statements is the fixed association of
these names respectively with literature and the sea. Any hint as
to the personality of the subject is seldom found, yet William the
Conqueror, Henry VIII, and Cromwell, seem to have had some hold on the
imagination.
To summarize experiences as a reader is not a happy task for the
secondary school teacher. As regards what may be termed the New
Learning in history--geographic control, economics, and the exercise
of observation, analysis, and judgment, the teacher need not blush at
his failure to render his pupil able to observe, analyze, and judge
in clear and correct English in fifteen-minute sections of a two-hour
examination, or to deal successfully even in an elementary way with
subjects that have either only recently become part of a college course
or are not generally studied by freshmen. But what history teachers do
need to concern themselves with is the failure to supply their pupils
with a reliable store of facts. If the statistics of the Board seem
to imply that history teaching is inferior to teaching in most other
subjects, it would be consoling to accept the suggestion that the poor
returns are not the result of poor teaching, but of no teaching, since
many candidates have tried the examination without instruction, an
experiment they would make in no other subject.
FOOTNOTE:
[5] These figures are not final, as the Secretary’s report is not out
for 1909.
The Study of Western History in Our Schools
BY PROFESSOR CLARENCE W. ALVORD, OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS.
The West has always been self-assertive. This may sound somewhat banal,
but no adjective describes so exactly that principal characteristic
of her vigorous youth. Commercially, politically, socially she has
displayed her egoism and has continually demanded from her elder
sister, the East, praise for her achievements. Youth is, however,
passing away; over a century of political life has been left
behind; age has brought with it a new pride in the consciousness
of accomplishment. To-day the West realizes that she has had a
history that is no mean part of the national story. The cry from the
prairies is no longer: “See what we are doing;” but, “See what we
have done.” Self-assertion again! Yes, perhaps bumptiousness, but
such is the fact. On every side there are signs of this new phase
of western self-consciousness. In no part of the Union is there
such an interest in local history. State-supported departments of
history, State historical societies, county and city historical
societies, even women’s clubs and public schools, and larger unions
such as the confederation of the societies of the Ohio Valley and the
Mississippi Valley Historical Association, are all active in collecting
material for and exploiting western history. Some of the efforts
are misdirected, many of the papers presented before these learned
societies are absurd; but even the aimless gropings of the historical
amœbæ indicate the innermost yearnings for a knowledge of the past and
the consciousness of deeds worth recording.
In developing this consciousness of her past, the West, naturally
enough, has found a grievance against the historians of America
who have somewhat neglected this important phase of the national
development. Before the eyes of the historian educated under the shadow
of the gilded dome of the Puritan Capitol, the landing of the Pilgrim
Fathers looms larger on the historical horizon than the occupation of
the Old Northwest during the Revolutionary War, so that he gives a more
careful and extensive description to the former than to the latter
event. The westerner gazes upon another horizon, where the relative
importance of events are differently grouped. To him many events
confined to New England, the description of which fills pages of our
national histories, appear of local interest; and events belonging to
other parts of the country assume national importance.
This grievance is not altogether fictitious, as a glance at any of our
large histories and particularly at the text-books used in our schools
will disclose. The signs of the times, however, point to a healthful
change; for in the last many-volumed American history, chapter after
chapter is devoted to the history of the West. The correction of
the error in proportion, moreover, lies in the hands of the western
historians, who can bring to prominence the events of their section
only by producing serious and scientific studies on the development
of the West; and consciously or unconsciously the recent movement in
the study of western history is directed toward that end. Besides the
popular interest in the subject, already noted, the universities are
turning the attention of their graduate students to the field; the
scientifically-trained instructors of these institutions are conducting
researches into the history of the valley; in other words, western
history is already recognized as a legitimate field for research work.
Time alone is needed for the results of this activity to become a part
of the national consciousness, when the relative importance of western
events will be correctly given in our larger histories and be finally
disseminated through text-books and popular works to the public.
The Teacher’s Duty.
The development of a popular knowledge of the history of the West will
largely be the work of the teachers in our public schools. This is
fortunate, for the subject is suited in a remarkable degree for the
purposes of instruction. In the great central valley the romantic,
religious, political, and economic growths have been luxuriant, and
every student, whatever his character, will find events to arouse his
historical imagination. The glamour around the wild life of the forest
and prairie appears most brilliant to children. The lurking Indian, the
silent Jesuit, the song-loving _voyageur_, the hardy trapper--these are
figures that give a picturesque touch to our early history which never
fails to retain the attention of the class.
Fortunately the earliest phase of western history inspired the
brilliant pen of Francis Parkman, and his accounts of the discovery and
occupation of the Mississippi Valley have become parts of the common
knowledge of our people, so that the figures of Marquette, Lasalle,
and Frontenac stand out relatively clear in the memories of the
school days. Since, in Parkman’s works, literature, romance, and good
historical narrative are so well combined, the teacher should make the
most of these, for where he ends, there is no work or set of works,
comparable to his, to continue the narrative.
Many have been the attempts to tell the story of the advance of
the English pioneers across the mountains, but we still await the
well-equipped and inspired historian. There are, of course, books to
which the pupils can turn with profit and interest. Particularly has
the frontiersman with gun and axe been glorified, and his picturesque
figure is fully as attractive as Jesuit priest or French _voyageur_.
But the fundamental motives of the westward movement should not be lost
in the romantic story of a Boone or Sevier. The first impulse westward
came from the Englishman’s desire to participate in the fur trade which
the French threatened to monopolize. During the reign of Charles II
the movement, extending from Hudson Bay to the Carolinas, was started.
Almost as early as Lasalle, Virginians were on the waters of the Upper
Ohio, and were trading among the Indians of the Southwest. The fight
for the fur trade had begun.
Land speculation was a second impulse for the westward movement. Boom
towns were not an invention of yesterday. The far-famed American
pioneer played his part in these enterprises, but he was often only a
pawn in the hands of the gentleman speculator of the East, who is to be
found in every period of western development. The speculative energy of
such men as George Washington, the Lees, and George Morgan advertised
the advantages of the valley lands far and wide. Then followed the wild
rush of homeseekers which rapidly built the Western States.
The story of the West in the Revolutionary War is not well told in
the usual text-books of the schools, for the description of the
events which decided whether this vast territory should be British or
Spanish or belong to the United States are generally relegated to a
few lines of a paragraph. The settlement of Kentucky and Tennessee,
the occupation of the Old Northwest by the Virginians, the successful
campaigns of Governor Galvez which gave the Floridas to Spain, the
defeat of the various British campaigns to recover their hold on the
central Mississippi; these are all events of stupendous importance for
the future development of the American people.
Western Tendencies.
The first and most marked characteristic in the history of the West
is its unity. This sets it off from the East, where particularistic
development was the rule. On the seaboard, well marked peculiarities
separate the inhabitants of the different sections. In the Mississippi
Valley, State boundaries have little meaning, and divide in no way the
people living on either side. Even when broader areas than those of the
States are considered, diverse development is not so well marked as
it is east of the mountains. Throughout the early pioneer period the
emigration westward was the same in character north and south of Mason
and Dixon’s line. The Ohio River was the great channel by which the
tide of immigration flowed over the prairies of the Old Northwest and
the blue grass region of Kentucky; and accident frequently led one man
to the slave-holding States and his neighbor to the North.
If the Ohio was the gateway to the West, the Mississippi was the great
central avenue upon which the western people from all sections met
in friendly trade, so that the original feeling of solidarity was
strengthened by continuous intercourse and the realization of mutual
interests. The different environment at the headwaters and mouth of
the river never succeeded in separating completely the western people.
Here the idea of the unity of the country took deeper root than in the
East, where statehood meant more and nation less. It was in the Middle
West that, as the struggle between North and South drew near, national
leaders were developed and where the strongest efforts were made to
hold the country in unity.
Western Democracy.
The West has moulded our national character even more than New England
with her far-famed and narrow Puritanism; for the West has been
the cauldron into which the nations of the world have poured their
streams of immigrants and from which has come the national type. This
amalgamation of character began in the oldest West, when Irishmen,
Englishmen, Scotch-Irish, and Germans settled in the region between the
falls of the seaboard rivers and the mountains, stretching from Vermont
to Georgia. Here was moulded the new type of man, who was to populate
the greater West across the mountain ridges. In an environment of
primeval conditions, in the struggle with the Indians and the forests
there was developed a self-reliance of character, differing in many
ways from any single European type. This new man of the West admired
the doer of deeds, condemned all reliance on traditional or family
position, scorned State authority, and loved independence. In the
soil of the new West, created by these men, the doctrines of Rousseau
flourished luxuriantly. All unconscious, the frontiersmen were putting
into practice the most radical philosophy of the French Revolution. It
was on the frontier that those conservative traditions of Europe, which
lingered years afterwards in the more settled East, were swept away,
and American democracy was really bred. It was on the border of the
older frontier that the spokesman of this democracy, Thomas Jefferson,
lived; and it was out of the new West that the hero of democracy,
Andrew Jackson, came.
The Newest State Association and an Older One
THE CALIFORNIA ASSOCIATION OF HISTORY TEACHERS.
BY H. W. EDWARDS, OF BERKELEY.
The first meeting of the California Association of History Teachers was
held in Berkeley, July 14, in connection with the summer session of the
University of California. The following papers were read:
“History in the Grammar School”--J. B. Newell, University of California.
“Emphasis in Ancient History”--R. F. Scholz, University of California.
“Emphasis in Teaching of History”--Roger B. Merriman, Harvard
University.
Prof. Newell urged that in the grades, history be taught with more
attention to the great fundamental facts and elimination of details. He
considered that great contests, such as the American Revolution, should
be used by the teacher to train the pupil in a broad tolerance, by
calling attention to the merits of both sides of the question. He would
have the teachers do more reading for themselves, and called attention
to the need of more money for providing the schools with books.
The burden of Prof. Scholz’s essay was the neglect of the Orient as a
constant factor in Ancient History. Many teachers and most text-books
assume that the East ceased to exert a great influence after the
time of Alexander. This tendency to divide Ancient History into
“compartments” ignores the solidarity of the ancient world, and is
essentially unscientific. Oriental influence was a powerful element
throughout the whole of the ancient period. In conclusion Prof. Scholz
called attention to certain parallels between the race questions of
antiquity and those of the present day.
Prof. Merriman made four principal points:
1. Make history interesting--“better be flippant than dull.”
2. Compare and correlate. Example--the date 1492 becomes increasingly
significant when one considers Lorenzo de Medici, Charles VIII of
France, the conquest of Granada, Pope Alexander VI.
3. Relate the past to modern events and conditions.
4. Make the development of mental power a constant purpose.
In addition to these papers, two short talks were given. Prof. J. N.
Bowman narrated the origin of the Pacific Coast Branch of the American
Historical Association, and urged the claims of both parent Association
and Branch.
Dr. S. H. Willey, a member of the California Constitutional Convention
of 1849, and the first President of the University of California, was
present, and was called upon by the chairman. To the history teachers,
it was most interesting to listen to one who had done much to make
history, and to hear of the birth of the State from one of her
“fathers.” Dr. Willey gave an interesting account of the conditions
leading up to the convention, and of the making and adoption of the
Constitution, together with references to the great struggle in
Congress. He urged that the children of the State be made familiar with
the facts of her history, and expressed a hope that the teachers would
devote more attention to the subject.
The officers of the Association are:
President--Superintendent E. M. COX, of San Rafael.
Secretary--Prof. J. N. Bowman, Berkeley.
THE HISTORY TEACHERS’ ASSOCIATION OF MARYLAND.
BY DR. ELEANOR L. LORD, Professor of History in Woman’s College,
Baltimore.
The organization of the Maryland Association can hardly be described as
the result of spontaneous enthusiasm or of voluntary action on the part
of the teachers themselves; rather, it was somewhat in the nature of an
experiment in historiculture undertaken by request. There are reasons,
partly geographical, partly economic and partly political, it may be,
why many of the history teachers, especially in the rural districts of
Maryland, working a little apart from the main currents of educational
progress, need an awakening or a lift or both.
The Origin.
At the annual meeting of the Association of History Teachers of
the Middle States and Maryland, in 1905, the difficulty everywhere
experienced in reaching teachers who are prevented by duties or by
geographical remoteness from attending the conventions was pointed
out, and it was voted to authorize and encourage the foundation of
local conferences of history teachers, with a view to minimizing
the obstacles to closer contact with the more remote teachers and
stimulating interest in local history and in local problems. The
primary purpose of these local organizations was declared to be the
same as that of the main association, viz., “to advance the study
and teaching of history and government through discussion,”--a wider
discussion than is possible at the annual meeting. Mr. Robert H.
Wright, of Baltimore, who was present at the meeting, was requested to
attempt the formation of a local association for Baltimore. A few weeks
later, as the result of a conference of five individuals interested in
the matter, an invitation was extended to a number of local teachers
and students of history to attend a meeting in the Donovan Room,
Johns Hopkins University, the very room, as it happened, in which the
Association of History Teachers of the Middle States and Maryland
was organized. This meeting, held May 19, 1906, was well attended.
The objects of the proposed association were stated and a temporary
organization effected. It was voted to extend the geographical scope
of the association so as to include the State of Maryland as well
as Baltimore City. The constitution subsequently adopted stated the
purpose of the association to be, in addition to the objects already
mentioned, the promotion of personal acquaintance among teachers and
students of history, and, as far as practicable, the furtherance of the
interests of the main association.
Progress of the Association.
The Maryland Association has made fair progress in the three years of
its existence. The membership, numbering at present about thirty-five,
includes university, college, normal, high and elementary school
teachers of history, as well as school superintendents and supervisors.
The activities of the Association may be summarized briefly. Since the
date of organization seven regular meetings have been held and the
following subjects have been discussed:
“Historical Aspects of the United States Navy,” by Hon. Charles J.
Bonaparte, Secretary of the Navy.
“Fundamental Principles in Teaching History,” by Prof. Charles M.
Andrews, Johns Hopkins University.
“The Best Methods of Controlling and Testing the Students’ Work in
History,” by Principal R. H. Wright, Eastern High School for Girls, and
Prof. Eleanor L. Lord, Woman’s College of Baltimore.
“The Correlation of History and Geography,” by Miss Elizabeth Montell,
Teachers’ Training School.
“The Correlation of History and English,” by Miss Annette Hopkins,
Teachers’ Training School.
“Essentials in Teaching History,” by Supervising Principal H. M.
Johnson, Washington, D. C.
“Sources of American History in the British Archives,” by Prof. C. M.
Andrews, Johns Hopkins University.
“Public Libraries as an Aid to Students and Teachers of History,” by
Dr. Bernard Steiner, Librarian of Enoch Pratt Free Library.
“Management of Collateral Reading in Connection with the Text-Book,” by
Miss Annie Graves, Arundell School, and Miss Florence Hoyt, Bryn Mawr
School.
During the winter of 1907-08 a study section for the study of civics
was successfully carried on by Mr. Robert H. Wright. The most ambitious
work undertaken has been the compilation of an Annotated Bibliography
for the Use of History Teachers. The task was intrusted to Prof. C.
M. Andrews, Mr. J. Montgomery Gambrill and Miss Lida Lee Tall. The
Bibliography was published in instalments in the “Atlantic Educational
Journal,” through the courtesy of the editors, and it will shortly
appear in permanent form.
When the Association of History Teachers of the Middle States and
Maryland met in Baltimore, in March, 1908, the local association acted,
in a sense, as hosts. On this occasion a Guide to Points of Historical
Interest in Baltimore was compiled for the local association by Dr.
Annie H. Abel and Dr. Eleanor L. Lord, and copies were distributed to
the members of the visiting association.
Ideals of the Founders.
In planning the work of the Association, the Executive Board has
always had in view the fact that not only the general meetings of the
main association, but even those of the local conference, are beyond
the reach of many who may feel the need of information about matters
that closely concern persons engaged in the teaching of history;
the stimulus of contact with others teaching the same subject; the
enrichment of their own minds through a fresh study of the subject in
the light of recent scholarship. Repeated efforts have been made by
means of circular letters to elicit suggestions of means of making the
Association useful to its more remote members; and all members have
been urged to join, individually, the Association of the Middle States
and Maryland, in order that they may receive its publications and those
of the New England and North Central Associations. Thirteen new members
were added to the main association during the year 1908-09. An effort
is now being made to improve the library facilities of teachers in the
rural districts; and the co-operation of the State Library Commission
of Maryland has been promised in an effort to circulate through the
county high schools traveling book-boxes, selected according to the
classification of the Bibliography mentioned above.
The officers for 1908-09 were as follows:
President--Eleanor L. Lord.
Vice-President--Charles M. Andrews.
Secretary-Treasurer--Robert H. Wright.
Additional Members of the Board of Governors--Lida Lee Tall, J.
Montgomery Gambrill.
An Ancient History Character Social
BY MARY NORTH, MONTCLAIR, N. J.
One hundred and fifty boys and girls in the first-year class of a
suburban high school planned and carried through a most successful
review in Ancient History last May. The course provides for five
periods a week (one of which is unprepared), and it covers Oriental
History as well as Greek and Roman. The pupils had exhibited much
interest during the year, but were beginning to show signs of
listlessness and fatigue, and something had to be done to arouse their
enthusiasm. A character social was suggested by the teacher, and more
was accomplished by it than could have been gained by weeks of urging
and toil.
Each division appointed a committee to assist in the preparations,
and by the time that the affair was over more than half of the pupils
had taken an active part in the arrangements. Besides committees on
program, printing, refreshments and decorating, there were special
groups at work. Several boys busied themselves making siege machinery
such as the Romans used, while some of the girls dressed small dolls to
represent Roman soldiers. All of these models were exact and required
much study and skill on the part of the makers. The much-talked-of
theory of co-ordination was put into practice, for the Latin department
provided accounts and pictures of sieges, while the manual-training
teachers allowed the boys the use of the shop. Another set of pupils
planned an exhibition of statuary, preparing garments and studying
poses of famous classic statues.
The first number on the program was the exhibition of the siege
machinery. On the platform were a city wall and tower built of wooden
blocks, and before them, arranged for the attack, were many pieces of
machinery. The boys who made the machines had charge of the siege,
and each exhibited his instrument, giving its name and explaining
its mechanism. There were catapults, ballistæ, battering-rams, vineæ,
plutei, tre-buckets, wall-hooks and besieging towers. The chairman of
the committee explained the grouping of the machines on the field and
the relative importance of the various instruments, and then the siege
began. Each machine actually worked, and the city wall collapsed. On a
table near by the legates, slingers and centurions witnessed the siege,
but took no active part. They were very properly clad, but their flaxen
locks and gentle eyes belied their warlike apparel.
Another part of the platform had been arranged for the exhibition
of statuary and was fronted by a large picture-frame illuminated by
electricity. When the curtain was first drawn there stood in the frame
the famous “Mourning Athena,” recently found in the ruins of the
Parthenon. The Gracchi next appeared and were followed by a vestal
virgin, who gave place to two lictors. The last statue was Minerva
Giustiniani, perhaps the most successful of all. It had taken the
combined efforts of many pupils to produce helmet, serpent and spear,
so that all were vitally interested in this statue. Her pose and
expression were perfect, and the silence which greeted her was intense
until broken by deafening applause.
The early numbers on the program were most interesting, but did not
compare with the character social itself. Each person on arriving had
been tagged with a number and had communicated to a trusty official
the name of the character that he had chosen. These characters could
be taken from the Oriental monarchies as well as from Greece and Rome.
They must, however, have been mentioned in the text-books (Myers and
Morey). Each player was provided with a pencil and printed program
containing a list of numbers corresponding to those of the characters
present. At a given signal the game began, and each assumed his
character. No one told his name, but each talked or acted as if he
were Cæsar, or Alexander, or Rameses. As soon as a boy discovered that
he was talking to Cæsar, he would scribble down “Cæsar” opposite the
proper number and rush off to talk to same one else. One boy wore a
double-faced mask and carried little gates; another had a tiny pair
of boots pinned to his coat and carried in his hand a beautiful toy
horse. A girl carried a lantern and anxiously searched the faces of all
her comrades; her quest seemed fruitless, and she would sadly shake
her head and move on. Every mind was hard at work, and at the end of
the hour it was with difficulty that the room was brought to order to
compare characters with the original list.
The correct list of characters was read, and all who had guessed
over seventy were invited to the platform. No one responded to the
descending numbers called until sixty was reached, when one girl came
up. Then others followed in increasing numbers until the faculty began
to respond in the thirties. The quiet and suspense during this calling
off of numbers was most intense. Of course, no one had conversed with
each character present, but many players guessed correctly all the
characters they had met.
For days after the social this character-study continued, because the
boys and girls kept going over in their minds the characters they
had met and not guessed, and kept comparing notes until the list of
characters they knew was greatly increased. When the real review came
in class, the pupils discovered that scarcely a period could be found
that had not been touched upon, while the teacher had again secured an
enthusiastic group of students instead of numberless indifferent boys
and girls.
* * * * *
The History Teacher’s Magazine
Published monthly, except July and August, at 5805 Germantown Avenue,
Philadelphia, Pa., by
McKINLEY PUBLISHING CO. A. E. McKINLEY, Proprietor.
=SUBSCRIPTION PRICE.= One dollar a year; single copies, 15 cents each.
=POSTAGE PREPAID= in United States and Mexico; for Canada, 20 cents
additional should be added to the subscription price, and to other
foreign countries in the Postal Union, 30 cents additional.
=CHANGE OF ADDRESS.= Both the old and the new address must be given
when a change of address is ordered.
=ADVERTISING RATES= furnished upon application.
EDITORS
=Managing Editor=, ALBERT E. MCKINLEY, PH.D.
=History in the College and the School=, ARTHUR C. HOWLAND, Ph.D.,
Assistant Professor of European History, University of Pennsylvania.
=The Training of the History Teacher=, Norman M. Trenholme, Professor of
the Teaching of History, School of Education, University of Missouri.
=Some Methods of Teaching History=, FRED MORROW FLING, Professor of
European History, University of Nebraska.
=Reports from the History Field=, WALTER H. CUSHING, Secretary, New
England History Teachers’ Association.
=American History in Secondary Schools=, ARTHUR M. WOLFSON, Ph.D.,
DeWitt Clinton High School, New York.
=The Teaching of Civics in the Secondary School=, ALBERT H. SANFORD,
State Normal School, La Crosse, Wis.
=European History in Secondary Schools=, DANIEL C. KNOWLTON, Ph.D.,
Barringer High School, Newark, N. J.
=English History in Secondary Schools=, C. B. NEWTON, Lawrenceville
School, Lawrenceville, N. J.
=Ancient History in Secondary Schools=, WILLIAM FAIRLEY, Ph.D.,
Commercial High School, Brooklyn, N. Y.
=History in the Grades=, ARMAND J. GERSON, Supervising Principal, Robert
Morris Public School, Philadelphia, Pa.
CORRESPONDENTS.
MABEL HILL, Lowell, Mass.
GEORGE H. GASTON, Chicago, Ill.
JAMES F. WILLARD, Boulder, Col.
H. W. EDWARDS, Berkeley, Cal.
WALTER F. FLEMING, Baton Rouge, La.
* * * * *
METHOD THE NEED.
Printed on another page of this number is a paper by Miss Briggs upon
her experiences as an examiner and reader in history for the College
Entrance Examination Board, in which figures are given to show that
history papers are rated lower than any other of the major subjects,
and that the average grade in history, instead of rising, is actually
getting lower year by year. Miss Briggs expresses the hope that the
low grades are due to the number of applicants who prepare by rapid
tutoring or wholly by themselves for the history examinations; a
practice, of course, almost impossible in the other major subjects. But
while such cramming is partly responsible for the failure of history
applicants, it cannot relieve the history teacher of blame. All who
have had experience in the marking of history papers in entrance
examinations know that much of the teaching of history is careless,
indefinite, and without evident purpose or understanding. If our
subject is not to lose caste altogether we must find a method which
will give the student that which can be measured objectively, as well
as furnish subjective satisfaction or culture.
Such a method will not add to the intricacy of history for the student,
but it will require more efficient teachers of the subject, and it will
prevent that serious evil of the high school teaching of history,--the
assignment of history to any unattached instructor, whether he or she
knows anything about history or no. History teaching in the college or
the graduate school has, to a certain extent, found itself, and won
the respect of its fellows; history teaching in the high school and
preparatory school has not yet reached that point of self-development.
There has been much talk, and rightfully, about the content of
secondary school history courses. The market has been filled with
excellent text-books and admirable source books--indeed they are
almost too good in that they have made text-book recitations easier
and somewhat more interesting. There have been pages and volumes of
reading references and map references and source references. Yet with
all these aids to the better teaching of history there has not gone a
proportionate ability to use them. Let us ask for a while, not what
period of history shall we teach? but, how shall we teach any period of
history?
In the Latin or Greek class there are objective standards which must
be reached; in the mathematics or the English class there is a certain
amount and quality of productive work to be accomplished; in the
physics or chemistry or botany class there is laboratory experience to
be gained and recorded in note-books. Has history a method which can be
compared with any of these? Can we measure objectively the student’s
acquisition? Can we get him to use in some way his experiences in the
field of history, or have him record them in a valuable form?
It may be objected that the establishment of a more intricate
historical method will add to the duties and labor of the history
teacher. This may be true; and indeed ought to be true. The day ought
to have passed when a college graduate who took in college but one
course in history, and that in Oriental history, should be thought
qualified to teach history in a secondary school. Such cases are not
rare to-day; they would be rarer if the historical method were more
definite and required better training.
Professor Fling’s article in the September MAGAZINE and Professor
Trenholme’s articles in this and subsequent numbers will furnish some
details of historical method which should be valuable to every history
teacher. In carrying out these suggestions the teacher may temporarily
add to his or her own labors; but this will not be for long. Added
efficiency will mean greater respect for the teacher and the subject;
and increased respect will bring more assistants in history, more time
devoted to the subject, and incidentally a stronger demand for good
history teachers. Economically as well as intellectually the history
teacher will profit by raising the standards of his profession.
“AS HIRELING AND NOT AS CONSECRATE.”
A noted journalist, who is also a writer on educational topics, and
a trustee of a large eastern university, in writing to the editor
respecting the establishment of THE HISTORY TEACHER’S MAGAZINE, said:
“Your idea is an admirable one. It ought to do good.... With this
teaching, as with all others, I fear the difficulty is the spirit in
which it is done, as hireling and not as consecrate.”
Is this charge true of the history teachers of the country? We know
that history teachers were among the last to organize for common
purposes; that to-day their associations are not as strong as those
of teachers of the classics and of other subjects, that their class
work is not as well organized as the work of that far more indefinite
subject, secondary school English. Are these facts the result of a
hireling spirit? We think not. Rather they are due to the unfortunate
place which until very recent years, history has occupied in the
elementary and secondary school roster. And yet, while we believe there
existed and still exist valid impediments to the greatest success of
the history teacher, it may be well for each of us to ask himself
or herself the question. Am I doing the work as hireling and not as
consecrate? At times we need such searching questions. And until the
time when we have a great body of history teachers who are teaching the
subject because they love it and love to teach it to others our history
teaching will be heartless and sterile.
European History in the Secondary School
D. C. KNOWLTON, PH.D., Editor.
THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE CHURCH AND THE MEDIEVAL EMPIRE.
The Importance of the Church.
The problem of simplifying and of unifying the material for study so
as to give the student a clear conception of the course of European
development is one that confronts the teacher at every turn and calls
constantly for solution. In this connection Professor Emerton, in his
address on the “Teaching of Medieval History in the Schools,” points
out the importance of the study of the Church as the great unifying
element in European progress, especially throughout the Middle Ages.
“All the peoples of Europe, divided as they are by nationalities and
by social classes, are all united in this one common possession of
religion and a culture derived from Rome and holding them still after
generations of separation in an ideal attachment to something they
feel to be higher and better than anything in their present world.”
The aims of the papacy in particular, says Professor Emerton, make
this task of the teacher easier of solution, because the successors
of St. Peter, even harking back to the times of Gregory I, strove
one and all for the same end--“to enforce anew this ideal of a vast
Christian State, governed in the last resort by an appeal to its own
divinely-constituted tribunal.” The greatest efforts put forth to this
end fall within the period under consideration, namely from the times
of Hildebrand to the death of Frederick II, or, more exactly, from
about 1050, when Hildebrand was fast becoming the power behind the
papal throne, to 1268, when Conradin’s untimely death in the market
place of Naples terminated the rule of the Hohenstaufen.
The presentation of the relations between the popes and the emperors of
this period involves a fourfold task, namely an appreciation (1) of the
time covered and the areas concerned, (2) the personalities involved,
(3) the issues at stake, and (4) the effects of the struggle on Europe.
The Elements of Time and Place.
It may be an elementary consideration, but it is withal fundamental,
that the pupil grasp the length of time involved, the order in which
the events occurred, and the theater on which they transpired. It is
not a continuous struggle, for it is opened, then closed, then reopened
again; now by pope, now by emperor. On the other hand these successive
meetings of popes and emperors in conflict are but phases of one and
the same great struggle for supremacy, whose issue Professor Emerton
has so clearly stated. These phases must be clearly defined as to their
time limits if the student is to follow the contest intelligently. As
to the countries or localities involved he must understand what was
meant by the Holy Roman Empire of the German people and what its limits
were, both actual and theoretical; to which he must add a more detailed
knowledge of Italy, particularly of Lombardy and the new Norman kingdom
in the South, which proved to be such an important factor in the
situation.
The Personalities in the Struggle.
In no period of the Middle Ages can we find personalities more
striking than those zealous upholders of the papal prerogative,
Gregory VII and Innocent III--a statement which applies equally well
to the great champions of the empire, Frederick I and Frederick II.
Frederick Barbarossa attained his exalted position when scarcely
thirty; his illustrious namesake at an even earlier age. Both therefore
entered the contest with all the vigor and enthusiasm of their young
manhood. Although Gregory VII and Innocent III were somewhat farther
advanced in life, they too had lost none of their youthful ardor
and enthusiasm as they had risen rapidly to high position, the one
becoming papal counsellor before he was thirty, the other elected pope
at thirty-eight. These men represent some of the best products of
their times, in character, physique, scholarly attainments and native
ability. Frederick II even foreshadows in character rulers like Henry
VIII and Louis XI, who lived more than two centuries later.
Alike in some respects, what contrasts they present in others. So
faithfully have the chroniclers performed their tasks that it is
comparatively easy to call them up and make them pass in review
before us. Hildebrand, unimposing in appearance, but passionate and
indomitable; Henry IV, intelligent, but violent; the tall, fair-haired,
princely Barbarossa; the thin, but well-proportioned, Frederick II,
of studious mien; and finally the majestic Innocent III, now giving
way to bursts of anger, and now plunged into fits of deep melancholy.
The principles which these men represented could not have had better
advocates.
The Issues.
An examination of the three main struggles shows that each of these
champions of Church and State hoped to realize a definite aim which
he usually sought to attain in his own way. It is most interesting to
follow the ebb and flow of the tide of battle. The pope was the first
to throw down the gage of battle by attempting to remove the Church
from politics through the suppression of simony and the marriage of
the clergy. The very boldness of Gregory in daring to alter conditions
which had not been disturbed for generations, and that, too, in the
face of the strongest opposition, calls forth not only surprise,
but admiration, which increases as we examine the forces upon which
he relied to accomplish his results, namely, the canon law, the
church organization and the ban of excommunication. According to
some authorities, the very year which witnessed the settlement of
the first great struggle (1122), marked the birth of Frederick I,
the second great champion of the rights of the empire, rightly named
the imperialist Hildebrand. Selecting Charlemagne as his model, he
strove not only to unify his German possessions, but to re-establish
the power and authority of the empire in Europe by reasserting its
right to rule Rome and the Lombard cities, and by endeavoring to unite
with it the Norman possessions in the south of Italy. These attempts
naturally brought him into conflict with the papacy, which feared so
dangerous a neighbor on its very borders. His main reliance was in
the recently-revived study of the Roman law, and in a his labors he
governed himself by the maxim that “all that pleases a prince has the
force of law.” Innocent III, with perhaps the highest conception of his
position of any individual who had thus far occupied the chair of St.
Peter, dared to assert that the Lord gave that apostle the rule not
only of the Universal Church, but also the rule of the whole world.
That these were not mere phrases on his lips was shown by his efforts
to extend his authority to the furthest bounds of Christendom. Favored
somewhat by circumstances, he became for a time the arbiter of the
destinies of the empire, but at no time did he have a foeman worthy of
his steel within its confines. These were rather to be found in the
limits of Christendom in the rising kingdoms of France and England,
whose sovereigns nevertheless trembled before his threats and repented
of their misdeeds. Like Gregory VII, he asked for no stronger weapons
than the terrors inspired by the wrath of Mother Church. Finally there
appeared in the arena the brilliant ward of this the greatest of
popes, Frederick II, aptly characterized as the first of modern kings,
striving for absolute mastery in Sicily and in Germany, placing his
trust, as did his illustrious ancestor in the Roman law, but utilizing
at the same time his knowledge of men and the rising power of the
bourgeoisie. His plans, like those of Barbarossa, met with vigorous
opposition at the hands of the popes and for much the same reasons.
Effects of the Struggle.
When we pass to our final consideration, namely, the effects of these
struggles on their participants and upon Europe, we find ourselves
face to face with incidents of a most dramatic character. The scene at
Canossa is the most familiar of these, but there was also the no less
humiliating spectacle later at the portals of St. Mark’s in Venice,
when Frederick Barbarossa sought a reconciliation with Alexander III,
followed almost a hundred years later by the tragic end of the last of
the Hohenstaufen. These events, dramatic as they appear, serve rather
to mark the progress of the long struggle than as epitomes of its
results. These must be sought in the relative position and influence of
the Church and empire in Europe at the end of the period. Although both
reached the apogee of their power and influence during this period, the
middle of the thirteenth century marks the period of their decline.
This decay was more marked at first in the case of the empire, which
practically ceased to exist in name. The time, however, was not far
distant when the papacy, too, was to enter the valley of humiliation
and drink to the dregs the bitter cup which it had put to the lips of
its great adversary. “One generation more and the same nation which had
sent an army to defend its cause in Italy was to strike it in the face
with the iron glove of one of its own subjects, and was then to capture
it and hold it, an ignominious tool for political ends during a century
more.”[6] These facts, with a more detailed statement of the various
symptoms of decay, should be impressed upon the student as the teacher
brings the period to a close.
Literature.
The account of the three phases of the struggle as given by Grant in
his “Outlines of European History,” is especially to be recommended for
its brevity, clearness, simplicity and comprehensiveness; also Chapter
X in Adams’s “Civilization During the Middle Ages,” which summarizes
the struggle from a slightly different standpoint. Portraits of the
main actors are to be found in Bemont and Monod’s “Medieval Europe
from 395 to 1270”; Tout, “Empire and Papacy,” and Emerton, “Medieval
Europe” (814-1300). These books are also valuable for their details of
the struggle. There is abundant source material in Robinson, Ogg, and
Thatcher and McNeal to make clear the attitude of the popes, notably
of Gregory VII and the various treaties and compromises which mark the
different stages of the struggle. In some cases contemporary accounts
are given of the struggle itself, e. g., of the scene at Canossa.
In this connection mention might be made of the description of this
scene by Dr. Jaeger as an illustration of the narrative method of
presentation as employed by the German schoolmaster.[7]
FOOTNOTES:
[6] Emerton, Medieval Europe, p. 355.
[7] Jaeger, The Teaching of History, Appendix, pp. 200-208.
English History in the Secondary School
C. B. NEWTON, Editor.
II. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH NATION; TO EDWARD I.
Feudalism: One Way to Get at It.
It seems to me better not to grapple with feudalism until the rage
of the Conquest is fairly passed, and we come to the actual reign of
William I, partly because we have our hands full before this in trying
to instil a reasonably clear idea of the Saxon forms of government,
and partly because it is not very clear just how early feudal forms
and customs began to be disseminated throughout England. So we may as
well merely mention their existence before the Norman régime, and not
explain them fully till we are called on to show what modification in
the continental system was made by the Conqueror.
The feudal system is so difficult to define briefly that most
text-books evade the attempt to do so. I believe, however, in
introducing even so large a subject as this with a terse definition,
such, for example, as: “Feudalism was a method of land ownership and
government common throughout Europe during the middle ages.” It does a
boy or girl no harm to learn a short statement like this, even though
it means little to him or her at first. It serves as a rallying point
for explanation; its terms are pegs on which to hang further details in
orderly fashion. To explain more concretely just what I mean, suppose
we take the above definition (any other would do), and see how we
may proceed with it in the class room so as to light it up with real
meaning.
A, let us say, has recited the definition glibly, having taken it down
in his note-book the day before, with instructions to learn it by
heart. “Now, A,” says the astute teacher, “do you understand what that
means?” “Not exactly,” hesitates A, if he is ingenuous (if he isn’t, he
may easily be confounded). “Good!” you reply, in one stroke commending
his honesty and showing that you do not expect bricks without straw.
“Let’s see if we can’t get at its meaning. Does your father own any
land?” (A surprised look and pricking up of ears in the class). “No?
Well, he rents your home, then? Yes? But somebody owns it, of course,
and how did he get it? Bought it? Probably. Do you know of any way of
getting land except by buying or renting it?” Voice from an excited
hand across the room, “How about wills?” “Yes, land may be inherited,
but it had to be bought once, didn’t it?” “Well,” you continue, to A
and the class, “this buying or renting for money is our ‘method of land
ownership,’ do you see? Now, did you ever hear of a man’s being in
Congress, or the legislature, or being a judge simply because he owned
or rented a certain amount of land? Certainly not. Men are elected or
appointed to places in our government. Land ownership and government
are separate matters. Just think how different it was in old England
(and throughout Europe, for that matter) in feudal times. Men held
high position in the nation largely because of their great estates
together with their prowess in war. Now, instead of buying or renting
land, how would your landlord or your father have got it, say in the
reign of William I, A?” “From the king or from some big noble.” “Right
you are--but how, for nothing?” “No, in return for fighting for him.”
“Yes, and on a few other conditions; they are given in your book. What
were they, X? What! asleep? Forgotten? C, tell us.” So you proceed
to draw out the details of homage, fealty, and service, the theory
of royal ownership, the terms suzerain, vassal, fief, etc., drilling
in the unfamiliar words by frequent use, comparing them as far as
possible with present terms and usages, and bringing out, by contrast
and comparison, the essentials of the whole system. Finally you show
that the system was universal throughout Christendom, explain what the
middle ages were (if A, C or X can’t), and point out the adaptability
of feudalism to the time. When you have finished this, your period will
have flown (lucky if the bell does not ring too soon!), and your mere
definition will mean something to all but your dullest pupils. On pp.
131-136 of Cheyney’s “Readings,” are some excellent practical details
of feudal procedure which will be found useful for examples.
A Logical Approach to the Origins of the Jury.
Did you ever stop to think how little your intelligent pupil
understands about some present-day institutions the origins of
which interest us because we appreciate their modern practice and
significance? Take, for example, the jury. A little questioning will
bring out whether or not your class knows the difference between a
trial jury and a grand jury, either in make-up or in functions. Unless
you are more fortunate than I have been, you will find they know very
little. Now, does it not seem an illogical absurdity to wade right into
the beginnings of the jury system in the days of Henry II when our
class has little or no notion of what the system is now, or what it
stands for? When we come to this point, therefore, in the epoch-making
reign of King Henry II, it is pertinent and profitable to digress into
a clear discussion of the jury of to-day, bringing out what knowledge
we can find in the class, and adding to it by some such Socratic
method of question and answer as we may have used in connection with
feudalism, rather than by giving a “talk” on the subject. After paving
the way in this fashion, we may start in with the Assize of Clarendon.
(Cheyney’s “Readings” pp. 141-142) and the distinction between
recognitors and presentment, so we shall emphasize the essential facts,
and also bring out both the similarity and the difference between
the germ and the present fruit of this ancient method of arriving at
justice.
Some Great Personalities.
I think it is helpful to the memory, and useful, because of the great
influence of the crown throughout English History, to bring out the
_personality_ of _every_ sovereign, so that the names of each dynasty
will not be a list of names and nothing more. But in every century
we shall find certain great personalities, either on the throne or
off it, which should be made as vivid as may be. To this rule the
eleventh and twelfth are no exception. There are five men in these
centuries which seem to me particularly worth dwelling on: William I
and Henry II,--surely two of the really great kings of England; Becket
and Langton, types of great churchmen and exemplars of the enormous
power of the Church; and Simon de Montfort, highest type among the
early nobility. Vivid word pictures of the Conqueror may be found
in Freeman’s “Norman Conquest,” Vol. II, pp. 106-113, and (shorter)
in Green’s “Short History,” pp. 74-76. Henry II is portrayed by a
contemporary, Cheyney’s “Readings,” pp. 137-139, and in Green, pp.
104-105. Becket is described by Green, p. 106, and a good story of his
relation to Henry II is told in Cheyney, p. 144. For Langton see Green,
pp. 126-127; for Simon de Montfort see Green, 152-153, or Cheyney, pp.
221-224.
Further Notes and References.
There is a good brief account of general conditions--Church and State,
development of learning, town and country life, architecture, etc., pp.
165-171 of Gardiner’s “Student’s History.” If one can get the time, a
reading, or re-reading, as the case may be, of Green’s “Short History”
on the towns, pp. 92-94; literature, pp. 117-121, and the universities,
pp. 132-141, is exceedingly refreshing. Cheyney’s “Readings” also
contain interesting quotations on the universities, pp. 188-195.
In bringing out the causes of the controversy over the Constitutions
of Clarendon, it is appropriate to quote William the Conqueror’s Edict
(Cheyney, pp. 109-110) in support of Becket’s contention, as well as
to read from the Constitutions themselves (Cheyney, pp. 146-150).
If one has time for a little touch of humor and human nature in the
class-room, not strictly important in itself, the account of the
bishop’s speeches before the pope, in connection with the quarrel with
Becket, is most amusing (Cheyney, pp. 151-154).
For a very full and interesting account of feudalism, see Beard’s
“Introduction to English Historians,” pp. 73-96. Shorter quotations
giving some interesting detail have already been referred to (Cheyney,
pp. 131-136.)
A clear account of the Government of England as established under the
Normans is contained in Chapter XVII of “The Normans in Europe,” in
the Epochs of History series, pp. 234-248. “The Early Plantagenets” in
the same series, is concise and useful for “side-lights” on John’s and
Henry III’s reigns.
On the Magna Charta, and on the Origin of Parliament, Beard’s
“Introduction,” pp. 110-123 and 124-138, respectively, contains a mine
of valuable comment. In connection with the famous parliament of 1265
the fact that parliament was not really a legislative body at this time
should be strongly emphasized.
For realism, I know nothing better than the graphic account in the
“Anglo-Saxon Chronicle” of the evils of Stephen’s reign (Cheyney, pp.
128-130, or, more briefly, Green, p. 103). The only good novel which I
know of in this period (I should be glad to hear of others) is Maurice
Hewlett’s “Richard Yea and Nay,” a wonderfully vivid book, but hardly
suitable to put in the hands of young folk in general.
Robinson and Beard’s Development of “Modern Europe”
REVIEWED BY PROFESSOR SIDNEY B. FAY, OF DARTMOUTH COLLEGE.
If a teacher finds that the remoteness of Pericles and Clovis makes
it difficult to arouse in the history class the most active interest
of the student, who nevertheless would be keen to know something of
Bismarck and Li Hung Chang; or if a teacher finds it unsatisfactory, in
the second year course in medieval and modern European history to try
to teach the spread of constitutional government and democratic ideas
from the French to the Turkish Revolution before the student knows
anything of the English parliamentary system and of the Industrial
Revolution; or if the teacher is assailed by the school-board or by
the tax-paying parents of the pupils, on the ground that ancient
and medieval history is relatively useless and ought to be replaced
by something more practical,--such a teacher will find in these two
volumes a very present help in time of trouble.
The authors have thrown to the winds the recommendations of the
Committee of Seven, and do not try to make their book fit into any
four years’ course as now outlined for high schools. The first volume
begins with the reign of Louis XIV; and from that moment the reader’s
eye is constantly directed forward to the present moment, so that
he can read intelligently the dispatches from Europe in his morning
newspaper. Much of the traditional matter is omitted in order to
give fuller treatment to those subjects which are most important for
an understanding of the present. This leads to an arrangement and a
placing of emphasis which often seems arbitrary and unhistorical,--as,
for instance, the scant half dozen pages given to the whole reign of
Napoleon III, or the insertion in each volume of a score of pages on
natural science. It is, of course, desirable to have the pupil have
some knowledge of the development and influence of such fundamental
subjects as evolution, bacteriology and the atomic theory; but it is
unwise to put these things in a text-book of history. Few teachers at
present could teach these pages properly; and efficiency of instruction
is likely to be weakened in any institution where instructors trespass
on each others’ fields. This criticism, however, does not apply to the
remarkable chapter on the Industrial Revolution and to the excellent
pages on socialism, colonial expansion, Russo-Japanese relations and
other timely topics of present-day interest; all of these may properly
be taught by the teacher of history.
The authors have made a text-book which is accurate, lucid, packed with
information, and, at the same time, extremely readable. It has already
been used in some college courses, and evokes real enthusiasm from the
students. They feel they are learning things which are of practical
value and are up to date.
Probably this text-book, at present at any rate, is better adapted for
college than for high school use. But schools of business or commerce
could very profitably use it. Ordinary high schools should have it in
the school library for collateral reading, but could not adopt it as a
text-book until they are ready to readjust their history curriculum so
as to give much more time than at present to Modern European History.
Perhaps that time is not far distant.
[“The Development of Modern Europe.” By James Harvey Robinson and
Charles A. Beard. Two volumes; pp. xi, 362; vii, 448. Boston, 1908:
Ginn & Co.]
American History in the Secondary School
ARTHUR M. WOLFSON, PH.D., Editor.
THE INFLUENCE OF OLIVER CROMWELL AND WILLIAM III ON AMERICAN HISTORY.
In teaching the history of Europe from the Treaty of Westphalia to the
beginning of the French Revolution, no mistake is commoner than the one
of regarding the almost continuous series of wars between the European
States as a purposeless struggle for territorial aggrandizement.
Equally in American history, the teacher is prone to allow his interest
in the growth of social and political institutions to obscure the fact
that the North American continent was, for nearly a century, merely
a distant battleground on which Holland, England and France were
struggling for commercial supremacy. “Unity is given to the history
of England in the eighteenth century,” says Seeley (“Expansion of
England,” p. 77), “if you remark the single fact that Greater Britain
during that period was establishing itself in opposition to Greater
France.... You will, I think, find it very helpful in studying the
history of those two countries always to bear in mind that throughout
most of that period the five States of Western Europe all alike are
not properly European States but world States, and that they debate
continually among themselves a mighty question, which is not European
at all and which the student with his eye fixed on Europe is too apt to
disregard, namely, the question of the possession of the New World.”
In the same way, the student of American history must be continually
reminded that he is studying not the history of half a dozen or more
isolated communities, but a phase of a great European struggle for
world power.
Struggle with the Dutch.
From 1689 to 1763, this struggle is marked by an almost continuous war
between France and England. An earlier generation, however, witnessed
a similar struggle between Holland and England. This earlier struggle
is also vitally important in the history of North America. Few students
of American history are aware of the unprecedented growth of the Dutch
maritime power during the first half of the seventeenth century. To
most of them the founding of New Netherlands is an isolated fact,
comparatively unimportant because the Dutch colony ultimately fell into
the hands of the English. The fact nevertheless remains that throughout
the greater part of the seventeenth century the carrying trade of the
world was in the hands of the Dutch and Amsterdam was the exchange of
the world. What Venice had been in the fifteenth century, Amsterdam
became in the seventeenth.
“To break this monopoly was England’s object; and to raise his country
to a position of leadership in the commercial world was one of the
greatest ambitions of Cromwell.” (Andrew’s “Colonial Self Government,”
p. 11; see also p. 15). In 1651, at the instance of Cromwell,
Parliament passed the first Navigation Act, “for the increase of the
shipping and the encouragement of the navigation of this [the English]
nation.” In the light of later events, we in America are too apt to
regard this act and its successors as designed to limit the trade of
the colonies. As a matter of fact, a sufficient study of these acts,
especially those of 1651 and 1660, will show that they were aimed
directly at the Dutch who were at the time the maritime carriers both
for England and for the other nations of Europe.
The Navigation Acts.
As a result of the first Navigation Act, England entered almost at once
on the series of three wars, 1652-1654, 1665-1667, 1672-1674, which
lasted just long enough to break the commercial supremacy of Holland.
Every school boy knows that as a result of these wars England acquired
the colony of New Netherlands, but few, even of his elders, realize
that, “The Navigation Act, which remained substantially in force for
nearly two hundred years is the great legislative monument of the
Commonwealth, it was the first manifestation of the newly awakened
consciousness of the community, the act which laid the foundation of
the English commercial empire.” (Seeley’s “Growth of British Policy,”
II, p. 25.)
Throughout this period of rivalry between Holland and England,
especially after 1660, often against the will of the people, the
English government maintained a close alliance with the king of
France, the bitterest enemy of the Dutch people. In the last years of
the reign of James II, however, the tide of English feeling turned
irresistibly against the French alliance. Though James still looked
to his cousin, Louis XIV, for aid and comfort, the people of England
would have no more of him, and for this reason, as well as for purely
domestic reasons, James was in the end forced to flee from the country.
Thenceforward, there was a complete change in the English foreign
policy.
The Dutch and English Against France.
When William of Orange, Stadtholder of Holland, the most uncompromising
enemy of Louis XIV, accepted the crown of England there came not only a
complete revolution in the English constitutional system, but also, and
far more important for the history of the American colonies, a complete
revolution in England’s foreign policy. War between England and France,
in spite of the traditional rivalry handed down from Plantagenet times,
had been extremely rare; Englishmen and Frenchmen had lived peacefully
side by side for half a century or more in the northeastern part of
North America, while Englishmen and Dutchmen were struggling for the
possession of the territory between Long Island Sound and Delaware Bay.
Henceforth, the English and the Dutch were to fight side by side in the
effort to break the power of Louis the Magnificent both in Europe and
in America. Just as between 1651 and 1689 it was the first interest
of the English that the maritime power of the Dutch should be broken,
so now, “it was a first interest of England that the encroachments of
France should be arrested, and that the Dutch should be saved from
destruction. The rivalry between the English and Dutch must cease; the
two sea powers must combine in opposition to France” (Seeley, “Growth
of British Policy,” II, p. 207).
How efficiently William III set this policy in motion is attested by
the history of Europe and America in the eighteenth century. Though
he personally never realized the magnitude of the issue, though from
first to last he was primarily interested in the preservation of
Holland, though had he realized that his work was to result in the
aggrandizement of England at the expense both of Holland and France, he
would probably never have accepted the English throne, the far-reaching
effects of this policy are to be seen not only in America but in Asia
and in Africa as well. The accession of William III is thus the turning
point in American colonial history. Almost at once, he set in motion
that series of wars which ended in America only when the last vestige
of French colonial empire had disappeared from the continent. What he
began, Marlborough and Pitt, in later generations, completed.
Influence Upon America.
If we keep these facts in mind: first, that the Navigation Act of 1651
inaugurated a trade policy that was to build up the English carrying
trade at the expense of the Dutch; and second, that the accession of
William of Orange as William III of England marked the end of the
rivalry between the English and the Dutch and inaugurated the struggle
between the English and the French, Oliver Cromwell and William of
Orange become two of the most important figures in American history and
therefore deserve far more attention than is usually accorded them in
teaching American history.
For the further study of this phase of American history, the student
is recommended to the works of Fiske and Parkman, and to the shorter
treatises contained in the volumes of Hart’s “American Nation.”
Especially important, however, are the two works of Professor J. R.
Seeley which have several times been quoted in this paper: “The Growth
of British Policy” and the “Expansion of England.”
A New Text-Book on American History By James and Sanford
REVIEWED BY JOHN SHARPLESS FOX, PH.D., OF THE UNIVERSITY HIGH SCHOOL,
CHICAGO.
The new text-book by James and Sanford is an advanced and compendious
manual for use in high schools. In it the authors have escaped in
large measure the fault common to some of our older texts of writing
an _essay_ on American history; on the other hand they have avoided
the more grievous error of dumping a mass of undigested facts into
their book. They have borne in mind the important principle that
generalizations, to be useful, must be accompanied by the _facts_. The
_how_ and the _why_ are explained in this text, and the authors do not
assume an undue intimacy with providence.
It has been their aim, they tell us, “to give the main features in
the development of our nation, to explain the America of to-day, its
civilization and its traditions.” They have sought to emphasize “the
achievements of men and women” in the more important fields of human
activity,--the “political, industrial, educational and religious.”
“Military phases of our history ... have been subordinated to the
accounts of the victories of peace.” They have given unusual attention
to “the advance of the frontier” and to “the growth and influence of
the West”; and “particular care has been taken to state the essential
facts in European history necessary to the explanation of events in
America.” Unlike some of our older books,--and the parson who announces
his text and bids it adieu--the authors have given no separate chapter
or section to physical geography, but have called attention to the
influence of geographical conditions in connection with events and
conditions as they arise. In the opinion of the reviewer, this method
has received a large measure of justification in the event, (e. g., pp.
92-95.)
In the matter of proportion, the authors have assigned much more space
than is usual to the period following the Civil War, and considerably
less to the period from 1789 to 1860; yet the latter does not suffer
thereby. The book is divided into chapters (XXXI), with appropriate
titles, and marginal notes indicate the contents of paragraphs.
Information of a more advanced and supplementary character has been
placed in smaller type, which may be omitted by teachers lacking time,
or at discretion. It is not clear, however, why the Ordinance of 1787
should be relegated to this minor position (p. 189).
Colonial History.
The account of the thirteen colonies is of sufficient fulness to show
clearly the origins of the people and their institutions. It is,
however, a matter of regret that the authors have not made it clearer
that the thirteen mainland colonies who won their independence were not
the only English colonial establishments in America. The discovery of
America is made reasonable (pp. 1-10); the varying motives of English
and European colonization, and the principal difficulties in the way
of permanent settlement by Europeans in America are clearly set forth
(pp. 30-40, 91); the fact that the Puritans were political as well as
religious refugees, of a practical character, and not merely religious
idealists, is made clear (pp. 53-55). The land systems prevailing in
the different colonies are explained (pp. 43, 47, 52, _et passim_),
and the more general statement is made (p. 91): “The great underlying
economic fact of this [eighteenth century] colonization was the
existence in America of boundless areas of cultivable land that might
be had on easy terms.” The Indians are treated in their contact with
the whites, and their degeneracy is made the occasion of general
remarks on the inevitable consequences attending the contact between
a superior and an inferior race (pp. 98-100). Here, too, “the land
question” is shown to be fundamental. The influence of the fur-trade
in this and later times is dwelt upon (pp. 97-98, 108, 111). A notable
statement of seventeenth century colonial conditions and of eighteenth
century problems occurs on pages 101-102.
Social and economic life receives unusual attention throughout the
book, and wherever possible is shown in its relation to physical
conditions and environment. The West receives the best treatment we
have noted in any text-book. Excellent accounts of why the settlers
went to the West, how they travelled, how they obtained their land, and
of how Western democracy arose and reacted on the East, are here given.
(See “Westward Migration and Internal Improvements,” pp. 273-281).
The authors make no attempt to “write down” to their readers, and we
suspect that some of their economic discussions of international trade,
financial crises, and monetary problems will overshoot the mark. Be it
said, however, that things are everywhere reduced to their simplest
terms. Something must be left to the teacher,--and to providence! Some
of the other more important topics treated are: Progress in invention
and labor-saving devices, and their attendant effects on production;
the growth of commerce due to increased facilities for transportation;
the growth of capitalistic combinations, corporations, and trusts, with
their attendant problems of legislative regulation; the rise of labor
unions and their _raison d’etre_ (Chapters XXVII, XXIX). Educational,
literary, philanthropic, and religious history are given due attention.
Topics and Biographical Notes.
An excellent feature of the political and constitutional history is the
presence of brief biographical sketches of important statesmen. For
teachers who prefer to teach American government in connection with the
history, special provision is made by means of marginal references and
supplementary questions, and an elaborate outline of topics arising
in the text is added (Appendix I, pp. 527-534), with appropriate
references to the Constitution and to the authors’ “Government in State
and Nation.” This is further supplemented by a list of topics, relating
to other features of our government not naturally arising in a history
course.
The book is provided with abundant and well-selected illustrations,
from authentic sources; the maps are numerous and helpful, but not
distinctive. At the end of each chapter are suggestive and stimulating
topics and questions, with references within the compass of high school
pupils. These references are almost unique in that they are _specific_
and _brief_.
A few inaccuracies and misleading statements have been noticed: The
statement, “There was no gold in this region” (p. 23), referring to
Spanish territory in the United States, should be modified. None was
_found_. For “Eyler” read Tyler (p. 67); for “Cheney” (p. 91), read
Cheyney. The remark respecting the slave trade, that “during colonial
times no protest seems to have arisen against the wickedness and
inhumanity of this traffic” (p. 131) loses sight of the Mennonite
protest of 1688, as well as the work and writings of John Woolman,
Anthony Benezet, and others. Finally, Connecticut is correctly stated
Democratic in the text, but erroneously Republican in the Election Map
of 1876 (p. 447).
Taken as a whole, the book is well adapted to its purpose. The style is
usually simple and direct; facts are well selected and are clearly and
impartially stated; the scholarship is of a high order. The index might
be made fuller with profit.
[“American History.” By James Alton James, Professor of History in
Northwestern University, and Albert Hart Sanford, Professor of History
in the Stevens Point, Wisconsin State Normal School. New York: Charles
Scribner’s Sons. 1909. Pp. xvii, 563.]
Ancient History in the Secondary School
WILLIAM FAIRLEY, Ph.D., Editor.
EARLY GREECE
Scope of the Month’s Work.
In our larger city schools the work is so systematized that the teacher
knows just how far along he should be at any season of the year. For
teachers who are working by themselves in small schools and are not
specialists in history a very useful guide may be found in the “History
Syllabus for Secondary Schools,” issued by the New England History
Teachers’ Association, and published by D. C. Heath & Co., of Boston.
The “Outline of Ancient History,” in pamphlet form may be had by
itself. One value of these outlines is that they divide the work into
one hundred exercises, and then indicate the proportion of time this
group of teachers have found it wise to devote to each section of the
work. During October the teacher ought to carry his class down nearly
to the Persian invasions, and at least as far as the development of
Sparta.
Importance of the Greeks.
It is hard for the cultured teacher to feel the difference between his
own attitude toward Greece and that of the child of fourteen or fifteen
who is approaching the subject for the first time. To such a child
Greece is simply a name as yet. And it would seem to be a good practice
for the teacher in a simple talk to try to enlist the interest of his
class by some statement of the reasons why we are going to devote
nearly a half year to the study of a very little, and to-day very
obscure, country. The teacher should show certain characteristics which
make Greece of vast importance. Among these will be found the fact of
the wonderful intellectual force of the Greeks, which led them into
the same lines of thought and investigation which interest the modern
world; their love of independence, in such marked contrast with the
servility of the Oriental races at whose history we have been looking
in the past month, and especially their artistic supremacy, which made
them the great masters in the creation of beauty for all time; and
their masterpieces in architecture and sculpture should be contrasted
with the work of Egyptians and Mesopotamians, for the most part so
grotesque and unlovely.
This article will not attempt to follow the month’s lessons at all in
detail, but will emphasize the main things which the young student
should carry forward with him as the early story of this people who
made themselves in so many ways the forerunners of our modern life.
Map Work.
An early task is to become familiar with the physical characteristics
of the land. Nothing will help better than map-drawing. Relief maps
are of great service as showing the mountainous nature and the effect
of this on private and public life. Ancient Greece was about two
hundred and fifty miles in length from north to south and one hundred
and sixty-five miles at the most from east to west. It lies between
the thirty-sixth and fortieth parallels of latitude, corresponding
very closely in distance and latitude to our coast as it extends from
the partition line of the Carolinas up as far as New York City. A
comparison of the area of Greece with that of the pupil’s own State
is desirable. For instance, while the area of New York State is about
48,000 square miles, Greece contained but 21,000. And very early in the
course the fact should be brought out that this tiny territory, in the
greatest days of its people, was never united politically, but divided
into rival States, really nations, each only about as large as one
of our counties. A wholesome corrective to our American boastfulness
over size may be found in the slightness of area and population of
this marvellous land, which has contributed so many more than its
proportionate share of mighty men.
Races and Migrations.
Pelasgian, Mycenean, Achæan, Dorian,--such was the order of the
peoples who made Greece. The Greeks, or Hellenes, in whom our interest
is centered, belong to the two last of these groups. The Pelasgians
concern us in the high schools only as much as the men of the stone age
in British history. The Myceneans we know only from the ruins of their
towns. That in some respects they were ahead of the earlier Achæans
might be pointed out. The relationship of the historic Greeks to the
other races of Europe and their kindred with ourselves are important.
We feel strange toward Egyptian and Babylonian, but are cousins to
the Greeks. The teacher who happens to know Greek might show the
similarities of Greek and English speech in the common homely words of
everyday life.
Epic, Myth and Legend.
Most of our pupils have heard in the lower schools something of Homer
and his “Iliad” and “Odyssey”; and the stories of some of the gods and
heroes are more or less familiar. When the teacher comes to the Homeric
poems he will not be able to interest his young charges very much in
their higher criticism; but he would do well, if time allow, to use the
special topic and report method here. The story of the “Iliad,” the
theme of the “Odyssey,” and certain characteristic episodes from each
might be read to the class by pupils assigned to such duty. A similar
course may be taken with regard to the legends of the heroes and gods.
One interesting story read will be worth a week of mere recital of the
twelve labors of Heracles, or the dry account of the fact that Perseus
had something to do with Medusa, and Bellerophon with the Chimæra.
In these times of slighting of the ancient world it is well to
reflect how many of the commonest allusions of literature, and even
of political editorials, depend for their meaning upon some knowledge
of the Greek stories. We speak of “hundred-handed” (Briareus) or
“hundred-headed” (Hydra) evils of municipal mismanagement; we talk of
“cleansing the Augean stables”; Cyclops, Siren, Gorgon, Chimæra, are
household words. We owe it to the children not to let them escape into
life without some ability to grasp the content of such daily allusions.
Early Politics.
Mention has already been made of the petty size of the typical Greek
State. The marvel is that the Greeks did so much while so divided. We
shall speak of “city states.” Some child will run away with a notion of
something like New York or Boston with its suburbs. Make them feel that
all Greece never had as many people as New York City.
It was the intense Greek individualism which kept the States apart.
The difference between Greek individualism and that of the Englishman
or American should be indicated. The latter is personal. The Greek was
swallowed up in his State, that was his unit and his love.
The progress through monarchy, oligarchy and tyranny to democracy is
rightly made much of in the books. (Compare the “tyrant” with our
“boss.”) When we come to the development and the glories of the Greek
democracy a large degree of caution is needed. In the writer’s opinion
there is a good deal of glamour about this so-called democracy. The
best Greek never dreamed of manhood suffrage, or the rights of man as
man. In his view never were “all men created free and equal.” Athens
in her best days had but 30,000 voters, and refused citizenship to all
outsiders, even fellow-Greeks from across the nearest border line.
Slavery was one of the corner-stones of society. So far as it went,
the democracy of Athens was of the pure type. That should be made
plain when reached. While our modern democracy, save for minor phases,
is representative and not pure, the fact remains that the nineteenth
century has brought to birth the only real democracy. And that is one
point of our superiority over the Greeks and of more importance than
our mechanical and scientific advantages.
West, in his “Ancient World,” gives an excellent summary of the bonds
which made the Greek world one against all “barbarians” in spite of
rivalries among their petty States. He cites (pp. 95-97) the common
language and literature; the belief in racial kinship; the Olympian
religion, with its games, oracles and amphictyonies, as such forceful
bonds of union.
The little land we know as Greece was but a small part of the Hellenic
world. Doubtless the eastern shore of the Ægean Sea was as truly
Hellenic as Attica or Sparta. And the colonies from that coast to
Massilia in the west, and notably in Sicily and Magna Græcia, were of
vast importance in spreading Greek speech and ideals through the later
Roman world and down into modern times. The political independence
of the Greek colony is of interest. A good exercise for some student
would be to point out how Marseilles, or Syracuse or Chalcis or Cumæ
differed in their relations to the parent States from the relationship
of the Philippines to the United States, or of Canada or India to Great
Britain. And this topic is another illustration of the truth that save
for a few cases like the successful resistance to the Persians, the
service of the Greeks to the world has been mainly in the intellectual
rather than in the physical and political sphere.
Social Life at Rome in the Age of Cicero
FOWLER’S RECENT WORK REVIEWED BY PROFESSOR A. C. HOWLAND.
This book on Roman social life in the last generation of the Republic,
by the well-known author of “The City State of the Greeks and Romans”
and other studies in ancient history, will be welcomed by teachers both
of Roman history and of Latin. No other study in English deals with
just this aspect of the period, and the easy style and interesting
method of presentation make the work especially valuable as collateral
reading for classes. Its material has been drawn largely from Cicero’s
correspondence and the results of widely-scattered investigations have
here been brought together and digested.
The first chapter is devoted to the topography of Rome. After a
statement of the principal geographical causes for the growth of Roman
dominion (pp. 4-8), there follows (pp. 12-23) a description of the main
points of interest within the walls in Cicero’s day, the account being
noteworthy alike for its clearness and for its omission of details. A
good map at the end of the book enables the reader to fix each feature
of the city accurately. The second chapter, on the lower population,
is perhaps the most interesting in the book, as it deals with a topic
seldom discussed and on which our information is very meager. The
subject is discussed under three heads--how this population was housed,
how it was fed and clothed and how it was employed. Notwithstanding
the contempt felt by the writers of the period for the lower classes,
Mr. Fowler makes it evident that an understanding of their environment
will explain many an obscure point in the history of the period. Why,
for instance, had the old Roman religion fallen into such decay at
the close of the Republic? We naturally look for scepticism among
the cultured, where the old traditions had been undermined by the
sudden influx of wealth and Greek culture, but not among the poor and
ignorant, who could have been little touched by such influences. But
when we consider the tenement houses in which the poor lived, with
whole families occupying but one or two rooms (pp. 28-32), it can be
seen that there was no place here for the Penates or the family hearth,
that the old domestic rites, which constituted the Roman religion so
far as it affected the individual, were of necessity driven out and
that the poorer classes were forced to satisfy their religious cravings
by substituting the gregarious, non-family oriental cults, with their
common temples and services. Here the worshippers could enter into
personal relations with a deity as they could not in the indigenous
Roman temple, which had to do solely with the State’s worship. The only
other point around which the personal religious feeling of the old
Roman clung--the family tomb--likewise no longer existed for the poor
Roman of the city, who could not afford this luxury, but must see the
members of his family cast into a common burying place with many others
(p. 320).
As to the employment of the lower classes, it is pointed out that
in spite of the contempt for retail trade and the crafts--a feeling
similar to that of the higher classes in England and due to the same
causes--there were many callings at which free Romans must have
worked at this time, including milling and baking, market gardening,
shoemaking, the making and washing of woolen clothing, etc. (pp.
42-55). But the inadequacy of legal protection for the poor and the
uncertainty of employment made a regular income precarious.
In chapter III there is given an excellent description of the
activities and business organizations of the Equites in their
capacities both as public contractors (pp. 65-80) and as private
business men (pp. 80-94), which throws much light on the sources of
wealth and the financial methods of this class. The following chapter,
on the governing aristocracy, attempts to classify the various types
of the nobility and to illustrate each by a brief sketch of some one
of its members. The attitude of the old and new nobility towards each
other, the effects for good and for evil of the Greek culture on
the various classes, and the frivolity and absence of the sense of
responsibility among the younger public men are well brought out. The
lively description of Cœlius, the talented, but scatter-brained, young
friend and pupil of Cicero (pp. 127-33), is one of the most interesting
passages of the book.
After thus taking up the different classes of the Roman population,
the author proceeds to discuss the more general aspects of the life
of the day under such headings as “Marriage and the Roman Lady,”
“Education of the Upper Classes,” “The Slave Population,” “The House
of the Rich Man in Town and Country,” “Daily Life of the Well-to-do,”
“Holidays and Public Amusements and Religion.” The treatment throughout
is fresh and vivid, except in the chapter on public amusements, which
is rather uninteresting. Under the subject of marriage, after a
discussion of the decay of that institution and the increase of divorce
and immorality, we are especially grateful for the story of the long
and beautiful wedded life, as found in the so-called “Laudatio Turiæ,”
and now told in full in English for the first time (pp. 158-67). There
must have been many similar cases of domestic devotion and happiness,
but they naturally pass unmentioned in the writings of the time, as
they largely do in the literature of our own day. The discussion of
Roman education is valuable because it explains the weak points of
the system and the way in which these produced many of the moral
shortcomings in the men of the day. The question of slavery is viewed
from an unprejudiced standpoint. Its influence on the depopulation of
the provinces is clearly brought out (pp. 206-10), but it is also shown
that its economic effects in Italy were not altogether evil, and that
slave labor by no means drove free labor from the market (pp. 213-22).
The author holds with Wallon[8] and Seeck[9] that the unrestricted
manumission of slaves had on the whole an injurious effect on Roman
life and character. The Roman idea of religion, so puzzling to the
average student, is nowhere more clearly explained than in the last
chapter, and here as elsewhere the treatment is so simple and plain as
well as scholarly, that no better book can be placed in the hands of a
class.
[“Social Life at Rome in the Age of Cicero.” W. Ward Fowler. The
Macmillan Co. 1909. Pp. xiii, 362.]
FOOTNOTES:
[8] Histoire de l’Esclavage.
[9] Geschichte des Untergangs der antiken Welt.
History in the Grades
ARMAND J. GERSON, Editor.
COLUMBUS,--SPANISH EXPLORER. A TYPE-LESSON.
If the lesson on Columbus is to be indeed a type-lesson, it behooves
the teacher in preparing it to make a careful selection of such
elements of the story as may properly form the basis for the subsequent
teaching of other Spanish explorers. As was pointed out in this
department in last month’s issue,[10] the truest economy in history
teaching consists in the careful construction of a definite foundation
of correct historical concepts upon which the detailed superstructure
of later lessons may be rapidly and yet substantially reared.
Certain elements in the life, environment, and explorations of
Christopher Columbus may well be used as the foundation for the
teaching of all the Spanish explorations of the New World. These
essential elements should be presented with great thoroughness, and
the children’s interest in them made active and enthusiastic. Their
knowledge of them must be concrete, many-sided, living; only then will
it constitute what the psychologist likes to call the “apperceptive
basis” for subsequent analysis, comparison, and generalization.
On the other hand, the teaching of Columbus will necessarily involve
many facts which belong distinctively to his life and actions, and to
which later Spanish explorations have little, or at the most a very
remote relation. It is obvious that the teaching of such portions of
our topic can hardly be said to constitute a “type-lesson.” These
points serve a definite purpose of their own, and should be presented
in their own way. Let us, therefore, in our practical consideration of
the presentation of our lesson on Columbus, consider separately the
“type-elements” and what for convenience we may call the “specific
elements.”
Previous Preparation.
In the first place, in the preparation of our lesson on Columbus,
as, in fact, in the preparation of any lesson, the teacher must have
definitely in mind just what preliminary instruction has been given.
Let us assume, then, that the soil has been prepared,--that the class
is already familiar with the ideas of the size and shape of the earth
which were current in the 15th century; with the parts of the world
that were known; with the general geographical situation of the chief
nations of Europe; with the nature of the trade with the Far East; and,
still more important, with the causes of the activity of the time in
the direction of finding new trade routes to the Orient. These basic
ideas should have become firmly fixed and their interrelations clearly
brought out before we introduce our Columbus “type-lesson.”
What are the essential features of the Columbus lesson, the emphasis
of which will entitle it to be considered a “type-lesson”? Or, to
re-phrase our query, what are the “type-elements” of the story of
Columbus?
Spanish Characteristics.
First of all, if our lesson is to typify the Spanish explorers as a
group, it should supply a basic concept of Spanish life and character
in the 15th and 16th centuries. It is not a matter of much difficulty
to arouse in our pupils a real interest in the Spaniards of that time.
There is so much of the romantic and the picturesque about this phase
of American history that for the conscientious teacher it will always
constitute one of the most attractive portions of his work. Varied
selections from literature suitable to the age of the children should
be read to them. Better still, they should be encouraged to continue
this sort of reading on their own accounts; appropriate material for
this purpose should be on hand in the school library. The religious
element in Spanish life should receive particular emphasis, some
reference being made to the Inquisition and the popular attitude toward
heresy. As an important element in the European background of American
history, this phase of our subject dare not be overlooked, but it goes
without saying that in our public schools it is a topic which must be
handled with extreme tact. The severe etiquette of the Spanish court,
the Spanish dress, Spanish arms and armor, should all receive their
proper amount of attention. Pictures, as well as stories, should be
brought into constant requisition to make this portion of the work
concrete.
Some notion of the political standing and relations of Spain, properly
adapted to children of elementary school age, must also be considered
as essentially a “type-element” in our lesson. For pupils in the grades
it will probably suffice to point out very briefly the long struggle
with the Moors, brought to a successful termination by Ferdinand and
Isabella in 1492; the combination in the 16th century of various and
widely separate realms under the Hapsburgs; and the natural jealousy of
France and England toward this rising world-power.
The next “type-element” necessary to consider will be the topic of
Spanish modes of navigation. At this point our lesson becomes typical
of the period of exploration in general rather than of Spanish
explorations in particular, inasmuch as Spanish vessels, sailors,
etc., were not, for our purposes in the grades at least, essentially
different from those of other contemporary nations. It is important,
however, that our pupils should have definite ideas on this point if
their knowledge of the early explorations is to be in any true sense
real. Pictures of Spanish vessels of the period are easy to procure,
and should be referred to in this connection. Attention should be
called to the significant features of these boats,--their small size,
their peculiar construction, their usual rate of speed, etc. In all
purely descriptive work of this sort it is well for the teacher to keep
in mind that a happy comparison is frequently of more value than pages
of prosy details and measurements. Take, for example, Mark Twain’s
delightful comparison in his description of one of the pyramids: each
stone as big as a freight-car!
Finally, the prevailing superstitious fears of unknown seas, wild
notions regarding the monsters of the deep and inhabitants of distant
lands, the consequent scarcity of sailors for voyages of exploration,
the bravery and steadfastness of purpose required to lead such
an expedition,--these points may surely be said to constitute a
“type-element.” To be sure, as time went on and ignorance of distant
regions gradually disappeared, the force of these factors in history
diminished. Throughout the exploration period, however, they remain
an element to be reckoned with and constantly to be referred to.
Selections from Mandeville might very appropriately be read in this
connection to lend color and life to the presentation.
Life of Columbus.
We are now ready to consider what we have designated the “specific
elements” of the Columbus lesson; that is, those features of the story
that refer to Columbus as an individual explorer, but can hardly be
considered typical of the Spanish explorations in general. If the
“type-elements” have been duly impressed, this portion of the lesson
will present little difficulty and can be covered in a comparatively
short time, largely, in fact, in the form of readings.
The nationality and early life of Columbus should first occupy the
attention of teacher and class. The fact that he was an Italian is
significant. Passing reference might well be made to the political
disorganization of Italy and the declining importance of its commercial
centers. The boyhood of our hero is picturesque and may easily be made
to arouse the interest of boys and girls of our own day. Let them feel
that he was a child like themselves and give them some appreciation of
his childhood’s environment,--the Italian sky and sea-coast.
The geographical ideas of Columbus and the development of his pet
project have a definite relation to the preliminary lessons on the
geographical notions of his time. His errors should be clearly pointed
out. In this portion of the presentation, as in most others, a good
wall map must be on hand for constant reference.
The futile attempts of Columbus to get the support necessary
for his venture need not occupy us long. His experience at the
court of Spain, however, and his first voyage will require more
elaborate treatment. Here constant reference must be made to the
“type-elements,”--particularly in connection with Spanish court life,
Spanish motives, the furnishing and manning of the three boats which
constituted his fleet.
The subsequent voyages of Columbus may be passed over very rapidly,
preferably with very little detail. Similarly his later life and his
sad death will call for but passing notice.
This entire narrative portion of our topic is largely handled for us
by any of the standard elementary text-books, which, by the way, it is
important that our pupils should learn to use. The real teaching, that
is to say, the history tracing and idea-building, has been accomplished
in connection with the “type-elements.” The rest of the problem in
large measure solves itself.
The “type-lesson” on Columbus just outlined will occupy a number of
history periods. It is important that it should not be hurried. The
old pedagogic maxim that we should make haste slowly applies with
peculiar force to the “type-lesson” method. We begin slowly that we
may gain time later. More than that, we are furnishing our pupils
with a definite stock of fundamental historical notions which will
constitute for them a genuine intellectual capital. As they go on with
the study of history, they will find that their “type ideas” help to
interpret the detailed facts they meet, which facts in turn will tend
to re-enforce the “type-ideas.”
FOOTNOTE:
[10] “The Type-Lesson in History,” HISTORY TEACHER’S MAGAZINE,
September, 1909.
Reports from the Historical Field
WALTER H. CUSHING, Editor.
A New Organization.
The history teachers of Colorado are about to organize an association
and have appointed a committee, of which Professor James G. Willard is
chairman. With so many questions in history teaching still unsettled,
we welcome a new organization which by discussion and interchange
of views will hasten the solution of these problems. The history
teachers in about one-half the States of the Union are now included in
organizations, with the American Historical Association as a sort of
clearing house.
Raising the Standard in Louisiana.
Heretofore the State course of study has not provided for a
satisfactory history program in the high schools, but with this year
a new course of study goes into operation which gives about three
years to history. At the request of the State Department of Education
Professor Walter L. Fleming, of the State University, has prepared a
syllabus covering the work, with suggestions for map work, reading,
note-books, etc. In the future two or even three years’ work in history
may be required of the candidates for the freshman class.
Considerable interest has been developed in certain fields of history
by the Rally Day competition at the University. The high schools of
the State send representatives to the High School Rally Day at the
University in April. These pupils are chosen after local contests and
sent to Baton Rouge. The pupils’ subjects for the debate and essay
contests are published by the Program Committee.
To prepare teachers adequately for their work two courses are offered
at the State University, one in “Methods of Teaching History,” and
another in “Aids in the Studying and Teaching of History.” Instruction
covers use of texts, sources, reference works, map work, pictures,
advertising, material useful in history teaching, etc. Great
improvement is already noticeable and especially good work is done in
Shreveport and New Orleans.
Proceedings of the North Central History Teachers’ Association.
The annual report of this association, containing the papers and
discussions of the April meeting, was issued during the summer.
As usual, it contains much which will repay careful reading and
reflection even by those who were fortunate enough to be present at
the meeting. Professor Samuel B. Harding, of Indiana University, in
treating of “Some Concrete Problems in the Teaching of Medieval and
Modern History,” opposed the plan of teaching this field of history
on the “single nation” plan. With regard to the proportion of time
to be allotted the parts of this course, he advocated giving roughly
one-third to the period 800 A.D.-1500 A.D.; another one-third to
the period ending with 1789, and the final one-third to the French
Revolution and the 19th century. He suggested several devices for
emphasizing the “time” problem, or chronology, urged the use of maps,
and especially called attention to the greatest problem, how to make
history concrete, how to make it definite. The speaker advocated the
regular use of note-books and urged a greater use of pictures.
In considering “What Changes Should be Made in the Report of the
Committee of Seven?” Professor A. C. McLaughlin referred to the
complaint, especially in the East, against the great length of the
course in ancient history. He gave reasons why it had seemed desirable
to the Committee of Seven to continue the study of Roman history to 800
A.D., and predicted that the Committee of Five will cling to that year,
“but recommend, more decidedly and with more assurance than did the
earlier report, the somewhat hasty perusal of the period from 300 to
800. It may be desirable to state very distinctly and definitely what
topics should be taken up....
“The most perplexing question is how the general history of Western
Europe should be treated from 800 or thereabouts to the present
time.” The speaker would not change the general arrangement of the
four blocks recommended in the old report, but advised a very hurried
treatment of the first six or eight hundred years. (Compare Professor
Harding, above.) There are serious objections to giving up a continuous
and unbroken treatment of English history as is sometimes recommended.
In its recommendation on Civil Government the Committee of Seven
seems to have been misunderstood. The old report did not advise that
separate courses in civil government should not be given. It urged a
strong combined course in American history and government in preference
to two separate weak courses. In any case they should be taught as
interrelated and interdependent subjects.
At the business meeting of the association, Carl E. Pray, of the Normal
School, Milwaukee, was elected president, and George H. Gaston, of the
Wendell Phillips High School, Chicago, was re-elected secretary.
A Syllabus in Civil Government for Secondary Schools.
Considerable interest has been aroused in the forthcoming syllabus in
Civil Government prepared by a special committee of the New England
History Teachers’ Association, for whom it will be published late in
the fall by the Macmillan Company.
There will be two parts to the book: An introduction of about twenty
pages given to a discussion of the general subject and representing
in a limited field the relation that the report of the Committee of
Seven bore to the History Syllabus; and the syllabus proper consisting
of approximately one hundred and twenty pages, with topics, diagrams,
general and specific references and bibliographies. Specimen pages of
the syllabus have been tried in the class-rooms of schools in widely
different parts of the country, and the subject was discussed at the
April meeting of the association.
Many problems confronted the committee at the outset, and at least a
working agreement had to be reached upon the following questions:
1. What should be the position of the study and what time allotment
should it reasonably expect?
2. What should be the aims of instruction in government in secondary
schools?
3. What should be the scope and what should be the places of emphasis?
4. What should be its relation to other subjects of the curriculum?
5. What should be the point of attack and order of topics?
6. What should be the method?
7. What should be the form of the syllabus?
The conclusions reached by the committee may be briefly summarized.
Two or two and one-half forty-five-minute periods a week should be
allotted, and the subject should be correlated with United States
history. Instruction in civics should aim to train the mind, to develop
political intelligence, to awaken civic consciousness, to interest
the pupil in civic duty, and to prepare him, through instruction and
practice, for its exercise. The scope of the subject should include
actual government as found in the local unit, the State, and the
nation, with so much of the history of government as is needed to
explain present institutions and conditions. Enough of the theory of
government should be given to establish an orderly arrangement of the
subject matter in the pupil’s mind. The ethical principles underlying
government should be examined in a concrete way; and attention should
be given to the application of these principles in the social duties of
school life.
Civics should not be confounded with constitutional history. It is
important enough to have its own field, and, while correlated with
history, economics and ethics, should not be trammeled by either of
these.
The most serious problem which the committee had to solve was that of
the order of topics. Should local or national government come first?
The majority of the committee favored local, State, national as the
order. They also decided that not more than one-fourth of the time
should be given to a study of the federal government.
Much stress is laid on the importance of studying local government,
so far as possible, at first hand. This necessitates frequent,
systematically-planned visits to local bodies and careful study of
local documents, such as reports, specimen papers, etc.
No hard and fast form for the syllabus has been used. Sometimes topics,
sometimes questions, and again statements are used wherever best
adapted to the purpose.
The committee consists of Dr. Hay Greene Huling, English High School,
Cambridge, chairman; Wilson R. Butler, High School, New Bedford;
Professor L. B. Evans, Tufts College; Dr. John Haynes, Dorchester High
School; Dr. W. B. Munro, Harvard University. Mr. Butler is editor for
the committee.
Report of the Committee of Eight.
This report on history in the elementary grades has been prepared by a
committee of the American Historical Association, Professor James A.
James, of Northwestern University, chairman, and will be published this
fall by “Scribner’s.” The work for each of the eight grades is treated
in detailed topics accompanied by reading lists for teachers and for
pupils. The object of the course for the first two grades is “to give
the child an impression of primitive life and an appreciation of public
holidays.” Grade three deals with Heroes of Other Times, Columbus,
and the Indians. In the fourth and fifth grades emphasis is placed on
Historical Scenes and Persons in American History. The object sought
in grade six is to impress on the child’s mind that “the beginnings
of American ways of living are to be sought far back in the story of
the world.” The topics, therefore, seek to bring out the contributions
made by Greeks, Romans, and the people of medieval Europe, especially
England, closing with the defeat of the Spanish Armada. The seventh
grade topics deal with the exploration and settlement of North America
and the growth of the colonies to 1763. The eighth grade topics bring
United States history down to the present time, and suggest subjects
for supplementary talks on European history.
The report also contains a chapter on Methods, an “Outline for Teaching
the Development of a Constitutional Government in the Eighth Grade in
Three Lessons of Forty Minutes Each,” contributed by Miss Blanche A.
Cheney, of the Lowell, Mass., State Normal School; an “Outline for
Teaching the Birth of the German Nation in the Eighth Grade,” by Miss
Blanche E. Hazard, of the Brockton, Mass., High School; an article on
elementary civics, and appendices on history teaching in German, French
and English elementary schools.
The subject of history in the elementary grades has also been treated
in a stimulating manner in a course prepared by Superintendent W. F.
Gordy for the schools of Springfield, Mass. The work is here outlined
for nine grades, the last being devoted to English history as related
to the history of our own country.
NEW ENGLAND ASSOCIATION.
The next meeting of the New England History Teachers’ Association
will be held on Saturday, October 16, in Boston. The Council
seriously considered for a time the expediency of waiving the
constitutional requirement and holding the meeting in the western part
of Massachusetts, probably in Greenfield. The preference of a large
minority of the members for Boston, however, led the Council to follow
the regular practice of holding the annual meeting in Boston. The
association has held meetings in Springfield, Hartford and Portland,
and the wisdom of meeting once a year outside of Boston seems proved
by the large attendance at those places.
Had the meeting been held in Greenfield, the subject would have been
“Local Aids in the Study of History,” a most appropriate topic for
a meeting in that richly historical region. For the Boston meeting
the Council has selected the subject of “Economics,” which has been
clamoring for recognition ever since the association was founded.
Topics in economics enter to a considerable extent into American
history, but it is a question how far economic theory should be
developed in a secondary school course. The field is a tempting one
to a teacher filled with his subject: the fundamental principles of
money, foreign trade, rent, capital and labor, corporate organization,
socialism, these and many others the young man will inevitably come
in contact with daily. What guidance shall he have and where shall he
obtain it?
Bibliographies.
Of considerable value to all progressive teachers of history is the
“Annual List of Books on History and Civics,” selected and critically
reviewed with reference to their value for high school teachers and
pupils prepared by a special committee of the North Central Association
under the editorship of Professor W. J. Chase, of the University of
Wisconsin. The list comprises new books on teaching history, ancient,
medieval and modern, English history and government, United States
history and government. Each title is accompanied by name of publisher
and price. There is a critical estimate averaging half a page.
Text-books and special treatises on a small field are not included.
Copies may be obtained of Mr. G. H. Gaston, Wendell Phillips High
School, Chicago, for twenty-five cents.
“The Atlantic Educational Journal,” published by the Maryland
Educational Publishing Company, Baltimore, Md., has a “Bibliography of
History for Schools,” prepared by a committee of the Association of
History Teachers of Maryland under the chairmanship of Professor C. M.
Andrews.
The Macmillan Company published in June the valuable bibliography
prepared by Miss Grace Gardner Griffin, entitled “Writings on American
History, 1907.” This is the second year of the publication of the work
in this form; the volume contains a bibliography of books and articles
upon Continental United States and Canada, and some references to
other portions of America. Dr. J. Franklin Jameson, of the Carnegie
Institution of Washington, has again supervised the making of the
year-book.
* * * * *
A new commercial geography is announced by Henry Holt & Co. as in
course of preparation by Dr. John P. Goode, assistant professor of
geography in the University of Chicago.
EXCHANGE OF PROFESSORS IN THE SUMMER SCHOOLS.
An excellent result of the establishment of summer schools has been the
interchange of the teaching forces of colleges and universities; and on
a minor scale the employment of strong secondary school men in summer
college courses. Much has been made of the international exchange of
professors recently brought about; but unconsciously within our own
country there has been established a custom which must prove very
valuable not alone to institutions inviting outside instructors, but
also to those instructors themselves, and to their own institutions.
Thus, taking the history men alone last summer Harvard was represented
at the University of California, Yale at Wisconsin, Leland Stanford at
Kansas; Columbia at Chicago, Wisconsin at Illinois, University of the
South at Michigan, Indiana University at Cornell; Michigan at Chicago;
Brown at Harvard, and Pennsylvania at Columbia.
Such an exchange of instructors cannot but bring about a mutual
education; and when it is remembered that the same policy of exchange
is going on in many other subjects than history, it will be seen that
we have here a great power for good.
* * * * *
Messrs. Ginn & Co. are continuing the excellent undertaking of
furnishing source-material for history teachers and scholars, which
they began so auspiciously with Prof. Robinson’s “Readings in European
History,” and followed with Robinson and Beard’s “Readings in Modern
European History.” Professor Cheyney’s “Readings in English History”
was reviewed in the September number. The same publishers now announce
two new books: “Selections from the Economic History of the United
States, 1760-1860,” by Professor Guy S. Collender, of Yale University;
and “Readings on American Federal Government,” by Professor Paul S.
Reinsch, of the University of Wisconsin.
An “American Historical Series” made up of text-books that will be
comprehensive, systematic and authoritative, is announced by Messrs.
Henry Holt & Co., the publishers of the well-known “American Science
Series.” In the new series Professor Colby, of McGill University,
will prepare a book on Mediæval and Modern Europe, and one on the
Renaissance and Reformation. Professor S. B. Fay, of Dartmouth College,
is at work upon a volume entitled, “Europe in the XVII and XVIII
Centuries;” Professor R. C. H. Catterall, of Cornell, will treat of the
“French Revolution and Napoleon;” and Professor C. D. Hazen, of Smith
College, will write the volume upon “Europe in the Nineteenth Century.”
There will be also a history of the United States by Professor
Frederick J. Turner; a history of Greece, by Professor Paul Shorey; and
a history of Rome, by Director Jesse B. Carter.
* * * * *
A LIBRARY OF History and Exploration Invaluable for Every School.
The Trail Makers
Prof. JOHN BACH McMASTER, Consulting Editor. Each Volume Small 12mo.
Cloth. Illustrated. With Introductions, Illustrations and Maps. 17
volumes. Each $1.00 net.
=The Journey of Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca=, and his companions from
Florida to the Pacific, 1528-1536.
Translated by Fanny Bandelier. Edited with an Introduction by Ad. F.
Bandelier.
=Narratives of the Career of Hernando De Soto= in the Conquest of
Florida, 1539-1542, as told by a gentleman of Elvas, by Luys Hernandez
De Biedma and by Rodrigo Ranjel.
Edited with an Introduction by Professor Edward Gaylord Bourne, of
Yale University. In two volumes.
=The Journey of Coronado, 1540-42.= From the City of Mexico to the
Buffalo Plains of Kansas and Nebraska.
Translated and Edited with an Introduction by George Parker Winship.
=Voyages and Explorations of Samuel de Champlain, narrated by himself.=
Translated by Annie Nettleton Bourne. Edited with an Introduction by
Edward Gaylord Bourne, Professor of History in Yale University. In
two vols.
=The Journeys of La Salle and His Companions, 1678-1687. As related by
himself and his followers.=
Edited with an Introduction by Prof. I. J. Cox, of the University of
Cincinnati. In two volumes.
=Voyages from Montreal Through the Continent of North America to the
Frozen and Pacific Oceans in 1789 and 1793.= By Alexander Mackenzie.
In two volumes.
=History of the Expedition Under the Command of Captains Lewis and
Clark.= With an account of the Louisiana Purchase, by Prof. John Bach
McMaster, and an Introduction Identifying the Route.
In three volumes.
=History of Five Indian Nations of Canada which are Dependent upon the
Province of New York.=
By Cadwallader Colden, Surveyor-General of the Colony of New York. In
two volumes.
=A Journal of Voyage and Travels in the Interior of North America.=
By Daniel Williams Harmon, a partner in the Northwest Company
(beginning in 1800).
=The Wild Northland.=
By Gen. Sir Wm. Francis Butler, K. C. B.
Descriptive Circular on Application to the Publishers
A. S. BARNES & CO.
11-15 East 24th Street, New York
* * * * *
Translations and Reprints
Original source material for ancient, medieval and modern history in
pamphlet or bound form. Pamphlets cost from 10 to 25 cents.
SYLLABUSES
H. V. AMES: American Colonial History. (Revised and enlarged edition,
1908) $1.00
D. C. MUNRO and G. SELLERY: Syllabus of Medieval History, 395 to 1500
(1909) $1.00
In two parts: Pt. I, by Prof. Munro, Syllabus of Medieval History,
395 to 1300. Pt. II, by Prof. Sellery, Syllabus of Later Medieval
History, 1300 to 1500. Parts published separately.
W. E. LINGELBACH: Syllabus of the History of the Nineteenth Century 60
cents
Combined Source Book of the Renaissance. M. WHITCOMB $1.50
State Documents on Federal Relations. H. V. AMES $1.75
Published by Department of History, University of Pennsylvania,
Philadelphia, and by Longmans, Green & Co.
* * * * *
A New Book on American History
By PROF. H. W. CALDWELL Of the University of Nebraska
For a number of years we have published Professor Caldwell’s books,
“Survey of American History,” “Great American Legislators” and
“American Territorial Development,” which were originally issued in
the form of leaflets consisting practically of lectures delivered by
the author. In the making of the new book we propose to make it as
nearly perfect as possible, typographically and mechanically. It has
been decided to insert maps, the book being intended for advanced work
in high schools and for students taking a special course in American
History. It is proposed to divide the book into four chapters as
follows:
CHAPTER I.--The Making of Colonial America, 1492-1763