by messengers, _i.e._ verbally. There was, indeed, no other form
of communication, except _tête-a-tête_. The messages were almost
invariably correctly delivered, due to constant training in childhood
when, of course, the same mode was observed.
The officers did not wear any badges of rank, though, as only men of
high status were permitted to wear such ornaments as leopard-skin and
lorie feathers, there was no difficulty in inferring their rank.[73]
Decorations were of several forms. A man who had killed another in war
wore about his shoulders and chest a long rope made of pieces of willow
about half an inch long and of equal thickness, the ends being charred
and stripped of bark; or a necklace of horns, with charred blocks of
willow intervening.
Although there was no remuneration for service, the King was liberal in
his rewards for valour in battle. A hero had doled out to him as many
as ten fine cattle at a time, but only one who had been the first to
rush into and among the enemy would be so treated.
Attached to every army were carriers, known as the _udibi_. These were
usually numerous and marched two or three miles off on the right or
left flank of the main body. This was the only means of transport, for
Zulus had no horses or vehicles. The sleeping-mats and karosses or
blankets of indunas and junior officers were borne by the carriers, as
also provisions and equipment belonging to different members of the
army. Another of their duties was to drive along a herd of cattle for
purposes of consumption whilst the troops were on the march.
The interior economy of every regiment was regulated by a few plain
unwritten rules, common to the whole army.
During peace-time, such soldiers as were serving either at headquarters
or at any of the country barracks, were kept occupied in such ways as
constructing or repairing kraals, cattle enclosures, fences or other
work of a public character, the necessary poles, wattles, branches,
reeds, fibrous plants, etc., being cut and carried by themselves; they
also hoed, sowed, weeded and harvested the royal crops. Small groups
and individuals were constantly engaged in smaller matters, such as
carrying grain to or from a distance, or conveying messages to or from
men of high position in all parts of the country, etc. Occasionally
great hunts were organized for killing such game as buffalo, gnu, wild
pigs, waterbuck, koodoo and other antelopes, or such wild animals as
lions, elephants, rhinoceros or leopards.
Among the amusements were: dancing in large numbers, the men being
arranged in semi-circular formation,--after one group had danced it was
succeeded by another, women and even cattle, also fantastically dressed
men, taking part in each pageant; dancing _pas seuls_ (_giya_) in the
presence of many assembled and applauding comrades; singing national
and regimental war-songs; chanting national anthems; and last, but not
least, shouting out some portion of the King's interminable praises,
including the equally lengthy ones of his ancestors, or listening to
one or other of the professional heralds doing so for hours at a time,
until he got so hoarse as to be barely audible.
In addition to all this, there were religious observances, as also
gatherings at which actual or supposed malefactors of all kinds were
"smelt out" by diviners, only to be subsequently either put to death or
heavily punished by order of the King. The execution of such orders,
like everything else, was left to one or other of the regiments, for
the whole nation lived perpetually under a state of martial law.
And such state (can it be surprised at?) bore fruits of physical
soundness, alertness and morality in the people, every man noble and
energetic, every woman modest and comely. Those were the days when, as
the lowing herds came home to be milked, one heard these fine fellows
proudly shouting in reply: _Kala, 'nkomo ya kwa Zulu, wen'o nga soze
waya ndawo_, _i.e._ Low on, oh cow of Zululand! whose hoof shall tread
no alien soil.
Mobilization took place in this way: The King sent an order to the
officers in charge at the various _amakanda_ requiring all men
to collect at their respective barracks. The order was instantly
re-transmitted by the officers to those in their respective commands,
the utmost pains being taken to mobilize with rapidity, for fear the
King might direct seizure of stock for dilatoriness. Those within
fifteen miles of the royal kraal assembled there within twenty-four
hours. There might be thirty to forty _amaviyo_ of them, a number of
different regiments being represented. The King then reviewed the force
and directed those present to separate themselves into regiments and
companies, in order that he could see what proportion of each corps
was present. He would then discuss with them his war affairs, and
afterwards issue instructions as to where they were to bivouac.[74]
Those whose barracks were near by might put up there, others had
to camp in neighbouring specified valleys. Cattle were given for
slaughter. Thus, the troops began at once to establish their camps,
so that warriors from more distant parts were able, as they came up,
to ascertain where the regiments they belonged to were, and fall in
without loss of time. In the meantime, further messengers had reached
each outlying post to enquire urgently when the men of that part
would be ready. A report of the position was sent back, and redoubled
efforts put forth to ensure the earliest possible attendance. In
two to five days, according to the circumstances, the whole of the
regiments were called to headquarters. They then, of course, went
forward in regimental order divided into companies. If the King found
an insufficiently strong force assembled, further messengers were
dispatched post-haste by the several officers, who had already been
threatened by the King with heavy punishment in the event of further
delay. And so, in half-a-dozen days, anything between 30,000-50,000
men mobilized and were actually at headquarters in regimental order,
every man in his proper place and ready to march. The manner in which
the army could come up under the Kings in time of emergency was nothing
short of a revelation.
After the troops had massed in sufficient numbers, various ceremonies
were held, notably the famous eating of _umbengo_. As this involved
certain preliminaries, one of which was the catching and killing of
a bull, usually a black one, it will be best to consider them in
proper sequence. A beginning was made by the King deputing one of the
regiments to catch and kill the bull. The selected regiment forthwith
devoted a day to collecting firewood for roasting the flesh. Cadets
were, at the same time, directed to gather green branches of the
_umtolo_ tree (a species of mimosa) to be used as a charm by being
burnt along with the roasting flesh.
The "eating of _umbengo_" ceremony took place the day following. Early
that morning, the regiment in question went to the spot appointed for
the troops to _hlanza_ at (vomit), and there, under the superintendence
of war-doctors, proceeded to do so. These war-doctors were specially
appointed by the King. A hole some 18 inches in diameter and 6 to 7
feet deep had already been dug, with its soil heaped alongside. It was
into this that every warrior, after swallowing a mouthful or two of
the decoctions placed ready in three or four great pots or baskets,
proceeded to vomit. Knowing what was coming, he had taken care to
abstain from food. Two, three or four might go to the hole at one time.
There was a desire on the part of everyone to finish quickly, but the
doctors, two of whom stood on either side to see that instructions
were conformed to, would not allow crowding. Here and there the stick
they each carried was used on those who had merely pretended to drink
the medicated water, and were therefore uninfluenced by its emetic
properties. This process was gone through so as to "bring together the
hearts of the people." The pots referred to stood, not on the ground,
but on special articles, not unlike diminutive life-belts, made of
straw bound round with plaited fibre--each doctor having one of his
own. It was on such things the King stood when he washed himself of a
morning.
As soon as the selected regiment had finished, it moved off to deal
with the bull. After it had departed, the emetic continued to be
used, none of the other regiments being permitted to leave off until
the last men had "come into line." After the process was over, say
by 3 or 4 p.m., the hole was carefully filled up by the doctors, to
prevent possible visitors from hostile tribes obtaining any part of the
substances that had been used. It was for this reason that the hole was
dug deep.
Upon getting back to the royal kraal, the deputed regiment found a
black bull had already been selected from among those of the King's
cattle kept at a distance from the principal kraal. The beast chosen
was large, full-grown and fierce. After being driven into the cattle
enclosure, say, about 600 yards in diameter, it was tackled by the
single, unassisted regiment, all the men being without shields or
assegais. It was well chased about, prevented from going this way or
that, and eventually, after being kept running about for two or three
hours to tire it, it was rushed at about mid-day, caught and brought to
earth by many taking hold of it simultaneously. The men then fastened
on to it by its legs, tail, head, horns, ears, etc., whilst others
proceeded as best they could to twist and eventually break its neck.
As soon as it was dead, the war-doctors came up and drove all the
warriors away for fear lest any disloyally inclined should cut off
portions and carry them off to the King's enemies, whereby ascendancy
might in some way be obtained over their own sovereign. The beast was
now skinned and its flesh cut into long strips. These strips (known as
_umbengo_, hence the name of the custom) were then roasted on a huge
fire that had already been made of the wood gathered on the preceding
day. After being roasted, the flesh was smeared with black powders, and
pungent, bitter drugs. The names and identity of some of these drugs
were kept carefully concealed from the troops. The very reputation of
the doctor depended on his being secretive. By this time, 3 or 4 p.m.,
the regiments had all come up and were waiting "to eat the _umbengo_."
They moved to near where the doctors were, and there built a great
_umkumbi_, that is, formed themselves into a huge half-moon, the men
at every part being many deep. The doctors came forward with the
charred, half-cooked and medicated flesh. They and their assistants
simultaneously started flinging the strips one after another into the
air towards but above the heads of different sections of the troops,
and in all directions. To do this satisfactorily, they passed through
the _umkumbi_ at conveniently-situated and specially-prepared openings.
The warriors all standing, each carrying weapons and shield in the left
hand, were ready to catch with the other the flesh as it descended.
There was a scramble to snatch every piece as it got within reach. The
man catching, immediately bit off a lump and pitched the remainder back
into the air to be again violently contended for, caught and similarly
dealt with, one after another. In the meantime, the pieces bitten or
torn off were chewed and spat on to the ground, the juice, however,
being swallowed. Owing to many being hungry, and even ravenous, the
flesh itself was often gulped down, although quite contrary to custom
to do so. If any of the strips fell to the ground when being tossed
about, it was not picked up, as supposed then to have lost its virtue.
It not unfrequently happened for these discarded portions to be
consumed by the half-famished during the excitement. Here and there one
saw a weak man fall forward in a faint, and his shield and assegais go
clattering to the ground as he did so. But for his friends, who rushed
forward to help, he must have been trampled to death for all the others
cared. The process of distribution continued until each had had his
bite; no one was allowed to retire until the last had conformed to the
custom.
One bull was sufficient for an entire army. Two were never killed. The
entrails were secretly buried in what was known as the King's cattle
enclosure (cut off from the main one), the grave being guarded all
night by watchmen.
Boy mat-bearers and cooks who had not reached the age of puberty
were then sought in all parts of the barracks and ordered to eat up
such remains as were consumable, but all who were commandeered were
obliged to sleep where the bull had been cut up and roasted, until
the following morning. A further special requirement was that all so
set apart had to refrain from passing water from the moment of coming
up until permission was given to depart. For this reason, it was with
considerable difficulty that boys could be found when wanted.
Every atom of the bull that remained over was afterwards burnt to
cinders, including bones, hide, etc., etc. The doctors thereupon
gathered together all the ashes and conveyed them to some large and
deep pool into which they were thrown. This was done to guard, as
before, against any portion being taken by strangers and used to obtain
ascendancy over the King and nation.
After this observance, everyone who had taken part therein had to
refrain from all intercourse with womenfolk. For this reason, as often
as girls or women arrived at headquarters with bundles of food for
fathers, brothers or husbands, they set them down and left for their
homes forthwith without escort of any kind. The word having gone forth
that all must arm was an absolute guarantee against interference of
every kind. All who armed, including the ones detailed to remain as the
King's bodyguard, were obliged to eat the _umbengo_, the general object
of which was, not only to knit the people together, but to hearten and
strengthen them.
Following upon these formalities was another, equally indispensable,
viz. the eating of beasts offered as a sacrifice to the spirits of the
King's departed ancestors. Such cattle were apportioned to the various
regiments. They were killed and eaten at night, famous national chants
being sung at the same time. The departed spirits were invoked by the
various highly-placed officers and aristocrats, of whom there were at
least a score, men of sufficient status to remonstrate with the King on
great and critical occasions. The ancient, undisturbed graves of former
Kings were also visited, the spirit being invoked at each.
By way of stimulating the troops to put forth their best efforts in
war, the King would call a couple of regiments into the great cattle
enclosure and there urge individuals of the one to challenge those of
the other, one at a time. "I have," he would say, "summoned you all
to hear how you mean to behave on coming in sight of the enemy." It
is of melancholy interest to know that this practice was observed by
the regiments Kandempemvu and Ngobamakosi, which proved so terribly
destructive at Isandhlwana. After the King had spoken, the challenging
proceeded in this way: Some man belonging to, say, the Ngobamakosi
jumped up and shouted: "I can do better than you, son of ... (giving
name); you won't stab a white man, before one has already fallen by
my hand. If you do, you can carry off the whole of our kraal and the
property attached (giving name of the kraal), or, you shall take my
sister ... (giving her name, and implying marriage)." Having said this,
he started to dance a _pas seul_, with a small shield and stick (on
such occasions assegais and war-shields were not carried). The other
man, stung by the words uttered in public, jumped up as smartly and,
dancing towards and after his challenger as the latter retired, called
out defiantly: "Well, if you can do better than I, you may take our
kraal ... and my sister too ... (giving names)." As each danced, they
were loudly applauded by their respective comrades. When a man, known
by the King to be a brave fellow, sprang up and danced, the King might
point and shake his hand at him approvingly. Others followed the same
process, though by no means in monotonous or regular fashion; and so it
went on until sunset. Occasionally the one addressed or "selected," as
it was called, refrained from taking up the challenge. Such a fellow
was called a coward, and, when the regiments had left the King, his
failure was freely commented on. He was then made to suffer the usual
indignities of cowards, viz. having his meat dipped in cold water, etc.
A day or two afterwards, two other regiments were pitted against one
another. Again the process of "selection" and challenging went on
excitedly until sunset.
After the fighting had taken place, the same challenging pairs of
regiments were called before the King to "discuss" the campaign.
(Such rule was, however, not followed during the Zulu War, for
obvious reasons). Some young man then jumped up and accosting the one
"selected" by him before hostilities occurred, shouted exultingly:
"What did you do, son of ...? I did this and did that (reciting various
deeds of valour or supposed valour). What have you to your credit?" The
other replied. The man generally allowed by those assembled to have
distinguished himself the more, was declared to have won the wager. The
property, as a matter of fact, did not change hands, though, at first,
it seemed as if it would do so. The stakes were merely figuratively
referred to for heightening public interest in the achievements.
Cattle rewards to acknowledged heroes were made by the King when "war
discussions" took place on the above lines.
When the circumstances were such that the troops had to march forthwith
against the enemy, the ceremony known as _ukucelwa_ (to be sprinkled)
was held. As with eating the _umbengo_, there were phases of the
custom. The essential features were: Cleansing internally by using
specially-prepared emetics and external cleansing by washing in the
stream; dipping one's fingers into an open dish placed on the fire,
containing hot liquid and drugs poured in by the war-doctor, and
thereafter sucking them and suddenly spitting out what has been so
sucked; uttering imprecations on the enemy when spirting the medicated
liquid from one's mouth; being smoked with drugs whilst standing in a
circle round the doctor; being sprinkled front and rear by the doctor
with yet other drugs of a caustic character.
There were various ways in which these essentials were observed. Such
variety was due to the fact that each medico to a certain extent kept
his own drugs, and observed a procedure peculiar to himself.
As an illustration, let us take what occurred in 1883, after Cetshwayo
had been attacked at Undi (Ulundi) by Zibebu. A couple of men who had
escaped, returned to their tribe near St. Lucia Bay with an assegai
that had been flung after them by Zibebu's men, but had failed to
strike. This was handed to a well-known war-doctor, who, being called
on to practise his arts on some forty _amaviyo_ then present, bent the
blade, and at the bend tied a small round vessel containing charms. The
assegai was stuck into the ground from 200 to 300 yards off by means of
its wooden end, sharpened for the purpose. He then required the troops
to approach, a _viyo_ at a time, when, whilst escorting the company, he
shouted out (in Zulu), "Here's a marvel! Here is the one who shuts out!
Here's the keeper of the door!" Each of these phrases, on being uttered
alternately, had to be repeated by the _viyo_ in chorus. The doctor
next directed each man, on filing past, to take hold of the vessel with
his fingers, slightly shake it and, at the same instant, exclaim: "I
have closed!" or "I shut!" The object of the performance was to cause
all Zibebu's assegais to miss their mark or become blunt, and all his
efforts against Dinuzulu and his allies to prove unavailing.
The same man, having later on caused the troops to form up in a
circle round him, by way of finally preparing them for battle, strode
hurriedly up and down and among the men holding something concealed in
his right hand. "What is this?" he swiftly asked one, only to pass on
similarly to another to put the same question. At the moment of asking,
he opened his hand for the fraction of a second, when a glittering
stone-like substance appeared, about two inches long, and as thick as
one's thumb. "It is earth!" exclaimed those able to catch a glimpse.
Upon which he said: "Did you see it?" "Yes, we did," was the reply. And
so, ever moving, he went about, clothed in weird garb, asking the same
questions in all directions, and always receiving the same answers:
"What is this?" "Earth." "Did you see it?" "Yes, we did." The scene
quickly became animated and exciting, due no doubt to the celerity
of movement and abrupt questioning of the great doctor, with evident
inability on the part of the warriors to know what the glittering
substance, of which they kept on obtaining but the briefest glimpses,
really was.
This was the man who was employed by Dinuzulu in 1888, shortly before
scoring a signal victory over Zibebu within 1,000 yards of Nongoma
magistracy in Zululand.
On leaving headquarters, after a stirring address by the King, the
army marched in one great column, in order of companies. Upon reaching
hostile territory it was split into two divisions of close formation,
when competent men were selected for reconnaissance and advanced guard
duty. This latter body, forming about ten companies, moved ahead of the
column to which it was attached, at a distance of ten to twelve miles.
The same was done in regard to the other division. The guard was made
considerable, to give the enemy the impression, especially when in
extended order, that it was the main body. It was held to be a serious
breach in tactics for the column to fail to divide as stated, for, on
being taken at a disadvantage, it was considered necessary for another
force to be on the flank for creating a diversion and so relieve the
situation.
The advanced guard purposely refrained from concealing itself. In
addition to the guard, spies were sent out in twos and threes to locate
the enemy, with a view to planning surprise or ambush. As soon as the
guard found it had been perceived and was being moved against by the
enemy, runners were at once dispatched to warn the main body.
The leading principle in attack was to endeavour to surround the
enemy. To effect this, the men, on an engagement becoming imminent,
were rapidly drawn up in semi-circular formation and instructed by the
officer in supreme command. These instructions resolved themselves
into specifying what regiments were to form the right "horn," as it
was called, what the left, and what were to compose the "chest" or
centre, as also the routes to be taken. The warriors, having been once
more sprinkled with drugs to ward off injury, exhorted through lively
recitation of praises of departed kings, and reminded of the challenges
and promises made by them in the presence of the sovereign, dashed
forward to realize the general plan or die in the attempt.
It was the rule to hold back a large force in reserve, for use in case
of necessity. The commanding officer and his staff took up a position
on high ground to watch the course of the battle, and issue any further
necessary directions.
Pass-words and countersigns were frequently made use of, especially as
much travelling about was necessary at night.
As it was only shortly before the Zulu War that firearms were acquired,
the use of these was not sufficiently general to interfere with the
national modes of warfare followed for over half a century.