OPIUM EATING AND SMOKING--MESCAL BUTTONS
THE narcotic properties of the poppy have been known from times
of great antiquity. The first mention we have of its use is by
Theophrastus, who lived about 300 years B.C. It is supposed that the
potion known under the name of Nepenthe, prepared by Helen of Troy,
and given to the guests of Menelaus, to drive away their care, was
none other than a wine of opium. This conjecture receives support from
Homer, who states that Nepenthe was obtained from Thebes, the ancient
capital of Egypt. According to Prosper Alpinus, the Egyptians were
practised opium eaters, and were often faint and languid through the
want of it. They prepared and drank it in the form of "Cretic Wine,"
which they flavoured and made hotter by the addition of pepper and
other aromatics. The Turks and Persians employed opium as a medicine,
and also for eating, from a very early period. Dioscorides, the ancient
Greek pharmacist, describes how the capsules from which the drug is
collected should be cut, and Celsus, a Roman physician of the first
century, frequently alludes to opium in his works under the quaint name
of "poppy tears."
The introduction of opium into India seems to have been connected with
the spread of Mahomedanism, the earliest record we have of its use in
that country being made by Barbosa in 1511, although it is more than
probable it was used in India long before that time. Pyres, the first
ambassador from Europe to China in 1516, speaks of the opium of Egypt,
Cambay, and the kingdom of Coûs, in Bengal, and states it was eaten by
"the kings and lords, and even the common people, though not so much
because it costs dear." The Mogul Government uniformly sold the opium
monopoly, and the East India Company did likewise.
The properties of opium have also been known from early times to
the Persians, who flavoured the drug with aromatics, and held it in
great esteem. By them it was commonly called Theriaka. It is supposed
to have been first introduced to China by the Arabs, who traded
with the Chinese as early as the ninth century. Towards the end of
the eighteenth century a trade sprang up with India, which rapidly
increased, till it led to political difficulties, culminating in the
war of 1842, and the signing of the treaty of Nanking, after which five
ports of China were opened to foreign trade, opium being admitted as a
legalised import in 1858. Opium smoking in China was practised in the
seventeenth century, and gradually extended over the entire empire, and
at the present time is almost a recognised habit among the people.
With regard to the introduction of opium into India, the Mahomedans
once having established its use began to make it a source of income.
The Great Mogul monopolized the opium production and trade, and derived
an immense income from the sale of the monopoly. With respect to its
use in India, it is not easy to state with certainty whether or not
and in what periods, it has increased over the various parts of the
country. From the most recent reports it appears that "the largest
amount of opium is produced in the central tract of the Ganges,
extending from Dinapore in the east, to Agra in the west, and from
Gorakhpur in the north to Hazaribagh in the south, and comprising an
area of about 600 miles long and 200 miles broad." In the district of
Bengal, the Government has the monopoly of the opium industry, and
the districts are divided into two agencies, Behar and Benares, which
are under the control of officers residing in Patna and Ghazipur.
In 1883 the amount of acres under poppy cultivation was in Behar
463,829, and in Benares agency 412,625; but the export of opium has
somewhat diminished since then. Any one may undertake the industry, but
cultivators are obliged to sell the opium exclusively to the Government
agencies, at a price which is fixed beforehand by the officials.
The Government sells the ready goods to merchants at a much higher
price, which difference is paid by the country to which the opium is
exported. In India itself, the sale of opium is restricted to licensed
shopkeepers, a practice which has proved to be useful, because in some
places, when the licensed shops have been closed, a greater number of
unlicensed and secret shops have sprung up, and have made the contract
insufficient.
The opium question is so complex in its nature, and is so largely
influenced by the habits and constitution of those nations who are
addicted to its use, that it is obvious that only those with skilled
medical knowledge, who are on the spot and have lived and had a daily
experience of the people, are in a proper position to deal with the
question at all. So much has been written by religious enthusiasts,
and other persons totally ignorant of the nature and properties of the
drug, that one almost hesitates to touch upon the question at all.
Our only excuse for so doing is, that the following facts have been
furnished by reliable medical authorities, who are really in a position
to judge on the subject.
The cause which led to the use of this narcotic drug by the races of
the East may have been primarily due to the prohibition of wine by
the Moslems, but more likely on account of its valuable remedial or
protective properties, needed by a race subject to malaria and kindred
diseases, and to counteract the effect of the hot climate to which they
are exposed. It is a remedy at hand, and would seem to be one to which
they at once fly. The evil lies more in the smoking than the eating
of the drug; the former habit is more prevalent in China, and has the
most demoralizing effect. The extent of its use in the East varies
according to the geographical and social differences of the people, and
it is used in various degrees of moderation and excess.
The drug is employed in various forms, according to the class of people
who consume it. In India it is largely used in the crude state, and is
sold at about two annas a drachm, in small square pieces. The opium
eater will take two or three grains and roll them into the form of a
pill between his fingers, and then chew or swallow it, often twenty
times in the day. It is also used in a liquid form called Kusambah
made by macerating opium in rose-water; others boil it with milk, then
collect the cream and eat it. The varieties for smoking are known as
Chundoo and Mudat, the former being a very impure extract of a fairly
stiff consistence, and the latter made from the refuse of Chundoo, of
which it largely consists; but being much cheaper, is chiefly used by
the low-class Hindoos and Mahomedans. From two to four grains a day may
be called a moderate use of the crude drug. The poorer people regularly
give it to children up to two years of age, to keep them quiet, also as
a preventive against such complaints as enteritis, so common in the
East; and so before youth is reached they become inured to its action.
Licences to sell the drug are sold to the highest bidder at the opium
auctions, the licensee having the privilege of supplying a certain
number of small dealers.
The Chinese smoker usually lays himself down on his side, with his
head supported by a pillow. On the straw mat beside him, between his
doubled-up knees and his nose, a small glass oil lamp, covered with
a glass shade, is burning. Close to this is a tray, containing a
small round box holding the drug, a straight piece of wire used for
manipulating it, a knife to scrape up fragments, and the pipe used for
smoking. The latter is about two feet long, with a bore of about half
an inch in diameter, and is not unlike the stem of a flute before it
is fitted. About two inches from the bottom of the tube, is a closed
cup or bowl of earthenware or stone, having a central perforation. To
charge the pipe, a small portion of the drug (weighing a few grains) is
picked up with the wire, kneaded and rolled in the closed surface of
the cup, then heated in the flame of the lamp till it swells. This is
rolled up and again manipulated, then finally placed in the aperture
in the surface of the bowl. It is then lighted from the lamp, and the
smoke drawn into the lungs through the tube till the first charge is
exhausted.
In a report made by the _British Medical Journal_ concerning the use of
opium in India, from the evidence of medical men long resident in that
country, there seems a general concensus of opinion that opium eating,
in the majority of cases, exercises no unfavourable influence on the
people who indulge in the habit, and that it is a prophylactic against
fever, and prevents the natives from malaria and excessive fatigue.
There is no comparison between the effects of the opium habit and the
habitual use of alcohol. English people cannot judge from their own
standard, the manners and customs of people living under conditions
with which they are unacquainted. While we look on opium as a narcotic,
the Hindoo uses it as a stimulant to enable him to go through hard work
on the smallest quantity possible of food. In Persia, at the present
time, according to Wills, nine out of ten of the aged, take from one
to five grains of the drug daily. It is largely used by the native
physicians. It does not appear that the moderate use of Persian opium
in the country itself, is deleterious. Opium smoking is almost unknown,
and when it is smoked, it is, as a rule, by a doctor's orders. The
opium pill-box--a tiny box of silver--is as common in Persia as the
snuff-box was once with us. Most men of forty in the middle and upper
classes use it. They take from a grain to a grain and a half, divided
into two pills, one in the afternoon and one at night. The majority of
authorities agree that opium smoking as a habit is much more harmful
and attended with more demoralizing influences than opium eating; but
either habit is undoubtedly harmful to Europeans, and when once formed,
is extremely difficult to break.
Paracelsus is generally credited with being the originator of the word
"laudanum," which is now employed as the popular name for tincture
of opium. Yet there seems little doubt the word was first applied to
the gum of the cistus. Clusius in his "Rariorum Plantarum Historia"
states, "The gum of the cistus is called in Greek and Latin, ladanum,
and in shops laudanum." It is therefore very likely that the secret
preparation originated by Paracelsus which he called laudanum, was
composed of the gum of the cistus as well as opium, and that he
adopted the title from the former ingredient.
The Kiowa and other Mexican Indians use the fruit of the _Anhelonium
Lewinii_, which they call "mescal buttons," to produce a species
of intoxication and stimulation during certain of their religious
ceremonies. The effects of this fruit, which like Indian hemp varies
considerably in different individuals, are very peculiar, and have been
described by Lewin, Prentiss and Morgan.
The eating of the fruit first results in a state of strange excitement
and great exuberance of spirits, accompanied by great volubility in
speech. This is shortly followed by a stage of intoxication in which
the sight is affected in a very extraordinary manner, consisting of a
kaleidoscopic play of colours ever in motion, of every possible shade
and tint, and these constantly changing. The pupils of the eyes are
widely dilated, cutaneous sensation is blunted, and thoughts seem
to flash through the brain with extraordinary rapidity. The colour
visions are generally only seen with closed eyes, but the colouring
of all external objects is exaggerated. Sometimes there is also an
indescribable sensation of dual existence.
Recent investigation into the pharmacology of the mescal plant prove
it to be a poison of a very powerful nature. Lethal doses produce
complete paralysis, and death is caused by respiratory failure.