ancient border town of Lachish and at Gezer on the coast plain, at
Taanach and Megeddo on the southwestern side of the Plain of
Esdraelon, and at Jericho in the Jordan valley, have greatly enriched
our knowledge of early Palestine, for a large majority of the
inscriptions and archæological remains that have been discovered at
these sites come from the pre-Hebrew period. Of these the ruins of
Gezer have been most thoroughly excavated (under the direction of the
Palestine Exploration Fund) and have yielded by far the most detailed
and valuable results. The ancient town lay on the borders of
Philistia, on the line between Judah and northern Israel. It was built
on one of the foot-hills which extend out into the plain beyond the
Valley of Ajalon.^{(61)} Thus, while it belonged to the hill country,
it was almost entirely surrounded by the plain and open to all the
influences which affected the Mediterranean coast cities. The original
town rested on two hills, one on the east and the other on the west,
and extended across the shallow intervening valley. Four or five
distinct cities, built successively one upon another, have been
unearthed.
=The Oldest Inhabitants of Palestine.= The remains found in the lowest
stratum of the mound of Gezer introduce us to the earliest inhabitants
of Palestine. They probably belonged to the Neolithic Age and to a
non-Semitic race. From the skeletons thus far discovered it is clear
that they were short in stature, averaging between five feet four
inches and five feet seven inches in height. Already they had begun to
cultivate the ground and to make rude flint implements. They kept
cows, pigs, sheep, and goats. In certain caves, coming from this or an
earlier age, rude attempts to picture these animals have also been
discovered. Their pottery was shaped by hand and decorated with red or
white lines. Their ancient town was surrounded by an earthen wall, ten
feet thick, faced on the inside and out with stone. Gezer was
evidently selected as the site of an ancient city because about it are
many caves, the original dwelling-places of these primitive people.
They apparently worshipped underground deities, in connection with
sacred caves. Outside the entrance to such a cave at Gezer are found
eighty or more cuplike cavities sunk in the rock and probably used for
purposes of sacrifice.
=The Semitic Invasions From the Desert.= Situated, as was Canaan, on
the borders of the desert, it was practically inevitable that in time
great waves of nomadic invaders would sweep in through the broad
valleys and down the coast plains. In the light of the excavations at
Gezer and the testimony of the Egyptian inscriptions, this was
precisely what occurred somewhere between 2500 and 2000 B.C.
Undoubtedly the Semites had begun to find their way to Palestine
before this period, but it is clear in the light of recent discoveries
that this great movement from the desert toward the eastern shores of
the Mediterranean antedated by several centuries another similar
movement eastward, which carried from Syria or northern Arabia to
Babylon the founders of its first dynasty. In the light of the latest
discoveries, the rule of this dynasty must be dated between 2100 and
1700 B.C. The excavations at Gezer reveal the presence there at this
period of a Semitic race from five feet seven inches to five feet
eleven inches in height, sturdier than the preceding aborigines and
possessed of relatively high civilization. The city was surrounded by
a wall about ten feet thick, made of large hammer-trimmed stones, and
guarded by towers at intervals of ninety feet. The approach on the
south was through a huge gateway nine feet wide, forty-two feet long,
and flanked by two towers, which were faced by sunburnt bricks. Bronze
and copper implements are found and there are abundant evidences of an
advanced culture.
=Influence of the Early Amorite Civilization Upon Babylon.= The recent
work entitled _Amurru_, by Professor Clay of Yale, has raised anew the
question of what was the centre of the oldest Semitic civilization.
The attempt made by certain scholars to prove the Babylonian origin of
all that is distinctive in the civilization, traditions, and religion
of the early Semitic nations including Israel is extreme. The evidence
adduced by Professor Clay to prove that in the earliest period Syria
influenced Babylonia more than the Tigris-Euphrates valley influenced
the westland is cumulative. Many of the familiar Babylonian traditions
bear marks that suggest a western origin. Over one-tenth of the names
in the large literature that comes from the reign of Hammurabi, the
great king of the First Babylonian dynasty, are Amorite or western
Semitic. The names and attributes of most of the Babylonian gods are
best explained on the basis of a western origin. The Babylonian custom
of rearing ziggurats or high places for their deities, even on the
level plains of Babylonia, seems to reflect the western custom of
worshipping the gods on the high places. Furthermore, Syria is
pre-eminently the home of the sun worship that was especially
prominent in the Babylonian cults.
=The Probable Site of the Oldest Semitic Civilization.= The many
references to the Amorites in early Egyptian and Hebrew history
indicates that they developed an ancient and high civilization. The
original centre of their power appears to have been central Syria, and
especially the broad, fertile plains between the Lebanons and the
Anti-Lebanons, through which flowed the upper waters of the River
Orontes. It is certain that from a geographical point of view
conditions were here supremely favorable for an early and powerful
civilization. The climate was warm and yet stimulating, the soil rich
and easily cultivated. The lofty mountains on either side afforded
natural protection, and yet did not ward off frequent thrusts that
came from the Arab invaders that pressed in, like the ancestors of the
Amorites, from the adjoining desert. Communication was also easy in
every direction. Through this great plain ran the main highways of
trade from north to south and east and west. Ample opportunity was
offered for expansion on every side. The later appearance of the
Amorites in Palestine and at other places along the eastern
Mediterranean coastland is also best explained if the earliest home of
their civilization was central Syria.
=Remains of the Old Amorite Civilization.= Large mounds, evidently the
remains of ancient Amorite cities, dot the broad plain between the
Lebanons. These have as yet been untouched by the spade of the
excavator. They alone can tell the age, character, and history of the
old Amorite civilization. They furnish the most promising field for
excavations in all the Semitic world. On the neighboring mountain
heights exquisite sun temples still remain. Although they may have
been reared by the later Phœnicians they doubtless stand on the sites
of older Amorite sanctuaries. As of old, the sun, as it rises and
sends its first rays through a lofty mountain pass, shines through the
open door of the temple and lights up the altar within. The ruins of
the great temple at Baalbek, which stand in the middle of the plain
between the Lebanons, are still one of the wonders of the
world.^{(62)} Although this vast temple was built late in the Roman
period, it testifies to the rich productivity of the broad valley in
which it lies and to the religious traditions that clung to this
favored region.
=Babylonian Influence in Palestine.= Even though the origin of the
earliest Semitic culture in the Tigris-Euphrates valley may, in the
light of future excavations, be traced back to Syria, there is no
doubt that from the days of Hammurabi, about 1900 B.C., Babylon
exerted a powerful influence upon Syria and Palestine. The frequent
references in the literature that comes from the reign of Hammurabi to
the Amorite merchants and immigrants show how close were the
relations between the westland and the Tigris-Euphrates valley.
Hammurabi, in a recently discovered inscription, also calls himself
"the king of the Amurru." The Babylonian language and method of
writing was used in Palestine as late as the fourteenth century B.C.
by the Egyptian governors of Syria and Palestine even in communicating
with the kings of Egypt. Practically all of the pre-Hebrew literature
thus far discovered in the mounds of Palestine was written in
Babylonian characters. These facts are irrefutable evidence of the
strength and duration of the influence that the highly developed
civilization of Babylon in the five centuries after Hammurabi exerted
upon the West Country.
=Egyptian Influence in the Cities of the Plain.= Thus far the results
of the excavations in Palestine have revealed a preponderating
Egyptian influence. At Gezer scarabs from the Twelfth Egyptian dynasty
(between 2000 and 1788 B.C.) have been discovered. The method of
burial here employed was identical with that of Egypt at the same
period. The excavations at ancient Lachish and Taanach also indicate
that along the coast plains and inland valleys which led from these
plains, Egypt's influence was paramount. This condition is precisely
what would be anticipated from the relative position of Egypt and
Palestine. Two or three great open highways led around the
southeastern end of the Mediterranean, binding these two countries
closely together. Egypt, by virtue of its fertility and favorable
physical conditions, developed a much higher and earlier civilization
than did Palestine. Hence it was inevitable that these western and
central cities of Palestine would sooner or later take on the
complexion of the earlier civilization.
=Different Types of Civilization in Palestine.= The excavations in the
old Canaanite city of Jericho, in contrast to those on the borders of
the Philistine Plain, have disclosed only a few indications of
Egyptian influence there at this early period. Evidently the natural
barriers which separated the different parts of Palestine from each
other were asserting themselves, with the result that the life and
civilization of the various cities throughout the land already
presented wide variations. Along the coast were strong Semitic cities,
surrounded by thick walls and possessed of all that the mingled
culture of ancient Amurru, Babylonia, and Egypt could give. Traces of
the influence of Mycenæan and Ægean civilization are also found in the
strata which come from this early period. In the north the Phœnician
cities were approaching the zenith of their power. Up among the hills
of the central plateau, however, the Shashu, or Bedouin, still
pastured their flocks undisturbed, except near the large cities, where
they were probably obliged to pay tribute.
=Conditions Leading to the Hyksos Invasion of Egypt.= About 1700 B.C.
there came a marked change in the political situation in southwestern
Asia. In Babylon the Kassites came down from the mountains to the
northeast and conquered the valleys of the lower Tigris and Euphrates.
About the same time Assyria asserted its independence and began to lay
the foundations for its future greatness. Somewhat later an Aryan
race, known as the Mitanni, descended from the north, seized the
plains of Mesopotamia, and established there a strong kingdom. This
new kingdom, as well as the weakness of Babylon itself, delivered
Palestine from eastern invasions. Egypt was also torn by civil wars
and dissensions between the nobles. Under these favoring conditions
the Semitic peoples of Palestine, Syria, and probably also of Arabia,
united for the invasion of Egypt.
=Fortunes of the Invaders.= The Egyptian records unfortunately give
little information concerning this so-called Hyksos invasion. The
fact, however, is established that northern Egypt, for about a
century, until the earlier part of the sixteenth century B.C., was
held by Asiatic conquerors bearing Semitic names. When finally
expelled from Egypt by the Theban kings in the south, these foreign
conquerors retired to Palestine and Syria. Thither they were pursued
by the energetic warrior kings who arose at this critical period in
Egypt's history. At first the Hyksos leaders made their stand at
Sharuhen, a city probably situated somewhere in southern Judah. Later
the Egyptian kings conquered the cities of Palestine, and finally,
after a prolonged struggle, succeeded in capturing the powerful city
of Kadesh on the Orontes, which was apparently the centre of the
confederacy of Syrian states.
=The One Natural Site in Syria for a Great Empire.= The history of the
Hyksos invaders by analogy throws light upon the older Amorite
kingdom, of which it was perhaps a later revival, and demonstrates
that the broad valley between the Lebanons and the Anti-Lebanons, of
which Kadesh was the centre, was practically the only region in Syria
fitted to become the seat of a strong civilization and a large empire.
Entrenched among these northern plains and protecting mountain ranges,
it was possible for an energetic people to extend their sway over
practically all the coast lands of the eastern Mediterranean.
Naturally, when a favorable opportunity offered for the conquest of
Egypt, it would be eagerly improved; for the rich valley of the Nile
has always been a tempting prey to outside peoples. The history of the
later Hittite kingdom, the southern capital of which was also at
Kadesh, illustrates the same principle. A still later and even more
familiar analogy is the career of the Seleucidean kingdom, whose
capital was at Antioch, a little farther north. Thus the only four
kingdoms in the history of the eastern Mediterranean that conquered
this entire territory and aspired to wider conquest sprang up, not in
Palestine, but amidst the more favorable conditions in central Syria.
=Influence of the Land Upon the Early Forms of Worship.= The peculiar
physical conditions of Palestine not only shaped to a great extent its
early history, but also made a profound impression upon the religion
of its inhabitants. The limestone rock of Palestine was especially
favorable to the formation of caves. These caverns and passages in the
rocks were not only the homes of the earliest inhabitants, but were
also closely identified with the oldest forms of religious worship.
Beneath the earlier sanctuaries at Gezer and Taanach were caves,
clearly connected with the primitive cult which once flourished there.
Probably the gods here worshipped were subterranean deities.
The prominence of the oracle in the early religions of Palestine may
well be due to the ease with which a designing priesthood could
deceive a credulous people by the skilful use of these subterranean
chambers. The most striking features in the landscape of Palestine
were the high peaks, the jagged rocks, the springs bursting from the
hillside, and the green trees standing out in striking contrast to
their gray, sombre background. Each of these occupied a prominent
place in the early Canaanite religions. On the heights, commanding
wide views over valley and plain, were reared the high places, or
ancient rock-cut altars.^{(52, 53)} Scores of these are still to be
found among the rocky hills of Palestine. Certain rocks were regarded
as sacred because it was believed that in them the deity dwelt. These
sacred rock-pillars, or maççebôth, as they were called by the Hebrews,
were found near every ancient Canaanite altar and even, as at Taanach,
before the entrance to private houses. A row of nine such pillars has
been discovered standing in the temple court at Gezer. At Taanach
there was a double row. The most impressive examples are the two huge
monoliths which guard the ascent to the famous high place at Petra.
Frequently these sacred stones or pillars are worn smooth by the lips
of worshippers or by the libations which have been poured upon them.
Often there are cuttings on the top or side, where sacrifices were
probably offered to the numen or deity, who was supposed to reside
within. Beside or beneath each ancient sanctuary, as at Gezer and
Taanach, was a spring or well, which apparently figured in the
worship. Beside these ancient sanctuaries grew trees, symbols of life
and the mystery of generation. Sometimes these trees were represented
by the asherahs or sacred poles to which the Hebrew prophets often
referred.
=Upon the Beliefs of Its Inhabitants.= More fundamental still was the
impression which the diverse physical contour of Palestine made upon
the beliefs of its ancient inhabitants. Where the contour of the land
made political unity impossible there were necessarily many
independent races and kingdoms, each worshipping their patron god or
goddess. Hence the religions of Palestine were grossly polytheistic
and the worship of one common God was a goal which the people would
never have attained except under a strong compelling influence from
without. The different cults of Palestine were also deeply influenced
by the character of the land amidst which they developed. The deities
of the Canaanites living on the fertile plains were either gods of
fertility or else represented the mysterious principle of generation.
Their worship naturally became voluptuous and licentious. The grim
hills of central Palestine and the dark volcanic gorge of the Jordan
and Dead Sea engendered a cruel and relentless type of religion and
worship in which human sacrifice was an important feature. Thus,
although the foundations of a nobler type of culture were being laid,
the political and religious history of Palestine during this earlier
period gave little promise of the supremely important rôle that it was
destined to play in the life of mankind.
[Illustration: PRE-HEBREW CANAAN IN THE LIGHT OF THE EGYPTIAN
MONUMENTS (1600-1300 B.C.) AND THE AMARNA LETTERS (About 1400 B.C.)
BORWAY & CO., N.Y.
]
XI
PALESTINE UNDER THE RULE OF EGYPT
=Reasons Why Egypt Conquered Palestine.= The Egyptian rule in
Palestine was established about 1580 B.C. and, with the exception of
two long lapses, was maintained for nearly three centuries. Thotmose
III, the greatest warrior and organizer in Egyptian history, after
fifteen energetically fought campaigns, extended the border of Egypt
to the Euphrates and brought all the petty little rival kingdoms in
Palestine and Syria under his control. The reason for his intense
activity was not merely the lust for conquest and spoil, but the
desire to deliver Egypt from the danger of another attack similar to
that of the Hyksos. From a very early period the northeastern boundary
of Egypt was guarded by fortresses, since there were no natural
barriers between it and Palestine. The population of northern Arabia
was too scattered to be a menace to the peace of Egypt; but Palestine
and Syria, with their fertile fields and growing population, were a
just cause of anxiety and fear to the peace-loving dwellers of the
Nile valley. The powerful kingdoms on the Tigris and Euphrates were
also from the earliest times ever eager for western conquest. Thus
with the sixteenth century B.C. began the great struggle between the
East and the West for the possession of Palestine.
=Commanding Position of Megiddo.= Throughout the Egyptian period the
city of Megiddo, on the southwestern side of the Plain of Esdraelon,
overshadowed all others in importance. Here the united kings of Syria
and Palestine made their stand against Thotmose III, and after
capturing this mighty fortress, the Egyptian ruler was left master of
Palestine. The reason why Megiddo had attained this prestige was
partially because of its strategic importance and partially because of
its military strength. Recent excavations leave little doubt that this
famous Canaanite city is to be identified with the present Tell
el-Mutesellim^{(63)}. It is one of the three or four most imposing
mounds in all Palestine. It lies close to the Samaritan hills and yet
stands out in the plain, a huge, round plateau between fifty and
seventy-five feet in height. It commands a view of practically every
part of the Plain of Esdraelon and far along the Plain of Jezreel
toward the Jordan until the view is cut off by Mount Gilboa. It looks
straight across the Plain of Esdraelon at its broadest point, through
the valleys which lead past Mount Tabor to the Sea of Galilee. A
little to the left rise the hills of Lower Galilee, while to the
northwest it commands the view through the narrow pass to the Plain of
Acre and the Mediterranean. Under its northeastern front ran the
important road leading northwest from the Jordan and central Palestine
and connecting with the main highway along the northern coast. On its
southeastern side, through a broad, fertile valley, came the main
highway from the southern coast plains and Egypt, which ran
northeastward to Damascus. A northern branch passed through the wide
plain between the Lebanons and the Anti-Lebanons.
=Its Military Strength.= The city is to-day a stately, deserted ruin,
but its sides are so steep on the east and west that it is still
impossible for even the hardy Arabian horses to mount to the top from
these directions. For one on foot, accustomed to climbing, it is an
exceedingly difficult scramble. A low saddle of land connects the
mound with the Samaritan hills to the west, making the approach from
this point somewhat easier. Recent excavations have further revealed
the great strength of this fortress city. It was surrounded by a wall
twenty-eight feet thick and guarded by towers of corresponding
strength. On its level top was an area of several acres, ample room
for a large Canaanite population, for the houses were little more than
cubicles, and the streets narrow, intricate lanes, at many points
scarcely wide enough for two people to pass comfortably. The public
buildings, however, which included a palace and temple, were of a much
stronger and more massive construction.^{(64)}
=Thotmose III's Advance Against Megiddo.= Standing upon the mound of
Megiddo it is not difficult to picture the great decisive battle,
which the scribes of Thotmose III have recorded vividly and with great
detail. His courage in rejecting the counsels of his generals to
advance from the Plain of Sharon by a détour and his resolve to
approach the city directly through the valley from the southwest
command our admiration, for five miles to the south the valley
narrows, affording a splendid opportunity for a determined enemy to
attack an invading army with great advantage. Without opposition,
however, the Egyptian army, with its gay oriental trappings, came up
the valley. Its energetic king was in front, "showing the way by his
own footsteps." Having reached the Plain of Esdraelon at the south of
Megiddo, the king, late the same afternoon or in the night, threw out
his left wing on the hills to the northwest of the city that he might
command the roads leading along the western side of the Plain of
Esdraelon. He thus both secured his line of retreat and was in a
position to cut off fugitives in case he won the decisive battle. This
position also gave him the easiest line of approach to Megiddo itself.
=The Decisive Battle.= The following morning the king rallied his
forces for battle. While his left wing retained its strategic position
his right wing was drawn up on a hill to the southwest of the city. He
was thus able to descend upon the forces of the allied Canaanite
kings, who were drawn up in a north and south line before the city.
Riding in a glittering chariot of elektrum, the indomitable warrior
led the onset. Before this army, already a victor on many hard-fought
battle-fields, the Canaanites at the first attack fled headlong to
Megiddo. Finding the gates closed against them, many of the fugitives
were drawn up the wall by their friends within. Elated by their easily
won victory and attracted by the rich spoils in the camp of the
vanquished king of Kadesh, the victors fell to plundering and thereby
lost a precious opportunity to capture the city at once.