See the transcriber's note at the end of the book.
* * * * *
BY PROF. CHARLES FOSTER KENT
THE SHORTER BIBLE--THE NEW TESTAMENT.
THE SHORTER BIBLE--THE OLD TESTAMENT.
THE SOCIAL TEACHINGS OF THE PROPHETS
AND JESUS.
BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY.
THE ORIGIN AND PERMANENT VALUE
OF THE OLD TESTAMENT.
HISTORY OF THE HEBREW PEOPLE.
From the Settlement in Canaan to the Fall
of Jerusalem in 586 B.C. 2 vols.
HISTORY OF THE JEWISH PEOPLE. The
Babylonian, Persian and Greek Periods.
THE HISTORICAL BIBLE. With Maps.
6 vols.
STUDENT'S OLD TESTAMENT. Logically
and Chronologically Arranged and Translated.
With Maps. 6 vols.
THE MESSAGES OF ISRAEL'S LAW-GIVERS.
THE MESSAGES OF THE EARLIER
PROPHETS.
THE MESSAGES OF THE LATER PROPHETS.
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
[Illustration: Modern Palestine, With Ancient Towns and Highways]
BIBLICAL
GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY
BY
CHARLES FOSTER KENT, PH.D.
WOOLSEY PROFESSOR OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE IN YALE UNIVERSITY
NEW YORK
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
1926
COPYRIGHT, 1911, BY
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
Printed in the United States of America
Published April, 1911
PREFACE
Geography has within the past few years won a new place among the
sciences. It is no longer regarded as simply a description of the
earth's surface, but as the foundation of all historical study. Only
in the light of their physical setting can the great characters,
movements, and events of human history be rightly understood and
appreciated. Moreover, geography is now defined as a description not
only of the earth and of its influence upon man's development, but
also of the solar, atmospheric, and geological forces which throughout
millions of years have given the earth its present form. Hence, in its
deeper meaning, geography is a description of the divine character and
purpose expressing itself through natural forces, in the physical
contour of the earth, in the animate world, and, above all, in the
life and activities of man. Biblical geography, therefore, is the
first and in many ways the most important chapter in that divine
revelation which was perfected through the Hebrew race and recorded in
the Bible. Thus interpreted it has a profound religious meaning, for
through the plains and mountains, the rivers and seas, the climate and
flora of the biblical world the Almighty spoke to men as plainly and
unmistakably as he did through the voices of his inspired seers and
sages.
No other commentary upon the literature of the Bible is so practical
and luminous as biblical geography. Throughout their long history the
Hebrews were keenly attentive to the voice of the Eternal speaking to
them through nature. Their writings abound in references and figures
taken from the picturesque scenes and peculiar life of Palestine. The
grim encircling desert, the strange water-courses, losing themselves
at times in their rocky beds, fertile Carmel and snow-clad Hermon, the
resounding sea and the storm-lashed waters of Galilee are but a few of
the many physical characteristics of Palestine that have left their
indelible marks upon the Jewish and Christian Scriptures. The same is
true of Israel's unique faith and institutions. Biblical geography,
therefore, is not a study by itself, but the natural introduction to
all other biblical studies.
In his _Historical Geography of the Holy Land_ and in the two volumes
on _Jerusalem_, Principal George Adam Smith, of Aberdeen, has given a
brilliant and luminous sketch of the geographical divisions and cities
of Palestine, tracing their history from the earliest times to the
present. Every writer on Palestine owes him a great debt. The keenness
and accuracy of his observations, are confirmed at every point by the
traveller. At the present time, the need of a more compact manual, to
present first the physical geography of the biblical lands and then to
trace in broad outlines the history of Israel and of early
Christianity in close conjunction with their geographical background,
has long been recognized. In the present work unimportant details have
been omitted that the vital facts may stand out clearly and in their
true significance. The aim has been to furnish the information that
every Bible teacher should possess in order to do the most effective
work, and the geographical data with which every student of the Bible
should be familiar, in order intelligently to interpret and fully
appreciate the ancient Scriptures.
This volume embodies the results of many delightful months spent in
the lands of the eastern Mediterranean, and especially in Palestine,
during the years 1892 and 1910. Owing to improved conditions in the
Turkish Empire it is now possible, with the proper camp equipment, to
travel safely through the remotest places east of the Jordan and to
visit Petra, that most fascinating of Eastern cities. By securing his
equipment at Beirut the traveller may cross northern Galilee and then,
with comfort, go southward in the early spring through ancient Bashan,
Gilead, Moab, and Edom. Thence, with great economy of time and effort,
he may return through central Palestine, making frequent détours to
points of interest. In this way he will find the quaint, fascinating
old Palestine that has escaped the invasions of the railroads and
western tourists, and he will bear away exact and vivid impressions of
the land as it really was and still is.
The difficulties and expense of Palestine travel, however, render such
a journey impossible for the majority of Bible students. Fortunately,
the marvellous development of that most valuable aid to modern
education, the stereoscope and the stereograph, make it possible for
every one at a comparatively small expense to visit Palestine and to
gain under expert guidance in many ways a clearer and more exact
knowledge of the background of biblical history and literature than he
would through months of travel. Through the courtesy of my publishers
and the co-operation of the well-known firm of Underwood & Underwood,
of New York and London, I have been able to realize an ideal that I
have long cherished, and to place at the disposal of the readers of
this volume one hundred and forty stereographs (or, if preferred for
class and lecture use, stereopticon slides) that illustrate the most
important events of biblical geography and history. They have been
selected from over five hundred views taken especially for this
purpose, and enable the student to gain, as he alone can through the
stereoscope, the distinct state of consciousness of being in scores of
historic places rarely visited even by the most venturesome
travellers. Numbers referring to these stereographs (or stereopticon
slides) have been inserted in the body of the text. In Appendix II the
titles corresponding to each number are given.
The large debt that I owe to the valiant army of pioneers and
explorers who have penetrated every part of the biblical world and
given us the results of their observations and study is suggested by
the selected bibliography in Appendix I. I am under especial
obligations to the officers of the Palestine Exploration Fund, who
kindly placed their library and maps in London at my service and have
also permitted me to use in reduced form their Photo-Relief Map of
Palestine.
C. F. K.
YALE UNIVERSITY,
_January, 1911_.
CONTENTS
PART I--PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
PAGE
I. THE GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BIBLICAL
WORLD 3
Extent of the Biblical World.--Conditions Favorable to Early
Civilizations.--Egypt's Climate and Resources.--Its Isolation and
Limitations.--Conditions in the Tigris-Euphrates Valley.--Forces
Developing Its Civilization.--Civilization of Arabia.--Physical
Characteristics of Syria and Palestine.--Their Central Position and
Lack of Unity.--Asia Minor.--Mycenæ.--Greece.--Italy.--Situation of
Rome.--Reason Why Rome Went Forth to Conquer.--_Résumé._
II. THE GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PALESTINE 13
History of the Terms Palestine and Canaan.--Bounds of
Palestine.--Geological History.--Alluvial and Sand Deposits.--General
Divisions.--Variety in Physical Contour.--Effects of This
Variety.--Openness to the Arabian Desert.--Absence of Navigable Rivers
and Good Harbors.--Incentives to Industry.--Incentives to Faith and
Moral Culture.--Central and Exposed to Attack on Every
Side.--Significance of Palestine's Characteristics.
III. THE COAST PLAINS 21
Extent and Character.--Fertility.--Divisions.--Plain of Tyre.--The
Plain of Acre.--Carmel.--Plain of Sharon.--The Philistine Plain.--The
Shephelah or Lowland.
IV. THE PLATEAU OF GALILEE AND THE PLAIN OF
ESDRAELON 27
Physical and Political Significance of the Central Plateau.--Natural
and Political Bounds.--Its Extent and Natural Divisions.--Physical
Characteristics of Upper Galilee.--Its Fertility.--Characteristics of
Lower Galilee.--Situation and Bounds of the Plain of Esdraelon.--Plain
of Jezreel.--Water Supply and Fertility of Plain of
Esdraelon.--Central and Commanding Position.--Importance of the Plain
in Palestinian History.
V. THE HILLS OF SAMARIA AND JUDAH 34
Character of the Hills of Samaria.--Northeastern
Samaria.--Northwestern Samaria.--The View from Mount Ebal.--Bounds and
General Characteristics of Southern Samaria.--Southwestern
Samaria.--The Central Heights of Judah.--Lack of Water
Supply.--Wilderness of Judea.--Western Judah.--Valley of Ajalon.--Wady
Ali.--Valley of Sorek.--Valley of Elah.--Valley of Zephathah.--Wady
el-Jizâir.--Significance of These Valleys.--The South Country.--Its
Northern and Western Divisions.--Its Central and Eastern
Divisions.--The Striking Contrasts between Judah and Samaria.--Effect
upon Their Inhabitants.
VI. THE JORDAN AND DEAD SEA VALLEY 45
Geological History.--Evidences of Volcanic Action.--Natural
Divisions.--Mount Hermon.--Source of the Jordan at Banias.--At Tell
el-Kadi.--The Two Western Confluents.--The Upper Jordan Valley.--The
Rapid Descent to the Sea of Galilee.--The Sea of Galilee.--Its
Shores.--From the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea.--Character of the
Valley.--The Jordan Itself.--Fords of the Lower Jordan.--Ancient Names
of the Dead Sea.--Its Unique Characteristics.--Its Eastern Bank.--The
Southern End.--The Western Shores.--Grim Associations of the Dead Sea.
VII. THE EAST-JORDAN LAND 55
Form and Climate of the East-Jordan Land.--Well-Watered and
Fertile.--The Four Great Natural Divisions.--Characteristics of the
Northern and Western Jaulan.--Southern and Eastern Jaulan.--Character
of the Hauran.--Borderland of the Hauran.--Gilead.--The Jabbok and
Jebel Ôsha.--Southern Gilead.--Character of the Plateau of Moab.--Its
Fertility and Water Supply.--Its Mountains.--Its Views.--The
Arnon.--Southern Moab and Edom.--Significance of the East-Jordan Land.
VIII. THE TWO CAPITALS: JERUSALEM AND SAMARIA 64
Importance of Jerusalem and Samaria.--Site of Jerusalem.--The Kidron
Valley.--The Tyropœon Valley.--The Original City.--Its Extent.--The
Western Hill.--The Northern Extension of the City.--Josephus's
Description of Jerusalem.--The Geological Formation.--The Water
Supply.--Jerusalem's Military Strength.--Strength of Its
Position.--Samaria's Name.--Its Situation.--Its Military
Strength.--Its Beauty and Prosperity.
IX. THE GREAT HIGHWAYS OF THE BIBLICAL WORLD 73
Importance of the Highways.--Lack of the Road-building Instincts among
the Semites.--Evidence that Modern Roads Follow the Old
Ways.--Ordinary Palestinian Roads.--Evidence that the Hebrews Built
Roads.--The Four Roads from Egypt.--Trails into Palestine from the
South.--Highway Through Moab.--The Great Desert Highway.--Character of
the Southern Approaches to Palestine.--The Coast Road.--The "Way of
the Sea."--Its Commercial and Strategic Importance.--The Central Road
and Its Cross-roads in the South.--In the North.--The Road Along the
Jordan.--Roads Eastward from Damascus.--The Highway from Antioch to
Ephesus.--The Road from Asia Minor to Rome.--From Ephesus to
Rome.--From Syria to Rome by Sea.--From Alexandria to Rome by
Sea.--Significance of the Great Highways.
PART II--HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY
X. EARLY PALESTINE 87
The Aim and Value of Historical Geography.--Sources of Information
Regarding Ancient Palestine.--Evidence of the Excavations.--The Oldest
Inhabitants of Palestine.--The Semitic Invasions from the
Desert.--Influence of the Early Amorite Civilization Upon
Babylonia.--Probable Site of the Oldest Semitic Civilization.--Remains
of the Old Amorite Civilization.--Babylonian Influence in
Palestine.--Egyptian Influence in the Cities of the Plain.--Different
Types of Civilization in Palestine.--Conditions Leading to the Hyksos
Invasion of Egypt.--Fortunes of the Invaders.--The One Natural Site in
Syria for a Great Empire.--Influences of the Land Upon the Early Forms
of Worship.--Upon the Beliefs of Its Inhabitants.
XI. PALESTINE UNDER THE RULE OF EGYPT 97
Reasons why Egypt Conquered Palestine.--Commanding Position of
Megiddo.--Its Military Strength.--Thotmose III's Advance Against
Megiddo.--The Decisive Battle.--Capture of Megiddo.--The Cities of
Palestine.--Disastrous Effects of Egyptian Rule.--Lack of Union in
Palestine.--Exposure to Invasions from the Desert.--Advance of the
Habiri.--Rise of the Hittite Power.--Palestine between 1270 and 1170
B.C.--The Epoch-making Twelfth Century.
XII. THE NOMADIC AND EGYPTIAN PERIOD OF HEBREW
HISTORY 106
The Entrance of the Forefathers of the Hebrews Into
Canaan.--References to Israelites During the Egyptian Period.--The
Habiri in Eastern and Central Palestine.--The Trend Toward Egypt.--The
Land of Goshen.--The Wady Tumilat.--Ramses II's Policy.--Building the
Store Cities of Ramses and Pithom.--Condition of the Hebrew
Serfs.--Training of Moses.--The Historical Facts Underlying the Plague
Stories.--Method of Travel in the Desert.--Moses' Equipment as a
Leader.--The Scene of the Exodus.--Probability that the Passage was at
Lake Timsah.
XIII. THE HEBREWS IN THE WILDERNESS AND EAST
OF THE JORDAN 115
Identification of Mount Sinai.--Lateness of the Traditional
Identification.--Probable Route of the
Hebrews.--Kadesh-barnea.--Effect of the Wilderness upon the Life of
the Hebrews.--Evidence that the Hebrews Aimed to Enter Canaan from the
South.--Reasons Why They Did Not Succeed.--Tribes that Probably
Entered Canaan from the South.--The Journey to the East of the
Jordan.--Stations on the Way.--Conquests East of the Dead
Sea.--Situation of Heshbon.--Sojourn of the Hebrews East of the
Jordan.--Its Significance.
XIV. THE SETTLEMENT IN CANAAN 124
The Approach to the Jordan.--Crossing the Jordan.--Strategic
Importance of Jericho.--Results of Recent Excavations.--Capture of
Jericho.--Evidence that the Hebrews Were Still Nomads.--Roads Leading
Westward from Jericho.--Conquests In the South.--Conquest of Ai and
Bethel.--Incompleteness of the Initial Conquest.--Migration of the
Danites.--The Moabite Invasion.--The Rally of the Hebrews Against the
Canaanites.--The Battle-field.--Effect of a Storm Upon the
Plain.--Results of the Victory.--The East-Jordan Tribes.--The Tribes
in Southern Canaan.--The Tribes in the North.--Effects of the
Settlement Upon the Hebrews.
XV. THE FORCES THAT LED TO THE ESTABLISHMENT
OF THE HEBREW KINGDOM 136
The Lack of Unity Among the Hebrew Tribes.--The Scenes of Gideon's
Exploits.--Gideon's Kingdom.--Reasons for the Superiority of the
Philistines.--Scenes of the Samson Stories.--The Decisive
Battle-field.--Fortunes of the Ark.--The Sanctuary at
Shiloh.--Samuel's Home at Ramah.--The Site of Gibeah.--Situation of
Jabesh-Gilead.--The Sanctuary at Gilgal.--The Philistine Advance.--The
Pass of Michmash.--The Great Victory Over the Philistines.--Saul's
Wars.
XVI. THE SCENES OF DAVID'S EXPLOITS 147
David's Home at Bethlehem.--The Contest in the Valley of
Elah.--Situation of Nob.--The Stronghold of Adullam.--Keilah.--Scenes
of David's Outlaw Life In Southeastern Judah.--David at Gath.--At
Ziklag.--Reasons Why the Philistines Invaded Israel in the
North.--Saul's Journey to Endor.--The Battle on Gilboa.--The Remnant
of Saul's Kingdom.--Hebron, David's First Capital.--Fortunes of the
Two Hebrew Kingdoms.--The Final Struggle with the
Philistines.--David's Victories.
XVII. PALESTINE UNDER THE RULE OF DAVID AND
SOLOMON 157
Establishment of Jerusalem as Israel's Capital.--Israel's Natural
Boundaries.--Campaigns Against the Moabites and Ammonites.--Situation
of Rabbath-Ammon.--The Water City.--Extent of David's
Empire.--Absalom's Rebellion.--David East of the Jordan.--Rebellion of
the Northern Tribes.--Scenes of Adonijah's Conspiracy and Solomon's
Accession.--Capture of Gezer.--Solomon's Fortresses.--Solomon's
Strategic and Commercial Policy.--Site of Solomon's
Temple.--Significance of the Reigns of David and Solomon.--Influences
of the United Kingdom Upon Israel's Faith.--Solomon's Fatal
Mistakes.--Forces that Made for Disunion.--Situation of
Shechem.--Significance of the Division.
XVIII. THE NORTHERN KINGDOM 168
The Varied Elements in the North.--Capitals of Northern Israel.--The
Aramean Kingdom.--The Philistine Stronghold of Gibbethon.--Omri's
Strong Rule.--Ahab's Aramean Wars.--Strength and Fatal Weakness of
Ahab's Policy.--Elijah's Home.--The Scene on Mount Carmel.--Ancient
Jezreel.--Situation of Ramoth-Gilead.--Elisha's Home.--Jehu's
Revolution.--Rule of the House of Jehu.--The Advance of
Assyria.--Amos's Home at Tekoa.--Influence of His Environment Upon the
Prophet.--Evidence Regarding Hosea's Home.--View from Jebel
Ôsha.--Conquest of Galilee and Gilead.--The Exiled Northern
Israelites.--The Fate of Northern Israel.
XIX. THE SOUTHERN KINGDOM 182
Effect of Environment Upon Judah's History.--Shishak's Invasion.--War
Between the Two Kingdoms.--Amaziah's Wars.--Uzziah's Strong
Reign.--Isaiah of Jerusalem.--His Advice to Ahaz in the Crisis of 734
B.C.--The Great Rebellion of 703 B.C.--Home of the Prophet
Micah.--Judah's Fate in 701 B.C.--Isaiah's Counsel in a Later
Crisis.--The Reactionary Reign of Manasseh.--Two Prophetic
Reformers.--Situation of Anathoth.--Josiah's Reign.--The Brief Rule of
Egypt.--Jehoiakim's Reign.--The First Captivity.--The Second
Captivity.--The End of the Southern Kingdom.
XX. THE BABYLONIAN AND PERSIAN PERIODS 194
Jewish Refugees in Egypt.--Situation of Tahpanhes.--Memphis.--The
Colony at Elephantine.--Results of the Excavations.--Transformation of
the Jews Into Traders.--Home of the Exiles in Babylonia.--Their Life
in Babylonia.--Conditions of the Jews in Palestine.--Extent of the
Jewish Territory.--Evidences that There Was No General Return of the
Exiles in 537 B.C.--The Rebuilding of the Temple.--Discouragement and
Hopes of the Jews.--Nehemiah's Response to the Call for
Service.--Conditions in the Jewish Community.--Preparations for
Rebuilding the Walls.--Character of the Data.--The Walls and Towers on
the North.--On the West.--On the South.--On the East.--Significance of
Nehemiah's Work.--Extension of Jewish Territory to the
Northwest.--Development of Judaism During the Latter Part of the
Persian Period.
XXI. THE SCENES OF THE MACCABEAN STRUGGLE 207
Alexander's Conquests.--The Impression Upon Southwestern Asia.--The
City of Alexandria.--Greek Influence in Palestine.--The Ptolemaic
Rule.--Situation of Antioch.--Causes of the Maccabean Struggle.--The
Town of Modein.--The First Flame of Revolt.--Character and Work of
Judas.--The Pass of Beth-horon.--Scene of the Victory Over the Syrian
Generals.--Victory at Bethsura.--Rededication of the
Temple.--Campaigns South and East of the Dead Sea.--Victories in
Northeastern Gilead.--Cities Captured North of the Yarmuk.--The Second
Victory Over Timotheus.--Judas's Return.--Significance of Judas's
Victories.--Battle of Beth-zacharias.--Fortunes of Judas's
Party.--Victory over Nicanor.--Death of Judas.--Judas's Character and
Work.
XXII. THE MACCABEAN AND HERODIAN AGE 222
Jonathan's Policy.--Basis of Agreement With the Syrians.--Concessions
to Jonathan.--His Conquests.--Simon's Achievements.--His Strong and
Prosperous Rule.--Growth of the Two Rival Parties.--Wars and Conquests
of John Hyrcanus.--Reign of Aristobulus I.--The Cruel Rule of
Alexander Janneus.--The Rivalry of Parties Under Alexandra.--The
Influence of Antipater.--Advance of Rome.--The Appeal to Pompey.--His
Capture of the Temple.--Palestine Under the Rule of Rome.--Rebellions
Led by Aristobulus and His Sons.--Antipater's Services to
Rome.--Rewards for His Services.--The Parthian Conquest.--Herod Made
King of the Jews.--His Policy.--His Work as a City Builder.--Herod's
Temple.--The Tragedies of His Family Life.--The Popular Hopes of the
Jews.
XXIII. THE BACKGROUND OF JESUS' CHILDHOOD AND
YOUNG MANHOOD 236
The Short Reign of Archelaus.--The Roman Province of Judea.--Territory
and Character of Herod Antipas.--Philip's Territory.--The
Decapolis.--Place of Jesus' Birth.--Situation of Nazareth.--Its
Central Position.--View from the Heights above the City.--The Spring
at Nazareth.--Roads to Jerusalem.--Jesus' Educational
Opportunities.--Scene of John the Baptist's Early Life.--Field of His
Activity.--The Baptism of Jesus.--Machærus, Where John the Baptist Was
Beheaded.--Effect of John's Death Upon Jesus.--Jesus' Appearance.
XXIV. THE SCENES OF JESUS' MINISTRY 247
Why Jesus Made Capernaum His Home.--Site of Capernaum.--Archælogical
Evidence.--Ruins at Tell Hum.--Testimony of the Gospels and
Josephus.--Statements of Early Pilgrims.--Site of
Chorazin.--Bethsaida.--Probable Scene of the Feeding of the
Multitudes.--The Night Voyage of the Disciples.--Places Where Jesus
Taught His Disciples.--Northern End of the Sea of Galilee.--Contrast
Between Its Northern and Southern Ends.--Jesus' Visit to the Gadarene
Territory.--The Chief Field of Jesus' Ministry.--Journey to
Phœnicia.--At Cæsarea Philippi.--The Journey Southward from
Galilee.--At Jericho.--Situation of Bethany.--The Triumphal Entrance
Into Jerusalem.--Jesus' Activity in the Temple.--The Last Supper and
Agony.--Scenes of the Trials.--Traditional Place of the
Crucifixion.--The More Probable Site.--The Place of Burial.
XXV. THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY THROUGHOUT
THE ROMAN EMPIRE 264
Original Centre at Jerusalem.--Spread of Christianity Outside
Judea.--Philip's Work In the South and West.--Extension and Expansion
of Christianity During the First Decade.--Situation and History of
Tarsus.--Influence of His Early Home Upon Paul.--Work at
Antioch.--Importance of the Pioneer Work of Paul.--Paul and Barnabas
in Cyprus.--At Paphos.--Journey to Antioch in Galatia.--Conditions at
Antioch.--At Iconium.--At Lystra and Derbe.--Decision of the Great
Council at Jerusalem.--Work of Paul and Silas in Asia Minor.--Paul's
Vision at Troas.--Paul and Silas at Philippi.--At Thessalonica.--Paul
at Berœa.--At Athens.--Importance of Corinth.--Paul's Work at
Corinth.--His Third Journey.--Situation and Importance of
Ephesus.--Return to Palestine.--Journey to Rome.--The World-wide
Conquests of Christianity.
APPENDIX I. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 279
APPENDIX II. STEREOGRAPHS AND STEREOPTICON
SLIDES ILLUSTRATING BIBLICAL
GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY 283
INDEX OF NAMES AND PLACES 289
LIST OF MAPS
I. MODERN PALESTINE, WITH ANCIENT TOWNS AND
HIGHWAYS _Frontispiece_
II. THE OLD TESTAMENT WORLD to face page 3
III. PHOTO-RELIEF MAP OF PALESTINE to face page 13
IV. THE MAIN HIGHWAYS OF THE ANCIENT SEMITIC
WORLD to face page 73
V. THE MAIN HIGHWAYS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE
AND THE SCENES OF PAUL'S WORK to face page 82
VI. PRE-HEBREW CANAAN IN THE LIGHT OF THE
EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS AND THE AMARNA
LETTERS to face page 97
VII. THE LAND OF THE EXODUS AND WILDERNESS
WANDERING to face page 115
VIII. TERRITORIAL DIVISION OF CANAAN AFTER THE
FINAL SETTLEMENT OF THE HEBREW TRIBES to face page 127
IX. THE HEBREW EMPIRE UNDER DAVID to face page 147
X. PLAN OF SOLOMON'S PALACE to face page 164
XI. ISRAEL AFTER THE DIVISION OF THE HEBREW
EMPIRE to face page 168
XII. BABYLONIAN, PERSIAN, AND GREEK EMPIRES
to face page 194
XIII. THE JEWISH COMMUNITY IN PALESTINE DURING
THE PERSIAN AND GREEK PERIODS to face page 199
XIV. THE JERUSALEM OF NEHEMIAH to face page 203
XV. PALESTINE IN THE MACCABEAN PERIOD to face page 207
XVI. PALESTINE IN THE TIME OF JESUS to face page 236
_PART I_
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY [Illustration: THE OLD TESTAMENT WORLD.]
I
THE GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BIBLICAL WORLD
=Extent of the Biblical World.= In its widest bounds, the biblical
world included practically all the important centres of early human
civilization. Its western outpost was the Phœnician city of Tarshish
in southern Spain (about 5° west longitude) and its eastern outpost
did not extend beyond the Caspian Sea and Persian Gulf (about 55° east
longitude). Its southern horizon was bounded by the land of Ethiopia
(about 5° south latitude) and its northern by the Black Sea (about 45°
north altitude). Thus the Old and New Testament world extended fully
sixty degrees from east to west, but at the most not more than fifty
degrees from north to south. With the exception of Arabia, all of
these lands gather about the Mediterranean, for although the waters of
the Tigris and the Euphrates ultimately find their way into the Indian
Ocean, the people living in these fertile valleys ever looked toward
the Mediterranean and for the most part found their field for conquest
and commerce in the west rather than in the east and south.
=Conditions Favorable to Early Civilizations.= The greater part of
this ancient world consisted of wastes of water, of burning sands or
of dry, rocky, pasture lands. Less than one-fifth was arable soil, and
yet the tillable strips along the river valleys on the eastern and
northern Mediterranean were extremely fertile. Here in four of five
favored centres were supplied in varying measure the conditions
requisite for a strong primitive civilization: (1) a warm, but not
enervating climate; (2) a fertile and easily cultivated territory
which enabled the inhabitants to store up a surplus of the things
necessary for life; (3) a geographical unity that made possible a
homogeneous and closely knit political and social organization; (4) a
pressure from without which spurred the people on to constant activity
and effort; (5) an opportunity for expansion and for intercommunication
with other strong nations. The result was that the lands about the
eastern Mediterranean were the scenes of the world's earliest culture
and history. From these centres emanated the great civic, political,
intellectual, artistic, moral, and religious ideas and ideals that
still strongly influence the life and faith of the nations that rule
the world. The character of each of these early civilizations was in
turn largely shaped by the natural environment amidst which it arose.
=Egypt's Climate and Resources.= The land of the Nile was peculiarly
favorable for the development of an exceedingly early civilization.
Lying near the equator and between extended areas of hot, dry desert,
it possessed an almost perfect climate. While warm, it was never
excessively hot, thanks to the fresh north winds which blew from the
sea. The desert kept the atmosphere dry and cloudless through at least
eleven months in the year. The narrow strip of alluvial soil which
constituted the real land of Egypt was practically inexhaustible. The
Nile, which rose during the hot summer months, furnished abundant
water for irrigation. At the same tune the necessity for constant
activity in order to develop the full resources of the land was a
valuable incentive to industry. Finally, the uniformity of the Nile
valley furnished an excellent basis for a unified social and political
organization.
=Its Isolation and Limitations.= At first Egypt's isolation favored,
but in the end fatally impeded the development of its civilization. On
every side it was shut in, not only by miles of rocky desert on the
east and west, but also on the north and south by almost impassable
barriers. In the south the fertile territory narrows to a mere ribbon,
with no natural highways by land, while several great cataracts cut
off approach by water. On the north the Nile broadens out into a
great impassable marsh with only two narrow gateways. One of these is
the main western arm of the Nile, which reaches the Mediterranean near
Alexandria; the other is the Wady Tumilat, which runs from the Isthmus
of Suez through the biblical land of Goshen to the Nile valley. In
early centuries these few narrow and uninviting avenues of approach on
the north and south were easily guarded. The result was that the
Egyptians, at a very early date, attained a high stage of culture, but
they lacked that stimulus from without which is essential to the
highest development. Once or twice, as in the days of the Hyksos and
Ethiopian invasions, foreigners pressed into the land, and as a result
the centuries immediately following were the most glorious in Egypt's
history. In general, however, the civilization of the Nile valley was
deficient in depth and idealism. It was grossly material; it developed
too easily and the people were too contented. Even on the artistic
side the brilliant promise of the earlier centuries failed of
fruition. Moreover, the protecting natural barriers proved
constricting, so that there was little opportunity for expansion.
Hence Egypt's civilization was always provincial and by 500 B.C. had
ceased to develop. From this time on the people of the Nile tamely
submitted to the succession of foreign conquerors who have ever since
ruled over this garden land of the eastern world.
=Conditions in the Tigris-Euphrates Valley.= Physical conditions in
the Tigris-Euphrates valley were in many ways similar to those along
the Nile. A warm but invigorating climate, fertile, alluvial soil,
deposited by the great rivers and renewed each year by the floods, and
the protection of the desert on the west favored the development of a
virile civilization, as early if not earlier than that of Egypt.
Starting from the same northern mountains, the two great rivers find
their way to the Persian Gulf by widely different courses. The Tigris
flows southeast in a comparatively direct course of eleven hundred
miles. Its name, "The Arrow," suggests the rapidity of its descent.
The Euphrates, on the contrary, makes a long detour westward toward
the Mediterranean and then turns to the southeast, where for the
greater part of the last half of its one thousand eight hundred miles
it flows through the desert. The lands lying between the lower waters
of these great rivers were by nature fitted to become the home of the
earliest civilization. At a very early period these level plains
attracted the nomadic tribes from the neighboring desert. Here they
found soil that was exceedingly fertile, but covered to a great extent
by the overflow of the great rivers. To be made productive it had to
be drained in the flood and irrigated in the dry season by an
extensive system of canals and reservoirs. Hence this region furnished
powerful incentives to develop an energetic, enterprising
civilization. The absence of natural barriers in the level plains of
Babylonia and the uniformity of its physical contour meant that in
time all the Tigris-Euphrates valley would inevitably be brought under
one rule.
=Forces Developing Its Civilization.= Unlike Egypt, Babylonia was
constantly subject to those thrusts from without which were essential
to a great civilization. From the Arabian desert came nomadic invaders
and from the mountains to the east and north and probably from
northern Syria powerful, warlike peoples who either spurred the river
dwellers on to strenuous activity in order to repel the hostile
attacks or else as conquerors infused new blood and energy into the
older races. On the other hand, the absence of constraining barriers
gave ample opportunity for natural growth and expansion. The great
rivers were the highways of commerce and conquest. The necessity of
defence also suggested the advantages of conquest. The result was that
at a very early period the armies of Babylonia had penetrated the
mountains to the east and north and had carried their victorious rule
as far as the shore of the Mediterranean on the west. Traders followed
the armies, bearing the products of Babylonian art and in turn
enriching the home-land with those of other nations. It was thus that
Babylonia in time became not only the mistress of the ancient world,
but also one of the chief centres from which emanated political,
legal, artistic, and religious ideas and institutions that influenced
all the peoples living about the eastern Mediterranean.
=Civilization of Arabia.= Very different was the site of the third
Semitic civilization. The eastern shores of the Red Sea are rocky and
barren. No important streams or harbors are found along this cheerless
coast. The eastern slope of the range of mountains that runs parallel
to the Red Sea is, however, one of the garden lands of the East. The
clouds, chilled by the mountains, deposit their rains here, while
mountain streams make it possible by irrigation to transform this part
of Arabia into a rich agricultural land. Here from an early period was
found a high type of civilization. Climate, soil, and the spur of
foreign invasion fostered its development. Its products were famous
throughout the ancient world. But it was in the highest degree
isolated from the stream of the world's progress. Its one means of
communication with outside nations was by the caravans which crossed
the deserts. Hence a certain halo of mystery always surrounded this
distant civilization. Like that of Egypt, it lacked opportunity for
expansion and communication and so failed to rise above a certain
level or to make any deep or significant impression upon the other
Semitic nations.
=Physical Characteristics of Syria and Palestine.= In marked contrast
with Arabia was the strip of hill and mountain country lying on the
eastern coast of the Mediterranean, known in later tunes as Syria and
Palestine. The dominant feature in this part of the Semitic world was
the southern spurs of the Taurus mountains, which here run parallel
with the coast in two ranges known as the Lebanons and the
Anti-Lebanons. A warm, equable climate and fertile soil, especially in
the broad valleys between the mountains, furnish the first necessities
for a strong civilization. Frequent rain during the whiter and many
perennial springs and brooks supply throughout most of this region the
water needed for a prosperous, agricultural population. The desert on
the east and the mountains in the north were the homes of active,
migrating peoples whose ever-recurring attacks gave the inhabitants of
Syria and Palestine a constant stimulus.
=Its Central Position and Lack of Unity.= This region was also the
isthmus lying between the sea and the desert that connected Asia with
Africa, and the ancient empires of Egypt and Babylonia. The great
caravan routes led across it from Arabia on the south and Babylonia on
the east to Asia Minor and thence by sea to the ports of the northern
Mediterranean. One fatal defect, however, prevented it from becoming
the permanent home of one strong, conquering people: it lacked
physical unity. Its two rivers, the Orontes and the Jordan, were
comparatively unimportant and flowed in opposite directions. Mountain
ranges running from north to south and in the north one running from
east to west divided the territory into eight or ten distinct areas.
Wide variations in climate, flora, and fauna separated these different
zones, making a uniform civilization practically impossible. No
region, except the fertile valley between the Lebanons and
Anti-Lebanons, possessed sufficient natural advantages to rule the
whole territory immediately east of the Mediterranean. As a result
Syria and Palestine were only at rare and comparatively brief periods
completely dominated by native conquerors. The physical
characteristics of this territory also suggested from the first a
mixed civilization, combining those of the desert, of Babylonia, of
Egypt, and of the other lands lying along the Mediterranean. The
infusion of foreign elements largely explains the remarkable culture
and religious life that flourished within the narrow bounds of Syria
and Palestine. This land was at the same time the strategic point that
commanded the rest of the ancient world and was destined to send forth
influences that were to extend to the uttermost parts of the earth.
=Asia Minor.= Asia Minor, like Syria, is lacking in physical unity.
Its centre is a high, barren plateau. This is encircled on the south,
west, and east by fertile coast plains. These coast plains, however,
are broken up into independent areas by lofty mountains. From the
central plateau came the invaders, who spurred on the coast dwellers
to put forth their strongest efforts. Communication by sea and along
the great highways that run across the land from east to west brought
to these maritime city states the culture of the East and the West.
Under these conditions there naturally sprang up an exotic
civilization, not unified, but gathered about different civic centres;
not independent, but a brilliant fusion of native elements with
Semitic and Hellenic culture.
=Mycenæ.= To the northwest, along the Dardanelles, the coastal plain
broadens out into one of the most fertile regions in the ancient
world. Frequent rains and perennial mountain streams water the gently
rolling fields. Here, in a comparatively small area, were supplied in
rich measure the five conditions essential to a strong, early
civilization. Here was the seat of that ancient Mycenæan state, whose
art and institutions for a brief period rivalled, and in many ways
surpassed, those of Babylon and Egypt.
=Greece.= Of all the ancient centres of civilization Greece was in
many ways the most unpromising. Its soil was for the greater part
stony and unproductive. Less than one-third could be profitably
tilled. The plains were not large and the mountain ranges dominated
the land, dividing it into small, distinct areas. There were no
navigable rivers and few perennial streams available for irrigation.
Moreover, the streams brought down silt into the valleys, transforming
them into malarious marshes. As a result, Greece is to-day and
probably always has been the most malarial country in Europe. Its
limited area gave no opportunity for a great and extensive
civilization. Its great assets were a regular climate, a purifying
north wind, and the protection of its insular position, which insured
its security in its earlier days. While the land of Greece was insular
it was also central and in close touch with the civilizations of Asia
Minor and the eastern Mediterranean, for the islands of the Ægean Sea
were like stepping-stones connecting Greece with the ancient East. The
sea was also a great highway which led to the most distant lands.
Finally, Greece was in a position to feel the invigorating shock of
foreign invasion from the north and east. Its division into small
areas meant the development of petty city states, with constant
rivalry of arms as well as of wit and art. This keen rivalry and the
intense civic loyalty that it kindled were the chief forces in the
development of the civilization of ancient Hellas. Its physical
character favored the rapid rise of a noble culture, but one which
would fall with equal rapidity because of the lack of an opportunity
for local expansion. It meant inevitably a scattered people and a
widely dispersed civilization. The result was that even in the period
of its decline Greek culture permeated and ruled the entire civilized
world.
=Italy.= Further to the west Italy juts out into the heart of the
Mediterranean. On the north the lofty Alps protect it from cold winds
and snows. On almost every side it is encircled by the warm waters of
the Mediterranean and its tributary bays. Throughout most of this
narrow peninsula run the high Apennines. On the east they are so close
to the coast that the descent to the sea is steep, the rivers
insignificant, and the harbors few. On the western side, however, the
slope is much more gradual and the coastal plains are exceedingly
fertile. They are traversed by rivers fed by the melting snows. The
result is that this western coast, with its many good harbors, and its
abounding fertility, furnished from earliest times a favorable home
for strong and active peoples. Here grew, mingled in great profusion,
the fruits and grains of both the temperate and tropical climes. At
many points, with the aid of irrigation, the soil yields four or more
crops a year. Throughout most of this garden land the climate is
semi-tropical without being enervating. The brilliant sunshine is
tempered by the cool breezes from the sea and mountains. It is
pre-eminently a land of contrasts. On one side is the blue sea, on the
other the snow-capped mountains. On this western slope the temperature
varies from that of the chill snows and storms on the mountains to the
warm, humid air of the river basins. From the beautiful clear lakes
on the heights the descent is sudden to the malarial marshes in the
lowlands.
=Situation of Rome.= This western slope is cut midway from north to
south by the Tiber, next to the Po the largest river in Italy. To the
east the Apennines rise to their greatest height, insuring a heavy
annual rainfall. The Tiber valley itself was one of the earliest
highways from east to west and was in ancient times the natural
division between the highly civilized Etruscans on the north and the
Latins and the Greek colonies on the south. Here the varied life of
ancient Italy met and mingled and the result was a virile race and a
strong, aggressive civilization. Its centre was the Palatine hill, a
low volcanic mound beside the Tiber, fourteen miles from its mouth.
The uniformity of the Italian territory favored the union of its mixed
population under the leadership of Rome its central city.
=Reason Why Rome Went Forth to Conquer.= Even more important in the
development of its culture were the attacks from without to which it
was constantly exposed. Even the lofty Alps did not prove impassable
barriers to the barbarian hordes who were attracted by this fertile
land. Ancient Italy, encircled by the sea and plentifully provided
with open harbors on the east and south, was never free from the dread
of foreign attack. Not until Rome had conquered the powerful nations
living on even the most distant shores of the Mediterranean could she
feel secure in her central position. It was this constant fear, as
well as the influence of her commanding position, that made Rome in
time the mistress of the Mediterranean. From the East she received a
century or two later than Greece all that the old civilizations could
give, both of good and evil. This inheritance she in turn gave to the
western world toward which she faced and to which she belonged. Thus
Rome was the great connecting link between the East and the West,
between the ancient and the modern world.
=Résumé.= The biblical world was, both in extent and point of time,
identical with the ancient civilized world. The outlook of the
biblical writers was at first limited to the eastern Mediterranean,
but was gradually broadened until it included practically all the
peoples living about the great inland sea. Similarly the life and
faith of the Hebrews, at first local, became in time world-wide. Each
of the ancient races followed the lines of development marked out by
their geographical environment. Two civilizations--that of the Hebrews
and that of the Greeks--lacking a suitable background for local growth
and expansion, went forth to conquer and transform the life and
thought and faith of all the world.
[Illustration: PHOTO-RELIEF MAP OF PALESTINE]
II
THE GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PALESTINE
=History of the Terms Palestine and Canaan.= The term Palestine,
originally applied to the home of Israel's foes, the Philistines, was
used by the Greeks as a designation of southern Syria, exclusive of
Phœnicia. The Greek historian Herodotus was the first to employ it in
this extended sense. The Romans used the same term in the form
Palestina and through them the term Palestine has become the
prevailing name in the western world of the land once occupied by the
Israelites and their immediate neighbors on the east and west. The
history of the older name Canaan (Lowland) is similar. In the Tell
el-Amarna Letters, written in the fourteenth century B.C., Canaan is
limited to the coast plains; but as the Canaanites, the Lowlanders,
began to occupy the inland plains the use of the term was extended
until it became the designation of all the territory from the
Mediterranean to the Jordan and Dead Sea valley. It does not appear,
however, to have ever been applied to the east-Jordan land.
=Bounds of Palestine.= Palestine lies between the eastern shore of the
Mediterranean Sea and the Arabian desert. Its northern boundary is the
southern slope of Mount Hermon and the River Litany, as it turns
abruptly to flow westward into the Mediterranean. Palestine begins
where the Lebanons and Anti-Lebanons break into a series of elevated
plateaus. Its southern boundary is the varying line drawn east from
the southeastern end of the Mediterranean a little south of the Dead
Sea at the point where the hills of Judah and the South Country
descend to the desert. Palestine therefore lies between 33° 30' and
31° north latitude and 34° and 37° east longitude. Its approximate
width is about a hundred miles and its length from north to south only
about a hundred and fifty miles. It is, therefore, about the size of
the State of Vermont.
=Geological History.= The geological history of Palestine is somewhat
complex, but exceedingly illuminating. The underlying rock is granite.
This is now almost completely concealed by later layers of sandstone
(which appears in Edom and the east-Jordan), dolomitic and nummulitic
limestone and marl. During the earlier geological periods the land was
entirely covered by the waters of the sea. Probably at the close of
the Pliocene period came the great volcanic upheaval which gave to
Syria and Palestine their distinctive character. It left a huge rift
running from north to south throughout Syria. This rift is represented
to-day by the valley between the Lebanons and its continuation, the
valley of the Jordan and Dead Sea. Further south it may be traced
through the Wady Arabah and the Gulf of Akaba. This vast depression is
the deepest to be found anywhere on the earth's surface. The same
great volcanic upheaval gave to the mountains along the western coast
their decided northern and southern trend and the peculiar cliff-like
structure which characterizes their descent to the western shore.
Through the centuries frequent and severe earthquakes have been felt
along the borders of this ancient rift, and they are still the terror
of the inhabitants, even as in the days of the Hebrew prophets.