[1] William, 3rd and last Earl Harcourt (1743-1830), who succeeded
his brother in the title, was a soldier who distinguished himself in
the American War of Independence by capturing General Charles Lee,
and commanded the British forces in Flanders in 1794, eventually
becoming a field-marshal. He was a son of Simon, 1st earl
(1714-1777), created viscount and earl in 1749, a soldier, and from
1772 to 1777 viceroy of Ireland, who was grandson and heir of Simon,
Viscount Harcourt (1661-1727), lord chancellor--the "trimming
Harcourt" of Swift--the purchaser of the Nuneham-Courtney estates in
Oxfordshire, and son of Sir Philip Harcourt of Stanton Harcourt. The
knights of Stanton Harcourt, from the 13th century onwards, traced
their descent to the Norman de Harcourts, a branch of that family
having come over with the Conqueror; and the pedigree claims to go
back to Bernard of Saxony, who in 876 acquired the lordships of
Harcourt, Castleville and Beauficel in Normandy. Viscount Harcourt's
second son Simon, who was father of the 1st earl, was also father of
Martha, who married George Venables Vernon, of Sudbury, created 1st
Baron Vernon in 1762. The latter was a descendant of Sir Richard
Vernon (d. 1451), speaker of the Leicester parliament (1425) and
treasurer of Calais, a member of a Norman family which came over with
the Conqueror.
[2] The Plantagenet descent (see _The Blood Royal of Britain_, by the
marquis of Ruvigny, 1903, for tables) could be traced through Lady
Anna Leveson Gower (wife of Archbishop Harcourt) to Lady Frances
Stanley, the wife of the 1st earl of Bridgewater (1579-1649), and so
to Lady Eleanor Brandon, wife of the earl of Cumberland (1517-1570),
and daughter of Mary Tudor (wife of Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk,
1484-1545), the daughter of Henry VII. and grand-daughter of Edward
IV.
HARCOURT, WILLIAM VERNON (1789-1871), founder of the British
Association, was born at Sudbury, Derbyshire, in 1789, a younger son of
Edward Vernon [Harcourt], archbishop of York (see above). Having served
for five years in the navy he went up to Christ Church, Oxford, with a
view to taking holy orders. He began his clerical duties at
Bishopthorpe, Yorkshire, in 1811, and having developed a great interest
in science while at the university, he took an active part in the
foundation of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society, of which he was the
first president. The laws and the plan of proceedings for the British
Association for the Advancement of Science were drawn up by him; and
Harcourt was elected president in 1839. In 1824 he became canon of York
and rector of Wheldrake in Yorkshire, and in 1837 rector of Bolton
Percy. The Yorkshire school for the blind and the Castle Howard
reformatory both owe their existence to his energies. His spare time
until quite late in life was occupied with scientific experiments.
Inheriting the Harcourt estates in Oxfordshire from his brother in 1861,
he removed to Nuneham, where he died in April 1871.
HARDANGER FJORD, an inlet on the west coast of Norway, penetrating the
mainland for 70 m. apart from the deep fringe of islands off its mouth,
the total distance from the open sea to the head of the fjord being 114
m. Its extreme depth is about 350 fathoms. The entrance at Toro is 50 m.
by water south of Bergen, 60 deg. N., and the general direction is N.E.
from that point. The fjord is flanked by magnificent mountains, from
which many waterfalls pour into it. The main fjord is divided into parts
under different names, and there are many fine branch fjords. The fjord
is frequented by tourists, and the principal stations have hotels. The
outer fjord is called the Kvindherredsfjord, flanked by the Melderskin
(4680 ft.); then follow Sildefjord and Bonde Sund, separated by Varalds
island. Here Mauranger-fjord opens on the east; from Sundal on this
inlet the great Folgefond snowfield may be crossed, and a fine glacier
(Bondhusbrae) visited. Bakke and Vikingnaes are stations on Hisfjord,
Nordheimsund and Ostenso on Ytre Samlen, which throws off a fine narrow
branch northward, the Fiksensund. There follow Indre Samlen and
Utnefjord, with the station of Utne opposite Oxen (4120 ft.), and its
northward branch, Gravenfjord, with the beautiful station of Eide at its
head, whence a road runs north-west to Vossevangen. From the Utne
terminal branches of the fjord run south and east; the Sorfjord, steeply
walled by the heights of the Folgefond, with the frequented resort of
Odde at its head; and the Eidfjord, with its branch Osefjord,
terminating beneath a tremendous rampart of mountains, through which the
sombre Simodal penetrates, the river flowing from Daemmevand, a
beautiful lake among the fields, and forming with its tributaries the
fine falls of Skykje and Rembesdal. Vik is the principal station on
Eidfjord, and Ulvik on a branch of the Ose, with a road to Vossevangen.
At Vik is the mouth of the Bjoreia river, which, in forming the
Voringfos, plunges 520 ft. into a magnificent rock-bound basin. A small
stream entering Sorfjord forms in its upper course the Skjaeggedalsfos,
of equal height with the Voringfos, and hardly less beautiful. The
natives of Hardanger have an especially picturesque local costume.
HARDEE, WILLIAM JOSEPH (1815-1873), American soldier, was born in
Savannah, Georgia, on the 10th of November 1815 and graduated from West
Point in 1838. As a subaltern of cavalry he was employed on a special
mission to Europe to study the cavalry methods in vogue (1839). He was
promoted captain in 1844 and served under Generals Taylor and Scott in
the Mexican War, winning the brevet of major for gallantry in action in
March 1847 and subsequently that of lieut.-colonel. After the war he
served as a substantive major under Colonel Sidney Johnston and
Lieut.-Colonel Robert Lee in the 2nd U.S. cavalry, and for some time
before 1856 he was engaged in compiling the official manual of infantry
drill and tactics which, familiarly called "Hardee's Tactics,"
afterwards formed the text-book for the infantry arm in both the Federal
and the Confederate armies. From 1856 to 1861 he was commandant of West
Point, resigning his commission on the secession of his state in the
latter year. Entering the Confederate service as a colonel, he was
shortly promoted brigadier-general. He distinguished himself very
greatly by his tactical leadership on the field of Shiloh, and was
immediately promoted major-general. As a corps commander he fought under
General Bragg at Perryville and Stone River, and for his distinguished
services in these battles was promoted lieutenant-general. He served in
the latter part of the campaign of 1863 under Bragg and in that of 1864
under J. E. Johnston. When the latter officer was superseded by Hood,
Hardee was relieved at his own request, and for the remainder of the war
he served in the Carolinas. When the Civil War came to an end in 1865 he
retired to his plantation near Selma, Alabama. He died at Wytheville,
Virginia, on the 6th of November 1873.
HARDENBERG, KARL AUGUST VON, PRINCE (1750-1822), Prussian statesman, was
born at Essenroda in Hanover on the 31st of May 1750. After studying at
Leipzig and Gottingen he entered the Hanoverian civil service in 1770 as
councillor of the board of domains (_Kammerrat_); but, finding his
advancement slow, he set out--on the advice of King George III.--on a
course of travels, spending some time at Wetzlar, Regensburg (where he
studied the mechanism of the Imperial government), Vienna and Berlin. He
also visited France, Holland and England, where he was kindly received
by the king. On his return he married, by his father's desire, the
countess Reventlow. In 1778 he was raised to the rank of privy
councillor and created a count. He now again went to England, in the
hope of obtaining the post of Hanoverian envoy in London; but, his wife
becoming entangled in an _amour_ with the prince of Wales, so great a
scandal was created that he was forced to leave the Hanoverian service.
In 1782 he entered that of the duke of Brunswick, and as president of
the board of domains displayed a zeal for reform, in the manner approved
by the enlightened despots of the century, that rendered him very
unpopular with the orthodox clergy and the conservative estates. In
Brunswick, too, his position was in the end made untenable by the
conduct of his wife, whom he now divorced; he himself, shortly
afterwards, marrying a divorced woman. Fortunately for him, this
coincided with the lapsing of the principalities of Ansbach and Bayreuth
to Prussia, owing to the resignation of the last margrave, Charles
Alexander, in 1791. Hardenberg, who happened to be in Berlin at the
time, was on the recommendation of Herzberg appointed administrator of
the principalities (1792). The position, owing to the singular
overlapping of territorial claims in the old Empire, was one of
considerable delicacy, and Hardenberg filled it with great skill, doing
much to reform traditional anomalies and to develop the country, and at
the same time labouring to expand the influence of Prussia in South
Germany. After the outbreak of the revolutionary wars his diplomatic
ability led to his appointment as Prussian envoy, with a roving
commission to visit the Rhenish courts and win them over to Prussia's
views; and ultimately, when the necessity for making peace with the
French Republic had been recognized, he was appointed to succeed Count
Goltz as Prussian plenipotentiary at Basel (February 28, 1795), where he
signed the treaty of peace.
In 1797, on the accession of King Frederick William III., Hardenberg was
summoned to Berlin, where he received an important position in the
cabinet and was appointed chief of the departments of Magdeburg and
Halberstadt, for Westphalia, and for the principality of Neuchatel. In
1793 Hardenberg had struck up a friendship with Count Haugwitz, the
influential minister for foreign affairs, and when in 1803 the latter
went away on leave (August-October) he appointed Hardenberg his _locum
tenens_. It was a critical period. Napoleon had just occupied Hanover,
and Haugwitz had urged upon the king the necessity for strong measures
and the expediency of a Russian alliance. During his absence, however,
the king's irresolution continued; he clung to the policy of neutrality
which had so far seemed to have served Prussia so well; and Hardenberg
contented himself with adapting himself to the royal will. By the time
Haugwitz returned, the unyielding attitude of Napoleon had caused the
king to make advances to Russia; but the mutual declarations of the 3rd
and 25th of May 1804 only pledged the two powers to take up arms in the
event of a French attack upon Prussia or of further aggressions in North
Germany. Finally, Haugwitz, unable to persuade the cabinet to a more
vigorous policy, resigned, and on the 14th of April 1804 Hardenberg
succeeded him as foreign minister.
If there was to be war, Hardenberg would have preferred the French
alliance, which was the price Napoleon demanded for the cession of
Hanover to Prussia; for the Eastern powers would scarcely have
conceded, of their free will, so great an augmentation of Prussian
power. But he still hoped to gain the coveted prize by diplomacy, backed
by the veiled threat of an armed neutrality. Then occurred Napoleon's
contemptuous violation of Prussian territory by marching three French
corps through Ansbach; King Frederick William's pride overcame his
weakness, and on the 3rd of November he signed with the tsar Alexander
the terms of an ultimatum to be laid before the French emperor. Haugwitz
was despatched to Vienna with the document; but before he arrived the
battle of Austerlitz had been fought, and the Prussian plenipotentiary
had to make the best terms he could with the conqueror. Prussia, indeed,
by the treaty signed at Schonbrunn on the 15th of December 1805,
received Hanover, but in return for all her territories in South
Germany. One condition of the arrangement was the retirement of
Hardenberg, whom Napoleon disliked. He was again foreign minister for a
few months after the crisis of 1806 (April-July 1807); but Napoleon's
resentment was implacable, and one of the conditions of the terms
granted to Prussia by the treaty of Tilsit was Hardenberg's dismissal.
After the enforced retirement of Stein in 1810 and the unsatisfactory
interlude of the feeble Altenstein ministry, Hardenberg was again
summoned to Berlin, this time as chancellor (June 6, 1810). The campaign
of Jena and its consequences had had a profound effect upon him; and in
his mind the traditions of the old diplomacy had given place to the new
sentiment of nationality characteristic of the coming age, which in him
found expression in a passionate desire to restore the position of
Prussia and crush her oppressors. During his retirement at Riga he had
worked out an elaborate plan for reconstructing the monarchy on Liberal
lines; and when he came into power, though the circumstances of the time
did not admit of his pursuing an independent foreign policy, he steadily
prepared for the struggle with France by carrying out Stein's
far-reaching schemes of social and political reorganization. The
military system was completely reformed, serfdom was abolished,
municipal institutions were fostered, the civil service was thrown open
to all classes, and great attention was devoted to the educational needs
of every section of the community.
When at last the time came to put these reforms to the test, after the
Moscow campaign of 1812, it was Hardenberg who, supported by the
influence of the noble Queen Louise, determined Frederick William to
take advantage of General Yorck's loyal disloyalty and declare against
France. He was rightly regarded by German patriots as the statesman who
had done most to encourage the spirit of national independence; and
immediately after he had signed the first peace of Paris he was raised
to the rank of prince (June 3, 1814) in recognition of the part he had
played in the War of Liberation.
Hardenberg now had an assured position in that close corporation of
sovereigns and statesmen by whom Europe, during the next few years, was
to be governed. He accompanied the allied sovereigns to England, and at
the congress of Vienna (1814-1815) was the chief plenipotentiary of
Prussia. But from this time the zenith of his influence, if not of his
fame, was passed. In diplomacy he was no match for Metternich, whose
influence soon overshadowed his own in the councils of Europe, of
Germany, and ultimately even of Prussia itself. At Vienna, in spite of
the powerful backing of Alexander of Russia, he failed to secure the
annexation of the whole of Saxony to Prussia; at Paris, after Waterloo,
he failed to carry through his views as to the further dismemberment of
France; he had weakly allowed Metternich to forestall him in making
terms with the states of the Confederation of the Rhine, which secured
to Austria the preponderance in the German federal diet; on the eve of
the conference of Carlsbad (1819) he signed a convention with
Metternich, by which--to quote the historian Treitschke--"like a
penitent sinner, without any formal _quid pro quo_, the monarchy of
Frederick the Great yielded to a foreign power a voice in her internal
affairs." At the congresses of Aix-la-Chapelle, Troppau, Laibach and
Verona the voice of Hardenberg was but an echo of that of Metternich.
The cause lay partly in the difficult circumstances of the loosely-knit
Prussian monarchy, but partly in Hardenberg's character, which, never
well balanced, had deteriorated with age. He continued amiable, charming
and enlightened as ever; but the excesses which had been pardonable in a
young diplomatist were a scandal in an elderly chancellor, and could not
but weaken his influence with so pious a _Landesvater_ as Frederick
William III. To overcome the king's terror of Liberal experiments would
have needed all the powers of an adviser at once wise and in character
wholly trustworthy. Hardenberg was wise enough; he saw the necessity for
constitutional reform; but he clung with almost senile tenacity to the
sweets of office, and when the tide turned strongly against Liberalism
he allowed himself to drift with it. In the privacy of royal commissions
he continued to elaborate schemes for constitutions that never saw the
light; but Germany, disillusioned, saw only the faithful henchman of
Metternich, an accomplice in the policy of the Carlsbad Decrees and the
Troppau Protocol. He died, soon after the closing of the congress of
Verona, at Genoa, on the 26th of November 1822.
See L. v. Ranke, _Denkwurdigkeiten des Staatskanzlers Fursten von
Hardenberg_ (5 vols., Leipzig, 1877); J. R. Seeley, _The Life and
Times of Stein_ (3 vols., Cambridge, 1878); E. Meier, _Reform der
Verwaltungsorganisation unter Stein und Hardenberg_ (ib., 1881); Chr.
Meyer, _Hardenberg und seine Verwaltung der Furstentumer Ansbach und
Bayreuth_ (Breslau, 1892); Koser, _Die Neuordnung des preussischen
Archivwesens durch den Staatskanzler Fursten v. Hardenberg_ (Leipzig,
1904).
HARDERWYK, a seaport in the province of Gelderland, Holland, on the
shores of the Zuider Zee, 17 m. by rail N.N.E. of Amersfoort. Pop.
(1900) 7425. It is a quaint old town, approached by a fine avenue of
trees, and standing in the midst of a patch of fertile ground. Harderwyk
is chiefly important as being the depot for recruits for the Dutch
colonial army. It contains a small fort and large barracks. The
principal buildings are the town hall, with some ancient furniture, a
large 15th century church with a notable square tower, a municipal
orphanage, and the Nassau-Veluwe gymnasium. Agriculture, fishing, and a
few domestic industries form the only employment of the inhabitants. As
a seaport its trade is now confined exclusively to the Zuider Zee.
HARDICANUTE [more correctly HARDACNUT] (c. 1010-1042), son of Canute,
king of England, by his wife Aelfgifu or Emma, was born about 1019. In
the contest for the English crown which followed the death of Canute in
1035 the claims of Hardicanute were supported by Emma and her ally,
Godwine, earl of the West Saxons, in opposition to those of Harold,
Canute's illegitimate son, who was backed by the Mercian earl Leofric
and the chief men of the north. At a meeting of the witan at Oxford a
compromise was ultimately arranged by which Harold was temporarily
elected regent of all England, pending the final settlement of the
question on the return of Hardicanute from Denmark. The compromise was
strongly opposed by Godwine and Emma, who for a time forcibly held
Wessex in Hardicanute's behalf. But Harold's party rapidly increased;
and early in 1037 he was definitely elected king. Emma was driven out
and took refuge at Bruges. In 1039 Hardicanute joined her, and together
they concerted an attack on England. But next year Harold died; and
Hardicanute peacefully succeeded. His short reign was marked by great
oppression and cruelty. He caused the dead body of Harold to be dug up
and thrown into a fen; he exacted so heavy a geld for the support of his
foreign fleet that great discontent was created throughout the kingdom,
and in Worcestershire a general uprising took place against those sent
to collect the tax, whereupon he burned the city of Worcester to the
ground and devastated the surrounding country; in 1041 he permitted
Edwulf, earl of Northumbria, to be treacherously murdered after having
granted him a safe-conduct. While "he stood at his drink" at the
marriage feast of one of his flegns he was suddenly seized with a fit,
from which he died a few days afterwards on the 8th of June 1042.
HARDING, CHESTER (1792-1866), American portrait painter, was born at
Conway, Massachusetts, on the 1st of September 1792. Brought up in the
wilderness of New York state, Harding, as a lad of splendid physique,
standing over 6 ft. 3 in., marched as a drummer with the militia to the
St Lawrence in 1813. He became subsequently chairmaker, peddler,
inn-keeper, and house-painter, painting signs in Pittsburg, Pa., and
eventually going on the road, self-taught, as an itinerant portrait
painter. He made enough money to take him to the schools at the
Philadelphia Academy of Design, and he soon became proficient enough to
gain a competency, so that later he went to England and set up a studio
in London. There he met with great success, painting royalty and the
nobility, and, despite the lackings of an early education and social
experience, he became a favourite in all circles. Returning to the
United States, he settled in Boston and painted portraits of many of the
prominent men and women of his time. He died on the 1st of April 1866.
HARDING, JAMES DUFFIELD (1798-1863), English landscape painter, was the
son of an artist, and took to the same vocation at an early age,
although he had originally been destined for the law. He was in the main
a water-colour painter and a lithographer, but he produced various
oil-paintings both at the beginning and towards the end of his career.
He frequently contributed to the exhibitions of the Water-Colour
Society, of which he became an associate in 1821, and a full member in
1822. He was also very largely engaged in teaching, and published
several books developing his views of art--amongst others, _The Tourist
in Italy_ (1831); _The Tourist in France_ (1834); _The Park and the
Forest_ (1841); _The Principles and the Practice of Art_ (1845);
_Elementary Art_ (1846); _Scotland Delineated in a Series of Views_
(1847); _Lessons on Art_ (1849). He died at Barnes on the 4th of
December 1863. Harding was noted for facility, sureness of hand, nicety
of touch, and the various qualities which go to make up an elegant,
highly trained, and accomplished sketcher from nature, and composer of
picturesque landscape material; he was particularly skilful in the
treatment of foliage.
HARDINGE, HENRY HARDINGE, VISCOUNT (1785-1856), British field marshal
and governor-general of India, was born at Wrotham in Kent on the 30th
of March 1785. After being at Eton, he entered the army in 1799 as an
ensign in the Queen's Rangers, a corps then stationed in Upper Canada.
His first active service was at the battle of Vimiera, where he was
wounded; and at Corunna he was by the side of Sir John Moore when he
received his death-wound. Subsequently he received an appointment as
deputy-quartermaster-general in the Portuguese army from Marshal
Beresford, and was present at nearly all the battles of the Peninsular
War, being wounded again at Vittoria. At Albuera he saved the day for
the British by taking the responsibility at a critical moment of
strongly urging General Cole's division to advance. When peace was again
broken in 1815 by Napoleon's escape from Elba, Hardinge hastened into
active service, and was appointed to the important post of commissioner
at the Prussian headquarters. In this capacity he was present at the
battle of Ligny on the 16th of June 1815, where he lost his left hand by
a shot, and thus was not present at Waterloo, fought two days later. For
the loss of his hand he received a pension of L300; he had already been
made a K.C.B., and Wellington presented him with a sword that had
belonged to Napoleon. In 1820 and 1826 Sir Henry Hardinge was returned
to parliament as member for Durham; and in 1828 he accepted the office
of secretary at war in Wellington's ministry, a post which he also
filled in Peel's cabinet in 1841-1844. In 1830 and 1834-1835 he was
chief secretary for Ireland. In 1844 he succeeded Lord Ellenborough as
governor-general of India. During his term of office the first Sikh War
broke out; and Hardinge, waiving his right to the supreme command,
magnanimously offered to serve as second in command under Sir Hugh
Gough; but disagreeing with the latter's plan of campaign at Ferozeshah,
he temporarily reasserted his authority as governor-general (see SIKH
WARS). After the successful termination of the campaign at Sobraon he
was created Viscount Hardinge of Lahore and of King's Newton in
Derbyshire, with a pension of L3000 for three lives; while the East
India Company voted him an annuity of L5000, which he declined to
accept. Hardinge's term of office in India was marked by many social and
educational reforms. He returned to England in 1848, and in 1852
succeeded the duke of Wellington as commander-in-chief of the British
army. While in this position he had the home management of the Crimean
War, which he endeavoured to conduct on Wellington's principles--a
system not altogether suited to the changed mode of warfare. In 1855 he
was promoted to the rank of field marshal. Viscount Hardinge resigned
his office of commander-in-chief in July 1856, owing to failing health,
and died on the 24th of September of the same year at South Park near
Tunbridge Wells. His elder son, Charles Stewart (1822-1894), who had
been his private secretary in India, was the 2nd Viscount Hardinge; and
the latter's eldest son succeeded to the title. The younger son of the
2nd Viscount, Charles Hardinge (b. 1858), became a prominent diplomatist
(see Edward VII.), and was appointed governor-general of India in 1910,
being created Baron Hardinge of Penshurst.
See C. Hardinge, _Viscount Hardinge_ (Rulers of India series, 1891);
and R. S. Rait, _Life and Campaigns of Viscount Gough_ (1903).
HARDOI, a town and district of British India, in the Lucknow division of
the United Provinces. The town is 63 m. N.E. of Lucknow by rail. Pop.
(1901) 12,174. It has a wood-carving industry, saltpetre works, and an
export trade in grain.
The DISTRICT OF HARDOI has an area of 2331 sq. m. It is a level district
watered by the Ganges, Ramganga, Deoha or Garra, Sukheta, Sai, Baita and
Gumti--the three rivers first named being navigable by country boats.
Towards the Ganges the land is uneven, and often rises in hillocks of
sand cultivated at the base, and their slopes covered with lofty _munj_
grass. Several large _jhils_ or swamps are scattered throughout the
district, the largest being that of Sandi, which is 3 m. long by from 1
to 2 m. broad. These _jhils_ are largely used for irrigation. Large
tracts of forest jungle still exist. Leopards, black buck, spotted deer,
and _nilgai_ are common; the mallard, teal, grey duck, common goose, and
all kinds of waterfowl abound. In 1901 the population of the district
was 1,092,834, showing a decrease of nearly 2% in the decade. The
district contains a larger urban population than any other in Oudh, the
largest town being Shahabad, 20,036 in 1901. It is traversed by the Oudh
and Rohilkhand railway from Lucknow to Shahjahanpur, and its branches.
The chief exports are grain, sugar, hides, tobacco and saltpetre.
The first authentic records of Hardoi are connected with the Mussulman
colonization. Bawan was occupied by Sayyid Salar Masaud in 1028, but the
permanent Moslem occupation did not begin till 1217. Owing to the
situation of the district, Hardoi formed the scene of many sanguinary
battles between the rival Afghan and Mogul empires. Between Bilgram and
Sandi was fought the great battle between Humayun and Sher Shah, in
which the former was utterly defeated. Hardoi, along with the rest of
Oudh, became British territory under Lord Dalhousie's proclamation of
February 1856.
HARDOUIN, JEAN (1646-1729), French classical scholar, was born at
Quimper in Brittany. Having acquired a taste for literature in his
father's book-shop, he sought and obtained about his sixteenth year
admission into the order of the Jesuits. In Paris, where he went to
study theology, he ultimately became librarian of the College Louis le
Grand in 1683, and he died there on the 3rd of September 1729. His first
published work was an edition of Themistius (1684), which included no
fewer than thirteen new orations. On the advice of Jean Garnier
(1612-1681) he undertook to edit the _Natural History_ of Pliny for the
Delphin series, a task which he completed in five years. His attention
having been turned to numismatics as auxiliary to his great editorial
labours, he published several learned works in that department, marred,
however, as almost everything he did was marred, by a determination to
be at all hazards different from other interpreters. It is sufficient to
mention his _Nummi antiqui populorum et urbium illustrati_ (1684),
_Antirrheticus de nummis antiquis coloniarum et municipiorum_ (1689),
and _Chronologia Veteris Testamenti ad vulgatam versionem exacta et
nummis illustrata_ (1696). By the ecclesiastical authorities Hardouin
was appointed to supervise the _Conciliorum collectio regia maxima_
(1715); but he was accused of suppressing important documents and
foisting in apocryphal matter, and by the order of the parlement of
Paris (then at war with the Jesuits) the publication of the work was
delayed. It is really a valuable collection, much cited by scholars.
Hardouin declared that all the councils supposed to have taken place
before the council of Trent were fictitious. It is, however, as the
originator of a variety of paradoxical theories that Hardouin is now
best remembered. The most remarkable, contained in his _Chronologiae ex
nummis antiquis restitutae_ (1696) and _Prolegomena ad censuram veterum
scriptorum_, was to the effect that, with the exception of the works of
Homer, Herodotus and Cicero, the _Natural History_ of Pliny, the
_Georgics_ of _Virgil_, and the _Satires and Epistles of Horace_, all
the ancient classics of Greece and Rome were spurious, having been
manufactured by monks of the 13th century, under the direction of a
certain Severus Archontius. He denied the genuineness of most ancient
works of art, coins and inscriptions, and declared that the New
Testament was originally written in Latin.
See A. Debacker, _Bibliotheque des ecrivains de la Compagnie de Jesus_
(1853).
HARDT, HERMANN VON DER (1660-1746), German historian and orientalist,
was born at Melle, in Westphalia, on the 15th of November 1660. He
studied oriental languages in Jena and in Leipzig, and in 1690 he was
called to the chair of oriental languages at Helmstedt. He resigned his
position in 1727, but lived at Helmstedt until his death on the 28th of
February 1746. Among his numerous writings the following deserve
mention: _Autographa Lutheri aliorumque celebrium virorum, ab anno 1517
ad annum 1546_, _Reformationis aetatem et historiam egregie
illustrantia_ (1690-1691); _Magnum oecumenicum Constantiense concilium_
(1697-1700); _Hebraeae linguae fundamenta_ (1694); _Syriacae linguae
fundamenta_ (1694); _Elementa Chaldaica_ (1693); _Historia litteraria
reformationis_ (1717); _Enigmata prisci orbis_ (1723). Hardt left in
manuscript a history of the Reformation which is preserved in the
Helmstedt Juleum.
See F. Lamey, _Hermann von der Hardt in seinen Briefen_ (Karlsruhe,
1891).
HARDT, THE, a mountainous district of Germany, in the Bavarian
palatinate, forming the northern end of the Vosges range. It is, in the
main, an undulating high plateau of sandstone formation, of a mean
elevation of 1300 ft., and reaching its highest point in the Donnersberg
(2254 ft.). The eastern slope, which descends gently towards the Rhine,
is diversified by deep and well-wooded valleys, such as those of the
Lauter and the Queich, and by conical hills surmounted by the ruins of
frequent feudal castles and monasteries. Noticeable among these are the
Madenburg near Eschbach, the Trifels (long the dungeon of Richard I. of
England), and the Maxburg near Neustadt. Three-fifths of the whole area
is occupied by forests, principally oak, beech and fir. The lower
eastern slope is highly cultivated and produces excellent wine.
HARDWAR, or HURDWAR, an ancient town of British India, and Hindu place
of pilgrimage, in the Saharanpur district of the United Provinces, on
the right bank of the Ganges, 17 m. N.E. of Rurki, with a railway
station. The Ganges canal here takes off from the river. A branch
railway to Dehra was opened in 1900. Pop. (1901), 25,597. The town is of
great antiquity, and has borne many names. It was originally known as
Kapila from the sage Kapila. Hsuan Tsang, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim,
in the 7th century visited a city which he calls Mo-yu-lo, the remains
of which still exist at Mayapur, a little to the south of the modern
town. Among the ruins are a fort and three temples, decorated with
broken stone sculptures. The great object of attraction at present is
the Hari-ka-charan, or bathing _ghat_, with the adjoining temple of
Gangadwara. The _charan_ or foot-mark of Vishnu, imprinted on a stone
let into the upper wall of the _ghat_, forms an object of special
reverence. A great assemblage of people takes place annually, at the
beginning of the Hindu solar year, when the sun enters Aries; and every
twelfth year a feast of peculiar sanctity occurs, known as a
_Kumbh-mela_. The ordinary number of pilgrims at the annual fair
amounts to 100,000, and at the Kumbh-mela to 300,000; in 1903 there
were 400,000 present. Since 1892 many sanitary improvements have been
made for the benefit of the annual concourse of pilgrims. In early days
riots and also outbreaks of cholera were of common occurrence. The
Hardwar meeting also possesses mercantile importance, being one of the
principal horse-fairs in Upper India. Commodities of all kinds, Indian
and European, find a ready sale, and the trade in grain and food-stuffs
forms a lucrative traffic.
HARDWICKE, PHILIP YORKE, 1ST EARL OF (1690-1764), English lord
chancellor, son of Philip Yorke, an attorney, was born at Dover, on the
1st of December 1690. Through his mother, Elizabeth, daughter and
co-heiress of Richard Gibbon of Rolvenden, Kent, he was connected with
the family of Gibbon the historian. At the age of fourteen, after a not
very thorough education at a private school at Bethnal Green, where,
however, he showed exceptional promise, he entered an attorney's office
in London. Here he gave some attention to literature and the classics as
well as to law; but in the latter he made such progress that his
employer, Salkeld, impressed by Yorke's powers, entered him at the
Middle Temple in November 1708; and soon afterwards recommended him to
Lord Chief Justice Parker (afterwards earl of Macclesfield) as law tutor
to his sons. In 1715 he was called to the bar, where his progress was,
says Lord Campbell, "more rapid than that of any other debutant in the
annals of our profession," his advancement being greatly furthered by
the patronage of Macclesfield, who became lord chancellor in 1718, when
Yorke transferred his practice from the king's bench to the court of
chancery, though he continued to go on the western circuit. In the
following year he established his reputation as an equity lawyer in a
case in which Sir Robert Walpole's family was interested, by an argument
displaying profound learning and research concerning the jurisdiction of
the chancellor, on lines which he afterwards more fully developed in a
celebrated letter to Lord Kames on the distinction between law and
equity. Through Macclesfield's influence with the duke of Newcastle
Yorke entered parliament in 1719 as member for Lewes, and was appointed
solicitor-general, with a knighthood, in 1720, although he was then a
barrister of only four years' standing. His conduct of the prosecution
of Christopher Layer in that year for treason as a Jacobite further
raised Sir Philip Yorke's reputation as a forensic orator; and in 1723,
having already become attorney-general, he passed through the House of
Commons the bill of pains and penalties against Bishop Atterbury. He was
excused, on the ground of his personal friendship, from acting for the
crown in the impeachment of Macclesfield in 1725, though he did not
exert himself to save his patron from disgrace largely brought about by
Macclesfield's partiality for Yorke himself. He soon found a new and
still more influential patron in the duke of Newcastle, to whom he
henceforth gave his political support. He rendered valuable service to
Walpole's government by his support of the bill for prohibiting loans to
foreign powers (1730), of the increase of the army (1732) and of the
excise bill (1733). In 1733 Yorke was appointed lord chief justice of
the king's bench, with the title of Lord Hardwicke, and was sworn of the
privy council; and in 1737 he succeeded Talbot as lord chancellor, thus
becoming a member of Sir Robert Walpole's cabinet. One of his first
official acts was to deprive the poet Thomson of a small office
conferred on him by Talbot.
Hardwicke's political importance was greatly increased by his removal to
the House of Lords, where the incompetency of Newcastle threw on the
chancellor the duty of defending the measures of the government. He
resisted Carteret's motion to reduce the army in 1738, and the
resolutions hostile to Spain over the affair of Captain Jenkins's ears.
But when Walpole bent before the storm and declared war against Spain,
Hardwicke advocated energetic measures for its conduct; and he tried to
keep the peace between Newcastle and Walpole. There is no sufficient
ground for Horace Walpole's charge that the fall of Sir Robert was
brought about by Hardwicke's treachery. No one was more surprised than
himself when he retained the chancellorship in the following
administration, and he resisted the proposal to indemnify witnesses
against Walpole in one of his finest speeches in May 1742. He exercised
a leading influence in the Wilmington Cabinet; and when Wilmington died
in August 1743, it was Hardwicke who put forward Henry Pelham for the
vacant office against the claims of Pulteney. For many years from this
time he was the controlling power in the government. During the king's
absences on the continent Hardwicke was left at the head of the council
of regency; it thus fell to him to concert measures for dealing with the
Jacobite rising in 1745. He took a just view of the crisis, and his
policy for meeting it was on the whole statesmanlike. After Culloden he
presided at the trial of the Scottish Jacobite peers, his conduct of
which, though judicially impartial, was neither dignified nor generous;
and he must be held partly responsible for the unnecessary severity
meted out to the rebels, and especially for the cruel, though not
illegal, executions on obsolete attainders of Charles Radcliffe and (in
1753) of Archibald Cameron. He carried, however, a great reform in 1746,
of incalculable benefit to Scotland, which swept away the grave abuses
of feudal power surviving in that country in the form of private
heritable jurisdictions in the hands of the landed gentry. On the other
hand his legislation in 1748 for disarming the Highlanders and
prohibiting the use of the tartan in their dress was vexatious without
being effective. Hardwicke supported Chesterfield's reform of the
calendar in 1751; in 1753 his bill for legalizing the naturalization of
Jews in England had to be dropped on account of the popular clamour it
excited; but he successfully carried a salutary reform of the marriage
law, which became the basis of all subsequent legislation on the
subject.
On the death of Pelham in 1754 Hardwicke obtained for Newcastle the post
of prime minister, and for reward was created earl of Hardwicke and
Viscount Royston; and when in November 1756 the weakness of the ministry
and the threatening aspect of foreign affairs compelled Newcastle to
resign, Hardwicke retired with him. He played an important and
disinterested part in negotiating the coalition between Newcastle and
Pitt in 1757, when he accepted a seat in Pitt's cabinet without
returning to the woolsack. After the accession of George III. Hardwicke
opposed the ministry of Lord Bute on the peace with France in 1762, and
on the cider tax in the following year. In the Wilkes case Hardwicke
condemned general warrants, and also the doctrine that seditious libels
published by members of parliament were protected by parliamentary
privilege. He died in London on the 6th of March 1764.
Although for a lengthy period Hardwicke was an influential minister, he
was not a statesman of the first rank. On the other hand he was one of
the greatest judges who ever sat on the English bench. He did not,
indeed, by his three years' tenure of the chief-justiceship of the
king's bench leave any impress on the common law; but Lord Campbell
pronounces him "the most consummate judge who ever sat in the court of
chancery, being distinguished not only for his rapid and satisfactory
decision of the causes which came before him, but for the profound and
enlightened principles which he laid down, and for perfecting English
equity into a systematic science." He held the office of lord chancellor
longer than any of his predecessors, with a single exception; and the
same high authority quoted above asserts that as an equity judge Lord
Hardwicke's fame "has not been exceeded by that of any man in ancient or
modern times. His decisions have been, and ever will continue to be,
appealed to as fixing the limits and establishing the principles of the
great juridical system called Equity, which now not only in this country
and in our colonies, but over the whole extent of the United States of
America, regulates property and personal rights more than the ancient
common law."[1] Hardwicke had prepared himself for this great and
enduring service to English jurisprudence by study of the historical
foundations of the chancellor's equitable jurisdiction, combined with
profound insight into legal principle, and a thorough knowledge of the
Roman civil law, the principles of which he scientifically incorporated
into his administration of English equity in the absence of precedents
bearing on the causes submitted to his judgment. His decisions on
particular points in dispute were based on general principles, which
were neither so wide as to prove inapplicable to future circumstances,
nor too restricted to serve as the foundation for a coherent and
scientific system. His recorded judgments--which, as Lord Campbell
observes, "certainly do come up to every idea we can form of judicial
excellence"--combine luminous method of arrangement with elegance and
lucidity of language.
Nor was the creation of modern English equity Lord Hardwicke's only
service to the administration of justice. Born within two years of the
death of Judge Jeffreys his influence was powerful in obliterating the
evil traditions of the judicial bench under the Stuart monarchy, and in
establishing the modern conception of the duties and demeanour of
English judges. While still at the bar Lord Chesterfield praised his
conduct of crown prosecutions as a contrast to the former "bloodhounds
of the crown"; and he described Sir Philip Yorke as "naturally humane,
moderate and decent." On the bench he had complete control over his
temper; he was always urbane and decorous and usually dignified. His
exercise of legal patronage deserves unmixed praise. As a public man he
was upright and, in comparison with most of his contemporaries,
consistent. His domestic life was happy and virtuous. His chief fault
was avarice, which perhaps makes it the more creditable that, though a
colleague of Walpole, he was never suspected of corruption. But he had a
keen and steady eye to his own advantage, and he was said to be jealous
of all who might become his rivals for power. His manners, too, were
arrogant. Lord Waldegrave said of Hardwicke that "he might have been
thought a great man had he been less avaricious, less proud, less unlike
a gentleman." Although in his youth he contributed to the _Spectator_
over the signature "Philip Homebred," he seems early to have abandoned
all care for literature, and he has been reproached by Lord Campbell and
others with his neglect of art and letters. He married, on the 16th of
May 1719, Margaret, daughter of Charles Cocks (by his wife Mary, sister
of Lord Chancellor Somers), and widow of John Lygon, by whom he had five
sons and two daughters. His eldest daughter, Elizabeth, married Lord
Anson; and the second, Margaret, married Sir Gilbert Heathcote. Three of
his younger sons attained some distinction. Charles Yorke (q.v.), the
second son, became like his father lord chancellor; the third, Joseph,
was a diplomatist, and was created Lord Dover; while James, the fifth
son, became bishop of Ely.
Hardwicke was succeeded in the earldom by his eldest son, PHILIP YORKE
(1720-1795), 2nd earl of Hardwicke, born on the 19th of March 1720, and
educated at Cambridge. In 1741 he became a fellow of the Royal Society.
With his brother, Charles Yorke, he was one of the chief contributors to
_Athenian Letters; or the Epistolary Correspondence of an agent of the
King of Persia residing at Athens during the Peloponnesian War_ (4
vols., London, 1741), a work that for many years had a considerable
vogue and went through several editions. He sat in the House of Commons
as member for Reigate (1741-1747), and afterwards for Cambridgeshire;
and he kept notes of the debates which were afterwards embodied in
Cobbett's _Parliamentary History_. He was styled Viscount Royston from
1754 till 1764, when he succeeded to the earldom. In politics he
supported the Rockingham Whigs. He held the office of teller of the
exchequer, and was lord-lieutenant of Cambridgeshire and high steward of
Cambridge University. He edited a quantity of miscellaneous state papers
and correspondence, to be found in MSS. collections in the British
Museum. He died in London, on the 16th of May 1790. He married Jemima
Campbell, only daughter of John, 3rd earl of Breadalbane, and
grand-daughter and heiress of Henry de Grey, duke of Kent, who became in
her own right marchioness de Grey.
In default of sons, the title devolved on his nephew, PHILIP YORKE
(1757-1834), 3rd earl of Hardwicke, eldest son of Charles Yorke, lord
chancellor, by his first wife, Catherine Freman, who was born on the
31st of May 1757 and was educated at Cambridge. He was M.P. for
Cambridgeshire, following the Whig traditions of his family; but after
his succession to the earldom in 1790 he supported Pitt, and took office
in 1801 as lord lieutenant of Ireland (1801-1806), where he supported
Catholic emancipation. He was created K.G. in 1803, and was a fellow of
the Royal Society. He married Elizabeth, daughter of James Lindsay, 5th
earl of Balcarres, in 1782, but left no son.
He was succeeded in the peerage by his nephew, CHARLES PHILIP YORKE
(1799-1873), 4th earl of Hardwicke, English admiral, eldest son of
Admiral Sir Joseph Sydney Yorke (1768-1831), who was second son of
Charles Yorke, lord chancellor, by his second wife, Agneta Johnson.
Charles Philip was born at Southampton on the 2nd of April 1799 and was
educated at Harrow. He entered the royal navy in 1815, and served on the
North American station and in the Mediterranean, attaining the rank of
captain in 1825. He represented Reigate (1831) and Cambridgeshire
(1832-1834) in the House of Commons; and after succeeding to the earldom
in 1834, was appointed a lord in waiting by Sir Robert Peel in 1841. In
1858 he retired from the active list with the rank of rear-admiral,
becoming vice-admiral in the same year, and admiral in 1863. He was a
member of Lord Derby's cabinet in 1852 as postmaster-general and lord
privy seal in 1858. In 1833 he married Susan, daughter of the 1st Lord
Ravensworth, by whom he had five sons and three daughters. His eldest
son, CHARLES PHILIP YORKE (1836-1897), 5th earl of Hardwicke, was
comptroller of the household of Queen Victoria (1866-1868) and master of
the buckhounds (1874-1880). He married in 1863, Sophia Georgiana,
daughter of the 1st Earl Cowley. He was succeeded by his only son ALBERT
EDWARD PHILIP HENRY YORKE (1867-1904), 6th earl of Hardwicke, who, after
holding the posts of under-secretary of state for India (1900-1902) and
for war (1902-1903), died unmarried on the 29th of November 1904; the
title then went to his uncle, JOHN MANNERS YORKE (1840-1909), 7th earl
of Hardwicke, second son of Charles Philip, the 4th earl, who joined the
royal navy and served in the Baltic and in the Crimea (1854-1855). This
earl died on the 13th of March 1909 and was succeeded by his son Charles
Alexander (b. 1869) as 8th earl.
The contemporary authorities for the life of Lord Chancellor Hardwicke
are voluminous, being contained in the memoirs of the period and in
numerous collections of correspondence in the British Museum. See,
especially, the _Hardwicke Papers_; the _Stowe MSS.; Hist. MSS.
Commission_ (Reports 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 11); Horace Walpole, _Letters_
(ed. by P. Cunningham, 9 vols., London, 1857-1859); _Letters to Sir H.
Mann_ (ed. by Lord Dover, 4 vols., London, 1843-1844); _Memoirs of the
Reign of George II._ (ed. by Lord Holland, 2nd ed. revised, London,
1847); _Memoirs of the Reign of George III._ (ed. by G. F. R. Barker,
4 vols., London, 1894); _Catalogue of Royal and Noble Authors of
England, Scotland and Ireland_ (ed. by T. Park, 5 vols., London,
1806). Horace Walpole was violently hostile to Hardwicke, and his
criticism, therefore, must be taken with extreme reserve. See also the
earl Waldegrave, _Memoirs 1754-1758_ (London, 1821); Lord
Chesterfield, _Letters_ (ed. by Lord Mahon, 5 vols., London, 1892);
Richard Cooksey, _Essay on John, Lord Somers, and Philip, Earl of
Hardwicke_ (Worcester, 1791); William Coxe, _Memoirs of Sir R.
Walpole_ (4 vols., London, 1816); _Memoirs of the Administration of
Henry Pelham_ (2 vols., London, 1829); Lord Campbell, _Lives of the
Lord Chancellors_, vol. v. (8 vols., London, 1845); Edward Foss, _The
Judges of England_, vols. vii. and viii. (9 vols., London, 1848-1864);
George Harris, _Life of Lord Chancellor Hardwicke; with Selections
from his Correspondence, Diaries, Speeches and Judgments_ (3 vols.,
London, 1847). The last-named work may be consulted for the lives of
the 2nd and 3rd earls. For the 3rd earl see also the duke of
Buckingham, _Memoirs of the Court and Cabinets of George III._ (4
vols., London, 1853-1855). For the 4th earl see _Charles Philip
Yorke_, by his daughter, Lady Biddulph of Ledbury (1910).
(R. J. M.)