[1] See Pollock and Maitland vol. i. 563. The sole survival of these
grants is the jurisdiction of the justices of the Soke of
Peterborough to try for capital offences at their quarter sessions.
[2] In most counties in Ireland the scaffold used (in 1852) to
consist in an iron balcony permanently fixed outside the gaol wall.
There was a small door in the wall commanding the balcony and opening
out upon it. The bottom of the iron balcony or cage was so
constructed that on the withdrawal of a pin or bolt which could be
managed from within the gaol, the trap-door upon which the culprit
stood dropped from under his feet. The upper end of the rope was
fastened to a strong iron bar, which projected over the trap-door.
There were usually two or three trap-doors on the same balcony, so
that, if required, two or more men could be hanged simultaneously.
(Trench, _Realities of Irish Life_ (1869), 280.)
HANGO, a port and sea-bathing resort situated on the promontory of
Hangoudd, to the extreme south-west of Finland. Hango owes its
commercial importance to the fact that it is practically the only winter
ice-free port in Finland, and is thus of value both to the Finnish and
the Russian sea-borne trade. When incorporated in 1874 it had only a few
hundred inhabitants; in 1900 it had 2501 and it has now over six
thousand (5986 in 1904). It is connected by railway with Helsingfors and
Tammerfors, and is the centre of the Finnish butter export, which now
amounts to over L1,000,000 yearly. There is a considerable import of
coal, cotton, iron and breadstuffs, the chief exports being butter,
fish, timber and wood pulp. During the period of emigration, owing to
political troubles with Russia, over 12,000 Finns sailed from Hango in a
single year (1901), mostly for the United States and Canada. Hango now
takes front rank as a fashionable watering-place, especially for wealthy
Russians, having a dry climate and a fine strand.
HANKA, WENCESLAUS (1791-1861), Bohemian philologist, was born at
Horeniowes, a hamlet of eastern Bohemia, on the 10th of June 1791. He
was sent in 1807 to school at Koniggratz, to escape the conscription,
then to the university of Prague, where he founded a society for the
cultivation of the Czech language. At Vienna, where he afterwards
studied law, he established a Czech periodical; and in 1813 he made the
acquaintance of Joseph Dobrowsky, the eminent philologist. On the 16th
of September 1817 Hanka alleged that he had discovered some ancient
Bohemian manuscript poems (the Koniginhof MS.) of the 13th and 14th
century in the church tower of the village of Kralodwor, or Koniginhof.
These were published in 1818, under the title _Kralodworsky Rukopis_,
with a German translation by Swoboda. Great doubt, however, was felt as
to their genuineness, and Dobrowsky, by pronouncing _The Judgment of
Libussa_, another manuscript found by Hanka, an "obvious fraud,"
confirmed the suspicion. Some years afterwards Dobrowsky saw fit to
modify his decision, but by modern Czech scholars the MS. is regarded as
a forgery. A translation into English, _The Manuscript of the Queen's
Court_, was made by Wratislaw in 1852. The originals were presented by
the discoverer to the Bohemian museum at Prague, of which he was
appointed librarian in 1818. In 1848 Hanka, who was an ardent
Panslavist, took part in the Slavonic congress and other peaceful
national demonstrations, being the founder of the political society
Slovanska Lipa. He was elected to the imperial diet at Vienna, but
declined to take his seat. In the winter of 1848 he became lecturer and
in 1849 professor of Slavonic languages in the university of Prague,
where he died on the 12th of January 1861.
His chief works and editions are the following: _Hankowy Pjsne_
(Prague, 1815), a volume of poems; _Starobyla Skladani_ (1817-1826),
in 5 vols.--a collection of old Bohemian poems, chiefly from
unpublished manuscripts; _A Short History of the Slavonic Peoples_
(1818); _A Bohemian Grammar_ (1822) and _A Polish Grammar_
(1839)--these grammars were composed on a plan suggested by Dobrowsky;
_Igor_ (1821), an ancient Russian epic, with a translation into
Bohemian; a part of the Gospels from the Reims manuscript in the
Glagolitic character (1846); the old Bohemian Chronicles of _Dalimil_
(1848) and the _History of Charles IV._, by Procop Lupac (1848);
_Evangelium Ostromis_ (1853).
HANKOW ("Mouth of the Han"), the great commercial centre of the middle
portion of the Chinese empire, and since 1858 one of the principal
places opened to foreign trade. It is situated on the northern side of
the Yangtsze-kiang at its junction with the Han river, about 600 m. W.
of Shanghai in 30 deg. 32' 51" N., 114 deg. 19' 55" E., at a height of
150 ft. By the Chinese it is not considered a separate city, but as a
suburb of the now decadent city of Hanyang; and it may almost be said to
stand in a similar relation to Wu-chang the capital of the province of
Hupeh, which lies immediately opposite on the southern bank of the
Yangtsze-kiang. Hankow extends for about a mile along the main river and
about two and a half along the Han. It is protected by a wall 18 ft.
high, which was erected in 1863 and has a circuit of about 4 m. Within
recent years the port has made rapid advance in wealth and importance.
The opening up of the upper waters of the Yangtsze to steam navigation
has made it a commercial _entrepot_ second only to Shanghai. It is the
terminus of a railway between Peking and the Yangtsze, the northern half
of the trunk line from Peking to Canton. There is daily communication by
regular lines of steamers with Shanghai, and smaller steamers ply on the
upper section of the river between Hankow and Ich'ang. The principal
article of export continues to be black tea, of which staple Hankow has
always been the central market. The bulk of the leaf tea, however, now
goes to Russia by direct steamers to Odessa instead of to London as
formerly, and a large quantity goes overland via Tientsin and Siberia in
the form of brick tea. The quantity of brick tea thus exported in 1904
was upwards of 10 million lb. The exports which come next in value are
opium, wood-oil, hides, beans, cotton yarn and raw silk. The population
of Hankow, together with the city of Wu-chang on the opposite bank, is
estimated at 800,000, and the number of foreign residents is about 500.
Large iron-works have been erected by the Chinese authorities at
Hanyang, a couple of miles higher up the river, and at Wuchang there are
two official cotton mills. The British concession, on which the business
part of the foreign settlement is built, was obtained in 1861 by a lease
in perpetuity from the Chinese authorities in favour of the crown. By
1863 a great embankment and a roadway were completed along the river,
which may rise as much as 50 ft. or more above its ordinary levels, and
not infrequently, as in 1849 and 1866, lays a large part of the town
under water. On the former occasion little was left uncovered but the
roofs of the houses. In 1864 a public assay office was established.
Sub-leases for a term of years are granted by the crown to private
individuals; local control, including the policing of the settlement, is
managed by a municipal council elected under regulations promulgated by
the British minister in China, acting by authority of the sovereign's
orders in council. Foreigners, i.e. non-British, are admitted to become
lease-holders on their submitting to be bound by the municipal
regulations. The concession, however, gives no territorial jurisdiction.
All foreigners, of whatever nationality, are justiciable only before
their own consular authorities by virtue of the extra-territorial
clauses of their treaties with China. In 1895 a concession, on similar
terms to that under which the British is held, was obtained by Germany,
and this was followed by concessions to France and Russia. These three
concessions all lie on the north bank of the river and immediately below
the British. An extension of the British concession backwards was
granted in 1898. The Roman Catholics, the London Missionary Society and
the Wesleyans have all missions in the town; and there are two
missionary hospitals. The total trade in 1904 was valued at L15,401,076
(L9,042,190 being exports and L6,358,886 imports) as compared with a
total of L17,183,400 in 1891 and L11,628,000 in 1880.
HANLEY, a market town and parliamentary borough of Staffordshire,
England, in the Potteries district, 148 m. N.W. from London, on the
North Staffordshire railway. Pop. (1891) 54,946; (1901) 61,599. The
parliamentary borough includes the adjoining town of Burslem. The town,
which lies on high ground, has handsome municipal buildings, free
library, technical and art museum, elementary, science and art schools,
and a large park. Its manufactures include porcelain, encaustic tiles,
and earthenware, and give employment to the greater part of the
population, women and children being employed almost as largely as men.
In the neighbourhood coal and iron are obtained. Hanley is of modern
development. Its municipal constitution dates from 1857, the
parliamentary borough from 1885, and the county borough from 1888.
Shelton, Hope, Northwood and Wellington are populous ecclesiastical
parishes included within its boundaries. That of Etruria, adjoining on
the west, originated in the Ridge House pottery works of Josiah Wedgwood
and Thomas Bentley, who founded them in 1769, naming them after the
country of the Etruscans in Italy. Etruria Hall was the scene of
Wedgwood's experiments. The parliamentary borough of Hanley returns one
member. The town was governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen, and 18 councillors
until under the "Potteries federation" scheme (1908) it became part of
the borough of Stoke-on-Trent (q.v.) in 1910.
HANNA, MARCUS ALONZO (1837-1904), American politician, was born at New
Lisbon (now Lisbon) Columbiana county, Ohio, on the 24th of September
1837. In 1852 he removed with his father to Cleveland, where the latter
established himself in the wholesale grocery business, and the son
received his education in the public schools of that city, and at the
Western Reserve University. Leaving college before the completion of his
course, he became associated with his father in business, and on his
father's death (1862) became a member of the firm. In 1867 he entered
into partnership with his father-in-law, Daniel P. Rhodes, in the coal
and iron business. It was largely due to Hanna's progressive methods
that the business of the firm, which became M. A. Hanna & Company in
1877, was extended to include the ownership of a fleet of lake
steam-ships constructed in their own shipyards, and the control and
operation of valuable coal and iron mines. Subsequently he became
largely interested in street railway properties in Cleveland and
elsewhere, and in various banking institutions. In early life he had
little time for politics, but after 1880 he became prominent in the
affairs of the Republican party in Cleveland, and in 1884 and 1888 was a
delegate to the Republican National Convention, in the latter year being
associated with William McKinley in the management of the John Sherman
canvass. It was not, however, until 1896, when he personally managed the
canvass that resulted in securing the Republican presidential nomination
for William McKinley at the St Louis Convention (at which he was a
delegate), that he became known throughout the United States as a
political manager of great adroitness, tact and resourcefulness.
Subsequently he became chairman of the Republican National Committee,
and managed with consummate skill the campaign of 1896 against William
Jennings Bryan and "free-silver." In March 1897 he was appointed, by
Governor Asa S. Bushnell (1834-1904) United States senator from Ohio, to
succeed John Sherman. In the senate, to which in January 1898 he was
elected for the short term ending on the 3rd of March 1899 and for the
succeeding full term, he took little part in the debates, but was
recognized as one of the principal advisers of the McKinley
administration, and his influence was large in consequence. Apart from
politics he took a deep and active interest in the problems of capital
and labour, was one of the organizers (1901) and the first president of
the National Civic Federation, whose purpose was to solve social and
industrial problems, and in December 1901 became chairman of a permanent
board of conciliation and arbitration established by the Federation.
After President Roosevelt's policies became defined, Senator Hanna came
to be regarded as the leader of the conservative branch of the
Republican party and a possible presidential candidate in 1904. He died
at Washington on the 15th of February 1904.
HANNAY, JAMES (1827-1873), Scottish critic, novelist and publicist, was
born at Dumfries on the 17th of February 1827. He came of the Hannays of
Sorbie, an ancient Galloway family. He entered the navy in 1840 and
served till 1845, when he adopted literature as his profession. He acted
as reporter on the _Morning Chronicle_ and gradually obtained a
connexion, writing for the quarterly and monthly journals. In 1857
Hannay contested the Dumfries burghs in the Conservative interest, but
without success. He edited the _Edinburgh Courant_ from 1860 till 1864,
when he removed to London. From 1868 till his death on the 8th of
January 1873 he was British consul at Barcelona. His letters to the
_Pall Mall Gazette_ "From an Englishman in Spain" were highly
appreciated. Hannay's best books are his two naval novels, _Singleton
Fontenoy_ (1850) and _Eustace Conyers_ (1855); _Satire and Satirists_
(1854); and _Essays from the Quarterly Review_ (1861). _Satire_ not only
shows loving appreciation of the great satirists of the past, but is
itself instinct with wit and fine satiric power. The book sparkles with
epigrams and apposite classical allusions, and contains admirable
critical estimates of Horace (Hannay's favourite author), Juvenal,
Erasmus, Sir David Lindsay, George Buchanan, Boileau, Butler, Dryden,
Swift, Pope, Churchill, Burns, Byron and Moore.
Among his other works are _Biscuits and Grog, Claret Cup_, and _Hearts
are Trumps_ (1848); _King Dobbs_ (1849); _Sketches in Ultramarine_
(1853); an edition of the _Poems_ of Edgar Allan Poe, to which he
prefixed an essay on the poet's life and genius (1852); _Characters
and Criticisms_, consisting mainly of his contributions to the
_Edinburgh Courant_ (1865); _A Course of English Literature_ (1866);
_Studies on Thackeray_ (1869); and a family history entitled _Three
Hundred Years of a Norman House_ (the Gurneys) (1867).
HANNEN, JAMES HANNEN, BARON (1821-1894), English judge, son of a London
merchant, was born at Peckham in 1821. He was educated at St Paul's
school and at Heidelberg University, which was famous as a school of
law. Called to the bar at the Middle Temple in 1848, he joined the home
circuit. At this time he also wrote for the press, and supplied special
reports for the _Morning Chronicle_. Though not eloquent in speech, he
was clear, accurate and painstaking, and soon advanced in his
profession, passing many more brilliant competitors. He appeared for the
claimant in the Shrewsbury peerage case in 1858, when the 3rd Earl
Talbot was declared to be entitled to the earldom of Shrewsbury as the
descendant of the 2nd earl; was principal agent for Great Britain on the
mixed British and American commission for the settlement of outstanding
claims, 1853-1855; and assisted in the prosecution of the Fenian
prisoners at Manchester. In 1868 Hannen was appointed a judge of the
Court of Queen's Bench. In many cases he took a strong position of his
own, notably in that of _Farrar_ v. _Close_ (1869), which materially
affected the legal status of trade unions and was regarded by unionists
as a severe blow to their interests. Hannen became judge of the Probate
and Divorce Court in 1872, and in 1875 he was appointed president of the
probate and admiralty division of the High Court of Justice. Here he
showed himself a worthy successor to Cresswell and Penzance. Many
important causes came before him, but he will chiefly be remembered for
the manner in which he presided over the Parnell special commission. His
influence pervaded the whole proceedings, and it is understood that he
personally penned a large part of the voluminous report. Hannen's last
public service was in connexion with the Bering Sea inquiry at Paris,
when he acted as one of the British arbitrators. In January 1891 he was
appointed a lord of appeal in ordinary (with the dignity of a life
peerage), but in that capacity he had few opportunities for displaying
his powers, and he retired at the close of the session of 1893. He died
in London, after a prolonged illness, on the 29th of March 1894.
HANNIBAL ("mercy" or "favour of Baal"), Carthaginian general and
statesman, son of Hamilcar Barca (q.v.), was born in 249 or 247 B.C.
Destined by his father to succeed him in the work of vengeance against
Rome, he was taken to Spain, and while yet a boy gave ample evidence of
his military aptitude. Upon the death of his brother-in-law Hasdrubal
(221) he was acclaimed commander-in-chief by the soldiers and confirmed
in his appointment by the Carthaginian government. After two years spent
in completing the conquest of Spain south of the Ebro, he set himself to
begin what he felt to be his life's task, the conquest and humiliation
of Rome. Accordingly in 219 he seized some pretext for attacking the
town of Saguntum (mod. Murviedro), which stood under the special
protection of Rome, and disregarding the protests of Roman envoys,
stormed it after an eight months' siege. As the home government, in view
of Hannibal's great popularity, did not venture to repudiate this
action, the declaration of war which he desired took place at the end of
the year.
Of the large army of Libyan and Spanish mercenaries which he had at his
disposal Hannibal selected the most trustworthy and devoted contingents,
and with these determined to execute the daring plan of carrying the war
into the heart of Italy by a rapid march through Spain and Gaul.
Starting in the spring of 218 he easily fought his way through the
northern tribes to the Pyrenees, and by conciliating the Gaulish chiefs
on his passage contrived to reach the Rhone before the Romans could take
any measures to bar his advance. After out-manoeuvring the natives, who
endeavoured to prevent his crossing, Hannibal evaded a Roman force sent
to operate against him in Gaul; he proceeded up the valley of one of the
tributaries of the Rhone (Isere or, more probably, Durance), and by
autumn arrived at the foot of the Alps. His passage over the
mountain-chain, at a point which cannot be determined with certainty,
though the balance of the available evidence inclines to the Mt Genevre
pass, and fair cases can be made out for the Col d'Argentiere and for Mt
Cenis, was one of the most memorable achievements of any military force
of ancient times. Though the opposition of the natives and the
difficulties of ground and climate cost Hannibal half his army, his
perilous march brought him directly into Roman territory and entirely
frustrated the attempts of the enemy to fight out the main issue on
foreign ground. His sudden appearance among the Gauls, moreover, enabled
him to detach most of the tribes from their new allegiance to the Romans
before the latter could take steps to check rebellion. After allowing
his soldiers a brief rest to recover from their exertions Hannibal first
secured his rear by subduing the hostile tribe of the Taurini (mod.
Turin), and moving down the Po valley forced the Romans by virtue of his
superior cavalry to evacuate the plain of Lombardy. In December of the
same year he had an opportunity of showing his superior military skill
when the Roman commander attacked him on the river Trebia (near
Placentia); after wearing down the excellent Roman infantry he cut it to
pieces by a surprise attack from an ambush in the flank. Having secured
his position in north Italy by this victory, he quartered his troops for
the winter on the Gauls, whose zeal in his cause thereupon began to
abate. Accordingly in spring 217 Hannibal decided to find a more
trustworthy base of operations farther south; he crossed the Apennines
without opposition, but in the marshy lowlands of the Arno he lost a
large part of his force through disease and himself became blind in one
eye. Advancing through the uplands of Etruria he provoked the main Roman
army to a hasty pursuit, and catching it in a defile on the shore of
Lake Trasimenus destroyed it in the waters or on the adjoining slopes
(see TRASIMENE). He had now disposed of the only field force which could
check his advance upon Rome, but realizing that without siege engines he
could not hope to take the capital, he preferred to utilize his victory
by passing into central and southern Italy and exciting a general revolt
against the sovereign power. Though closely watched by a force under
Fabius Maximus Cunctator, he was able to carry his ravages far and wide
through Italy: on one occasion he was entrapped in the lowlands of
Campania, but set himself free by a stratagem which completely deluded
his opponent. For the winter he found comfortable quarters in the
Apulian plain, into which the enemy dared not descend. In the campaign
of 217 Hannibal had failed to obtain a following among the Italians; in
the following year he had an opportunity of turning the tide in his
favour. A large Roman army advanced into Apulia in order to crush him,
and accepted battle on the site of Cannae. Thanks mainly to brilliant
cavalry tactics, Hannibal, with much inferior numbers, managed to
surround and cut to pieces the whole of this force; moreover, the moral
effect of this victory was such that all the south of Italy joined his
cause. Had Hannibal now received proper material reinforcements from his
countrymen at Carthage he might have made a direct attack upon Rome; for
the present he had to content himself with subduing the fortresses which
still held out against him, and the only other notable event of 216 was
the defection of Capua, the second largest city of Italy, which Hannibal
made his new base.
In the next few years Hannibal was reduced to minor operations which
centred mainly round the cities of Campania. He failed to draw his
opponents into a pitched battle, and in some slighter engagements
suffered reverses. As the forces detached under his lieutenants were
generally unable to hold their own, and neither his home government nor
his new ally Philip V. of Macedon helped to make good his losses, his
position in south Italy became increasingly difficult and his chance of
ultimately conquering Rome grew ever more remote. In 212 he gained an
important success by capturing Tarentum, but in the same year he lost
his hold upon Campania, where he failed to prevent the concentration of
three Roman armies round Capua. Hannibal attacked the besieging armies
with his full force in 211, and attempted to entice them away by a
sudden march through Samnium which brought him within 3 m. of Rome, but
caused more alarm than real danger to the city. But the siege continued,
and the town fell in the same year. In 210 Hannibal again proved his
superiority in tactics by a severe defeat inflicted at Herdoniae (mod.
Ordona) in Apulia upon a proconsular army, and in 208 destroyed a Roman
force engaged in the siege of Locri Epizephyrii. But with the loss of
Tarentum in 209 and the gradual reconquest by the Romans of Samnium and
Lucania his hold on south Italy was almost lost. In 207 he succeeded in
making his way again into Apulia, where he waited to concert measures
for a combined march upon Rome with his brother Hasdrubal (q.v.). On
hearing, however, of his brother's defeat and death at the Metaurus he
retired into the mountain fastnesses of Bruttium, where he maintained
himself for the ensuing years. With the failure of his brother Mago
(q.v.) in Liguria (205-203) and of his own negotiations with Philip of
Macedon, the last hope of recovering his ascendancy in Italy was lost.
In 203, when Scipio was carrying all before him in Africa and the
Carthaginian peace-party were arranging an armistice, Hannibal was
recalled from Italy by the "patriot" party at Carthage. After leaving a
record of his expedition, engraved in Punic and Greek upon brazen
tablets, in the temple of Juno at Crotona, he sailed back to Africa. His
arrival immediately restored the predominance of the war-party, who
placed him in command of a combined force of African levies and of his
mercenaries from Italy. In 202 Hannibal, after meeting Scipio in a
fruitless peace conference, engaged him in a decisive battle at Zama.
Unable to cope with his indifferent troops against the well-trained and
confident Roman soldiers, he experienced a crushing defeat which put an
end to all resistance on the part of Carthage.
Hannibal was still only in his forty-sixth year. He soon showed that he
could be a statesman as well as a soldier. Peace having been concluded,
he was appointed chief magistrate (_suffetes, sofet_). The office had
become rather insignificant, but Hannibal restored its power and
authority. The oligarchy, always jealous of him, had even charged him
with having betrayed the interests of his country while in Italy, and
neglected to take Rome when he might have done so. The dishonesty and
incompetence of these men had brought the finances of Carthage into
grievous disorder. So effectively did Hannibal reform abuses that the
heavy tribute imposed by Rome could be paid by instalments without
additional and extraordinary taxation.
Seven years after the victory of Zama, the Romans, alarmed at this new
prosperity, demanded Hannibal's surrender. Hannibal thereupon went into
voluntary exile. First he journeyed to Tyre, the mother-city of
Carthage, and thence to Ephesus, where he was honourably received by
Antiochus III. of Syria, who was then preparing for war with Rome.
Hannibal soon saw that the king's army was no match for the Romans. He
advised him to equip a fleet and throw a body of troops on the south of
Italy, adding that he would himself take the command. But he could not
make much impression on Antiochus, who listened more willingly to
courtiers and flatterers, and would not entrust Hannibal with any
important charge. In 190 he was placed in command of a Phoenician fleet,
but was defeated in a battle off the river Eurymedon.
From the court of Antiochus, who seemed prepared to surrender him to the
Romans, Hannibal fled to Crete, but he soon went back to Asia, and
sought refuge with Prusias, king of Bithynia. Once more the Romans were
determined to hunt him out, and they sent Flaminius to insist on his
surrender. Prusias agreed to give him up, but Hannibal did not choose to
fall into his enemies' hands. At Libyssa, on the eastern shore of the
Sea of Marmora, he took poison, which, it was said, he had long carried
about with him in a ring. The precise year of his death was a matter of
controversy. If, as Livy seems to imply, it was 183, he died in the same
year as Scipio Africanus.
As to the transcendent military genius of Hannibal there cannot be two
opinions. The man who for fifteen years could hold his ground in a
hostile country against several powerful armies and a succession of able
generals must have been a commander and a tactician of supreme capacity.
In the use of stratagems and ambuscades he certainly surpassed all other
generals of antiquity. Wonderful as his achievements were, we must
marvel the more when we take into account the grudging support he
received from Carthage. As his veterans melted away, he had to organize
fresh levies on the spot. We never hear of a mutiny in his army,
composed though it was of Africans, Spaniards and Gauls. Again, all we
know of him comes for the most part from hostile sources. The Romans
feared and hated him so much that they could not do him justice. Livy
speaks of his great qualities, but he adds that his vices were equally
great, among which he singles out his "more than Punic perfidy" and "an
inhuman cruelty." For the first there would seem to be no further
justification than that he was consummately skilful in the use of
ambuscades. For the latter there is, we believe, no more ground than
that at certain crises he acted in the general spirit of ancient
warfare. Sometimes he contrasts most favourably with his enemy. No such
brutality stains his name as that perpetrated by Claudius Nero on the
vanquished Hasdrubal. Polybius merely says that he was accused of
cruelty by the Romans and of avarice by the Carthaginians. He had indeed
bitter enemies, and his life was one continuous struggle against
destiny. For steadfastness of purpose, for organizing capacity and a
mastery of military science he has perhaps never had an equal.
AUTHORITIES.--Polybius iii.-xv., xxi.-ii., xxiv.; Livy xxi.-xxx.;
Cornelius Nepos, _Vita Hannibalis_; Appian, _Bellum Hannibalicum_; E.
Hennebert, _Histoire d'Annibal_ (Paris, 1870-1891, 3 vols.); F. A.
Dodge, _Great Captains, Hannibal_ (Boston and New York, 1891); D.
Grassi, _Annibale giudicato da Polibio e Tito Livio_ (Vicenza, 1896);
W. How, _Hannibal and the Great War between Rome and Carthage_
(London, 1899); Te Montanari, _Annibale_, down to 217 B.C. (Rovigo,
1901); K. Lehmann, _Die Angriffe der drei Barkiden auf Italien_
(Leipzig, 1905), with bibliography. See also PUNIC WARS and articles
on the chief battle sites. On Hannibal's passage through Gaul and the
Alps see T. Arnold, _The Second Punic War_ (ed. W. T. Arnold, London,
1886), Appendix B, pp. 362-373, with bibliography; D. Freshfield in
_Alpine Journal_ (1883), pp. 267-300; L. Montlahuc, _Le Vrai Chemin
d'Annibal a travers les Alpes_ (Paris, 1896); J. Fuchs, _Hannibals
Alpenubergang_ (Vienna, 1897); G. E. Marindin in _Classical Review_
(1899), pp. 238-249; W. Osiander, _Der Hannibalweg neu untersucht_
(Berlin, 1900); P. Azan, _Annibal dans les Alpes_ (Paris, 1902); J. L.
Colin, _Annibal en Gaule_ (Paris, 1904); E. Hesselmeyer, _Hannibals
Alpenubergang im Lichte der neueren Kriegsgeschichte_, (1906);
Kromyer, in _N. Jahrb. f. kl. Alt._ (1907). (M. O. B. C.)
HANNIBAL, a city of Marion county, Missouri, U.S.A., on the Mississippi
river, about 120 m. N.W. of Saint Louis. Pop. (1890), 12,857; (1900),
12,780, including 920 foreign-born and 1836 negroes; (1910) 18,341. It
is served by the Wabash, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the Chicago,
Burlington & Quincy, and the St Louis & Hannibal railways, and by boat
lines to Saint Louis, Saint Paul and intermediate points. The business
section is in the level bottom-lands of the river, while the residential
portion spreads up the banks, which afford fine building sites with
beautiful views. Mark Twain's boyhood was spent at Hannibal, which is
the setting of _Life on the Mississippi_, _Huckleberry Finn_ and _Tom
Sawyer_; Hannibal Cave, described in _Tom Sawyer_, extends for miles
beneath the river and its bluffs. Hannibal has a good public library
(1889; the first in Missouri); other prominent buildings are the Federal
building, the court house, a city hospital and the high school. The
river is here spanned by a long iron and steel bridge connecting with
East Hannibal, Ill. Hannibal is the trade centre of a rich agricultural
region, and has an important lumber trade, railway shops, and
manufactories of lumber, shoes, stoves, flour, cigars, lime, Portland
cement and pearl buttons (made from mussel shells); the value of the
city's factory products increased from $2,698,720 in 1900 to $4,442,099
in 1905, or 64.6%. In the vicinity are valuable deposits of crinoid
limestone, a coarse white building stone which takes a good polish. The
electric-lighting plant is owned and operated by the municipality.
Hannibal was laid out as a town in 1819 (its origin going back to
Spanish land grants, which gave rise to much litigation) and was first
chartered as a city in 1839. The town of South Hannibal was annexed to
it in 1843.
HANNINGTON, JAMES (1847-1885), English missionary, was born at
Hurstpierpoint, in Sussex, on the 3rd of September 1847. From earliest
childhood he displayed a love of adventure and natural history. At
school he made little progress, and left at the age of fifteen for his
father's counting-house at Brighton. He had no taste for office work,
and much of his time was occupied in commanding a battery of volunteers
and in charge of a steam launch. At twenty-one he decided on a clerical
career and entered St Mary's Hall, Oxford, where he exercised a
remarkable influence over his fellow-undergraduates. He was, however, a
desultory student, and in 1870 was advised to go to the little village
of Martinhoe, in Devon, for quiet reading, but distinguished himself
more by his daring climbs after sea-gulls' eggs and his engineering
skill in cutting a pathway along precipitous cliffs to some caves. In
1872 the death of his mother made a deep impression upon him. He began
to read hard, took his B.A. degree, and in 1873 was ordained deacon and
placed in charge of the small country parish of Trentishoe in Devon.
Whilst curate in charge at Hurstpierpoint, his thoughts were turned by
the murder of two missionaries on the shores of Victoria Nyanza to
mission work. He offered himself to the Church Missionary Society and
sailed on the 17th of May 1882, at the head of a party of six, for
Zanzibar, and thence set out for Uganda; but, prostrated by fever and
dysentery, he was obliged to return to England in 1883. On his recovery
he was consecrated bishop of Eastern Equatorial Africa (June 1884), and
in January 1885 started again for the scene of his mission, and visited
Palestine on the way. On his arrival at Freretown, near Mombasa, he
visited many stations in the neighbourhood. Then, filled with the idea
of opening a new route to Uganda, he set out and reached a spot near
Victoria Nyanza in safety. His arrival, however, roused the suspicion of
the natives, and under King Mwanga's orders he was lodged in a filthy
hut swarming with rats and vermin. After eight days his men were
murdered, and on the 29th of October 1885 he himself was speared in both
sides, his last words to the soldiers appointed to kill him being, "Go,
tell Mwanga I have purchased the road to Uganda with my blood."
His _Last Journals_ were edited in 1888. See also _Life_ by E. C.
Dawson (1887); and W. G. Berry, _Bishop Hannington_ (1908).
HANNINGTON, a lake of British East Africa in the eastern rift-valley
just south of the equator and in the shadow of the Laikipia escarpment.
It is 7 m. long by 2 m. broad. The water is shallow and brackish.
Standing in the lake and along its shores are numbers of dead trees, the
remains of an ancient forest, which serve as eyries for storks, herons
and eagles. The banks and flats at the north end of the lake are the
resort of hundreds of thousands of flamingoes. The places where they
cluster are dazzling white with guano deposits. The lake is named after
Bishop James Hannington.
HANNO, the name of a large number of Carthaginian soldiers and
statesmen. Of the majority little is known; the most important are the
following[1]:--
1. HANNO, Carthaginian navigator, who probably flourished about 500 B.C.
It has been conjectured that he was the son of the Hamilcar who was
killed at Himera (480), but there is nothing to prove this. He was the
author of an account of a coasting voyage on the west coast of Africa,
undertaken for the purpose of exploration and colonization. The
original, inscribed on a tablet in the Phoenician language, was hung up
in the temple of Melkarth on his return to Carthage. What is generally
supposed to be a Greek translation of this is still extant, under the
title of _Periplus_, although its authenticity has been questioned.
Hanno appears to have advanced beyond Sierra Leone as far as Cape
Palmas. On the island which formed the terminus of his voyage the
explorer found a number of hairy women, whom the interpreters called
Gorillas ([Greek: Gorillas]).
Valuable editions by T. Falconer (1797, with translation and defence
of its authenticity) and C. W. Muller in _Geographici Graeci minores_,
i.; see also E. H. Bunbury, _History of Ancient Geography_, i., and
treatise by C. T. Fischer (1893), with bibliography.
2. HANNO (3rd century B.C.), called "the Great," Carthaginian statesman
and general, leader of the aristocratic party and the chief opponent of
Hamilcar and Hannibal. He appears to have gained his title from military
successes in Africa, but of these nothing is known. In 240 B.C. he drove
Hamilcar's veteran mercenaries to rebellion by withholding their pay,
and when invested with the command against them was so unsuccessful that
Carthage might have been lost but for the exertions of his enemy
Hamilcar (q.v.). Hanno subsequently remained at Carthage, exerting all
his influence against the democratic party, which, however, had now
definitely won the upper hand. During the Second Punic War he advocated
peace with Rome, and according to Livy even advised that Hannibal should
be given up to the Romans. After the battle of Zama (202) he was one of
the ambassadors sent to Scipio to sue for peace. Remarkably little is
known of him, considering the great influence he undoubtedly exercised
amongst his countrymen.
Livy xxi. 3 ff., xxiii. 12; Polybius i. 67 ff.; Appian, _Res
Hispanicae_, 4, 5, _Res Punicae_, 34, 49, 68.