HALLER, ALBRECHT VON HANDICAP
HALLER, BERTHOLD HANDSEL
HALLEY, EDMUND HANDSWORTH
HALLGRIMSSON, JONAS HANDWRITING
HALLIDAY, ANDREW HANG-CHOW-FU
HALLIWELL-PHILLIPPS, ORCHARD HANGING
HALLOWE'EN HANGO
HALLSTATT HANKA, WENCESLAUS
HALLUCINATION HANLEY
HALLUIN HANNA, MARCUS ALONZO
HALM, CARL FELIX HANNAY, JAMES
HALMA HANNEN, JAMES HANNEN
HALMAHERA HANNIBAL (Carthaginian statesman)
HALMSTAD HANNIBAL (Missouri, U.S.A.)
HALO HANNINGTON, JAMES
HALOGENS HANNINGTON
HALS, FRANS HANNO
HALSBURY, HARDINGE GIFFARD HANOI
HALSTEAD HANOTAUX, ALBERT AUGUSTE GABRIEL
HALT HANOVER (province of Prussia)
HALUNTIUM HANOVER (city of Prussia)
HALYBURTON, JAMES HANOVER (Indiana, U.S.A.)
HALYBURTON, THOMAS HANOVER (New Hampshire, U.S.A.)
HAM (son of Noah) HANOVER (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)
HAM (town of France) HANRIOT, FRANCOIS
HAMADAN HANSARD, LUKE
HAMADHANI HANSEATIC LEAGUE
HAMAH HANSEN, PETER ANDREAS
HAMANN, JOHANN GEORG HANSI
HAMAR HANSOM, JOSEPH ALOYSIUS
HAMASA HANSON, SIR RICHARD DAVIES
HAMBURG (German state) HANSTEEN, CHRISTOPHER
HAMBURG (German seaport) HANTHAWADDY
HAMDANI HANUKKAH
HAMELIN, FRANCOIS ALPHONSE HANUMAN
HAMELN HANWAY, JONAS
HAMERLING, ROBERT HANWELL
HAMERTON, PHILIP GILBERT HAPARANDA
HAMI HAPLODRILI
HAMILCAR BARCA HAPTARA
HAMILTON HAPUR
HAMILTON, MARQUESSES & DUKES OF HARA-KIRI
HAMILTON, ALEXANDER HARALD
HAMILTON, ANTHONY HARBIN
HAMILTON, ELIZABETH HARBINGER
HAMILTON, EMMA HARBOUR
HAMILTON, JAMES HARBURG
HAMILTON, JAMES HAMILTON HARCOURT
HAMILTON, JOHN HARCOURT, SIMON HARCOURT
HAMILTON, PATRICK HARCOURT, SIR WILLIAM VENABLES VERNON
HAMILTON, ROBERT HARCOURT, WILLIAM VERNON
HAMILTON, THOMAS HARDANGER FJORD
HAMILTON, WILLIAM HARDEE, WILLIAM JOSEPH
HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM (1730-1803) HARDENBERG, KARL AUGUST VON
HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM (1788-1856) HARDERWYK
HAMILTON, WILLIAM GERARD HARDICANUTE
HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM ROWAN HARDING, CHESTER
HAMILTON (town of Australia) HARDING, JAMES DUFFIELD
HAMILTON (river of Canada) HARDINGE, HENRY HARDINGE
HAMILTON (city of Canada) HARDOI
HAMILTON (burgh of Scotland) HARDOUIN, JEAN
HAMILTON (New York, U.S.A.) HARDT, HERMANN VON DER
HAMILTON (Ohio, U.S.A.) HARDT, THE
HAMIRPUR HARDWAR
HAMITIC RACES AND LANGUAGES HARDWICKE, PHILIP YORKE
HAMLET HARDY, ALEXANDRE
HAMLEY, SIR EDWARD BRUCE HARDY, THOMAS
HAMLIN, HANNIBAL HARDY, SIR THOMAS DUFFUS
HAMM HARDY, SIR THOMAS MASTERMAN
HAMMAD AR-RAWIYA HARDYNG, JOHN
HAMMER, FRIEDRICH JULIUS HARE, AUGUSTUS JOHN CUTHBERT
HAMMER HARE, SIR JOHN
HAMMERBEAM ROOF HARE, JULIUS CHARLES
HAMMERFEST HARE
HAMMER-KOP HAREBELL
HAMMER-PURGSTALL, JOSEPH HAREM
HAMMERSMITH HARFLEUR
HAMMER-THROWING HARIANA
HAMMER-TOE HARINGTON, SIR JOHN
HAMMOCK HARIRI
HAMMOND, HENRY HARI-RUD
HAMMOND HARISCHANDRA
HAMON, JEAN LOUIS HARITH IBN HILLIZA UL-YASHKURI
HAMPDEN, HENRY BOUVERIE BRAND HARIZI, JUDAH BEN SOLOMON
HAMPDEN, JOHN HARKNESS, ALBERT
HAMPDEN, RENN DICKSON HARKNESS, ROBERT
HAMPDEN-SIDNEY HARLAN, JAMES
HAMPSHIRE HARLAN, JOHN MARSHALL
HAMPSTEAD HARLAND, HENRY
HAMPTON, WADE HARLAY DE CHAMPVALLON, FRANCOIS DE
HAMPTON (Middlesex, England) HARLECH
HAMPTON (Virginia, U.S.A.) HARLEQUIN
HAMPTON ROADS HARLESS, GOTTLIEB CHRISTOPH
HAMSTER HARLESS, GOTTLIEB CHRISTOPH ADOLF VON
HANAPER HARLINGEN
HANAU HARMATTAN
HANBURY WILLIAMS, SIR CHARLES HARMODIUS
HANCOCK, JOHN HARMONIA
HANCOCK, WINFIELD SCOTT HARMONIC
HANCOCK HARMONICA
HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF HARMONIC ANALYSIS
HAND HARMONICHORD
HANDEL, GEORGE FREDERICK HARMONIUM
HANDFASTING
HALLER, ALBRECHT VON (1708-1777), Swiss anatomist and physiologist, was
born of an old Swiss family at Bern, on the 16th of October 1708.
Prevented by long-continued ill-health from taking part in boyish
sports, he had the more opportunity for the development of his
precocious mind. At the age of four, it is said, he used to read and
expound the Bible to his father's servants; before he was ten he had
sketched a Chaldee grammar, prepared a Greek and a Hebrew vocabulary,
compiled a collection of two thousand biographies of famous men and
women on the model of the great works of Bayle and Moreri, and written
in Latin verse a satire on his tutor, who had warned him against a too
great excursiveness. When still hardly fifteen he was already the author
of numerous metrical translations from Ovid, Horace and Virgil, as well
as of original lyrics, dramas, and an epic of four thousand lines on the
origin of the Swiss confederations, writings which he is said on one
occasion to have rescued from a fire at the risk of his life, only,
however, to burn them a little later (1729) with his own hand. Haller's
attention had been directed to the profession of medicine while he was
residing in the house of a physician at Biel after his father's death in
1721; and, following the choice then made, he while still a sickly and
excessively shy youth went in his sixteenth year to the university of
Tubingen (December 1723), where he studied under Camerarius and
Duvernoy. Dissatisfied with his progress, he in 1725 exchanged Tubingen
for Leiden, where Boerhaave was in the zenith of his fame, and where
Albinus had already begun to lecture in anatomy. At that university he
graduated in May 1727, undertaking successfully in his thesis to prove
that the so-called salivary duct, claimed as a recent discovery by
Coschwitz, was nothing more than a blood-vessel. Haller then visited
London, making the acquaintance of Sir Hans Sloane, Cheselden, Pringle,
Douglas and other scientific men; next, after a short stay in Oxford, he
visited Paris, where he studied under Ledran and Winslow; and in 1728 he
proceeded to Basel, where he devoted himself to the study of the higher
mathematics under John Bernoulli. It was during his stay there also that
his first great interest in botany was awakened; and, in the course of a
tour (July-August, 1828), through Savoy, Baden and several of the Swiss
cantons, he began a collection of plants which was afterwards the basis
of his great work on the flora of Switzerland. From a literary point of
view the main result of this, the first of his many journeys through the
Alps, was his poem entitled _Die Alpen_, which was finished in March
1729, and appeared in the first edition (1732) of his _Gedichte_. This
poem of 490 hexameters is historically important as one of the earliest
signs of the awakening appreciation of the mountains (hitherto generally
regarded as horrible monstrosities), though it is chiefly designed to
contrast the simple and idyllic life of the inhabitants of the Alps with
the corrupt and decadent existence of the dwellers in the plains.
In 1729 he returned to Bern and began to practise as a physician; his
best energies, however, were devoted to the botanical and anatomical
researches which rapidly gave him a European reputation, and procured
for him from George II. in 1736 a call to the chair of medicine,
anatomy, botany and surgery in the newly founded university of
Gottingen. He became F.R.S. in 1743, and was ennobled in 1749. The
quantity of work achieved by Haller in the seventeen years during which
he occupied his Gottingen professorship was immense. Apart from the
ordinary work of his classes, which entailed upon him the task of newly
organizing a botanical garden, an anatomical theatre and museum, an
obstetrical school, and similar institutions, he carried on without
interruption those original investigations in botany and physiology, the
results of which are preserved in the numerous works associated with his
name; he continued also to persevere in his youthful habit of poetical
composition, while at the same time he conducted a monthly journal (the
_Gottingische gelehrte Anzeigen_), to which he is said to have
contributed twelve thousand articles relating to almost every branch of
human knowledge. He also warmly interested himself in most of the
religious questions, both ephemeral and permanent, of his day; and the
erection of the Reformed church in Gottingen was mainly due to his
unwearied energy. Notwithstanding all this variety of absorbing
interests he never felt at home in Gottingen; his untravelled heart kept
ever turning towards his native Bern (where he had been elected a member
of the great council in 1745), and in 1753 he resolved to resign his
chair and return to Switzerland.
The twenty-one years of his life which followed were largely occupied in
the discharge of his duties in the minor political post of a
_Rathhausammann_ which he had obtained by lot, and in the preparation of
his _Bibliotheca medica_, the botanical, surgical and anatomical parts
of which he lived to complete; but he also found time to write the three
philosophical romances--_Usong_ (1771), _Alfred_ (1773) and _Fabius and
Cato_ (1774),--in which his views as to the respective merits of
despotism, of limited monarchy and of aristocratic republican government
are fully set forth. About 1773 the state of his health rendered
necessary his entire withdrawal from public business; for some time he
supported his failing strength by means of opium, on the use of which he
communicated a paper to the _Proceedings_ of the Gottingen Royal Society
in 1776; the excessive use of the drug is believed, however, to have
hastened his death, which occurred on the 17th of December 1777. Haller,
who had been three times married, left eight children, the eldest of
whom, Gottlieb Emanuel, attained to some distinction as a botanist and
as a writer on Swiss historical bibliography (1785-1788, 7 vols.).
Subjoined is a classified but by no means an exhaustive list of his
very numerous works in various branches of science and literature (a
complete list, up to 1775, numbering 576 items, including various
editions, was published by Haller himself, in 1775, at the end of vol.
6 of the correspondence addressed to him by various learned
friends):--(1) Anatomical:--_Icones anatomicae_ (1743-1754);
_Disputationes anatomicae selectiores_ (1746-1752); and _Opera acad.
minora anatomici argumenti_ (1762-1768). (2) Physiological:--_De
respiratione experimenta anatomica_ (1747); _Primae lineae
physiologiae_ (1747); and _Elementa physiologiae corporis humani_
(1757-1760). (3) Pathological and surgical:--_Opuscula pathologica_
(1754); _Disputationum chirurg. collectio_ (1777); also careful
editions of Boerhaave's _Praelectiones academicae in suas
institutiones rei medicae_ (1739), and of the _Artis medicae
principia_ of the same author (1769-1774). (4) Botanical:--_Enumeratio
methodica stirpium Helveticarum_ (1742); _Opuscula botanica_ (1749);
_Bibliotheca botanica_ (1771). (5) Theological:--_Briefe uber die
wichtigsten Wahrheiten der Offenbarung_ (1772); and _Briefe zur
Vertheidigung der Offenbarung_ (1775-1777). (6) Poetical:--_Gedichte_
(1732, 12th ed., 1777). His three romances have been already
mentioned. Several volumes of lectures and "Tagebucher" or journals
were published posthumously.
See J. G. Zimmermann, _Das Leben des Herrn von Haller_ (1755), and the
articles by Forster and Seiler in Ersch and Gruber's _Encyklopadie_,
and particularly the detailed biography (over 500 pages) by L. Hirzel,
printed at the head of his elaborate edition (Frauenfeld, 1882) of
Haller's _Gedichte_.
HALLER, BERTHOLD (1492-1536), Swiss reformer, was born at Aldingen in
Wurttemberg, and after studying at Pforzheim, where he met Melanchthon,
and at Cologne, taught in the gymnasium at Bern. He was appointed
assistant preacher at the church of St Vincent in 1515 and people's
priest in 1520. Even before his acquaintance with Zwingli in 1521 he had
begun to preach the Reformation, his sympathetic character and his
eloquence making him a great force. In 1526 he was at the abortive
conference of Baden, and in January 1528 drafted and defended the ten
theses for the conference of Bern which established the new religion in
that city. He left no writings except a few letters which are preserved
in Zwingli's works. He died on the 25th of February 1536.
Life by Pestalozzi (Elberfeld, 1861).
HALLEY, EDMUND (1656-1742), English astronomer, was born at Haggerston,
London, on the 29th of October 1656. His father, a wealthy soapboiler,
placed him at St Paul's school, where he was equally distinguished for
classical and mathematical ability. Before leaving it for Queen's
College, Oxford, in 1673, he had observed the change in the variation of
the compass, and at the age of nineteen, he supplied a new and improved
method of determining the elements of the planetary orbits (_Phil.
Trans._ xi. 683). His detection of considerable errors in the tables
then in use led him to the conclusion that a more accurate ascertainment
of the places of the fixed stars was indispensable to the progress of
astronomy; and, finding that Flamsteed and Hevelius had already
undertaken to catalogue those visible in northern latitudes, he assumed
to himself the task of making observations in the southern hemisphere. A
recommendation from Charles II. to the East India Company procured for
him an apparently suitable, though, as it proved, ill-chosen station,
and in November 1676 he embarked for St Helena. On the voyage he noticed
the retardation of the pendulum in approaching the equator; and during
his stay on the island he observed, on the 7th of November 1677, a
transit of Mercury, which suggested to him the important idea of
employing similar phenomena for determining the sun's distance. He
returned to England in November 1678, having by the registration of 341
stars won the title of the "Southern Tycho," and by the translation to
the heavens of the "Royal Oak," earned a degree of master of arts,
conferred at Oxford by the king's command on the 3rd of December 1678,
almost simultaneously with his election as fellow of the Royal Society.
Six months later, the indefatigable astronomer started for Danzig to set
at rest a dispute of long standing between Hooke and Hevelius as to the
respective merits of plain or telescopic sights; and towards the end of
1680 he proceeded on a continental tour. In Paris he observed, with G.
D. Cassini, the great comet of 1680 after its perihelion passage; and
having returned to England, he married in 1682 Mary, daughter of Mr
Tooke, auditor of the exchequer, with whom he lived harmoniously for
fifty-five years. He now fixed his residence at Islington, engaged
chiefly upon lunar observations, with a view to the great desideratum of
a method of finding the longitude at sea. His mind, however, was also
busy with the momentous problem of gravity. Having reached so far as to
perceive that the central force of the solar system must decrease
inversely as the square of the distance, and applied vainly to Wren and
Hooke for further elucidation, he made in August 1684 that journey to
Cambridge for the purpose of consulting Newton, which resulted in the
publication of the _Principia_. The labour and expense of passing this
great work through the press devolved upon Halley, who also wrote the
prefixed hexameters ending with the well-known line--
Nec fas est propius mortali attingere divos.
In 1696 he was, although a zealous Tory, appointed deputy comptroller of
the mint at Chester, and (August 19, 1698) he received a commission as
captain of the "Paramour Pink" for the purpose of making extensive
observations on the conditions of terrestrial magnetism. This task he
accomplished in a voyage which lasted two years, and extended to the
52nd degree of S. latitude. The results were published in a _General
Chart of the Variation of the Compass_ in 1701; and immediately
afterwards he executed by royal command a careful survey of the tides
and coasts of the British Channel, an elaborate map of which he produced
in 1702. On his return from a journey to Dalmatia, for the purpose of
selecting and fortifying the port of Trieste, he was nominated, November
1703, Savilian professor of geometry at Oxford, and received an honorary
degree of doctor of laws in 1710. Between 1713 and 1721 he acted as
secretary to the Royal Society, and early in 1720 he succeeded Flamsteed
as astronomer-royal. Although in his sixty-fourth year, he undertook to
observe the moon through an entire revolution of her nodes (eighteen
years), and actually carried out his purpose. He died on the 14th of
January 1742. His tomb is in the old graveyard of St Margaret's church,
Lee, Kent.
Halley's most notable scientific achievements were--his detection of the
"long inequality" of Jupiter and Saturn, and of the acceleration of the
moon's mean motion (1693), his discovery of the proper motions of the
fixed stars (1718), his theory of variation (1683), including the
hypothesis of four magnetic poles, revived by C. Hansteen in 1819, and
his suggestion of the magnetic origin of the aurora borealis; his
calculation of the orbit of the 1682 comet (the first ever attempted),
coupled with a prediction of its return, strikingly verified in 1759;
and his indication (first in 1679, and again in 1716, Phil. Trans., No.
348) of a method extensively used in the 18th and 19th centuries for
determining the solar parallax by means of the transits of Venus.
His principal works are _Catalogus stellarum australium_ (London,
1679), the substance of which was embodied in vol. iii. of Flamsteed's
_Historia coelestis_ (1725); _Synopsis astronomiae cometicae_ (Oxford,
1705); _Astronomical Tables_ (London, 1752); also eighty-one
miscellaneous papers of considerable interest, scattered through the
_Philosophical Transactions_. To these should be added his version
from the Arabic (which language he acquired for the purpose) of the
treatise of Apollonius _De sectione rationis_, with a restoration of
his two lost books _De sectione spatii_, both published at Oxford in
1706; also his fine edition of the _Conics_ of Apollonius, with the
treatise by Serenus _De sectione cylindri et coni_ (Oxford, 1710,
folio). His edition of the _Spherics_ of Menelaus was published by his
friend Dr Costard in 1758. See also _Biographia Britannica_, vol. iv.
(1757); _Gent. Mag._ xvii. 455, 503; A. Wood, _Athenae Oxon._ (Bliss),
iv. 536; J. Aubrey, _Lives_, ii. 365; F. Baily, _Account of
Flamsteed_; Sir D. Brewster, _Life of Newton_; R. Grant, _History of
Astronomy_, p. 477 and _passim_; A. J. Rudolph, _Bulletin of
Bibliography_, No. 14 (Boston, 1904); E. F. McPike, "Bibliography of
Halley's Comet," _Smithsonian Misc. Collections_, vol. xlviii. pt. i.
(1905); _Notes and Queries_, 9th series, vols. x. xi. xii., 10th
series, vol. ii. (E. F. McPike). A collection of manuscripts regarding
Halley is preserved among the Rigaud papers in the Bodleian library,
Oxford; and many of his unpublished letters exist at the Record Office
and in the library of the Royal Society. (A. M. C.)
HALLGRIMSSON, JONAS (1807-1844), the chief lyrical poet of Iceland, was
born in 1807 at Steinsstathir in Eyjafjartharsysla in the north of that
island, and educated at the famous school of Bessastathr. In 1832 he went
to the university of Copenhagen, and shortly afterwards turned his
attention to the natural sciences, especially geology. Having obtained
pecuniary assistance from the Danish government, he travelled through
all Iceland for scientific purposes in the years 1837-1842, and made
many interesting geological observations. Most of his writings on
geology are in Danish. His renown was, however, not acquired by his
writings in that language, but by his Icelandic poems and short stories.
He was well read in German literature, Heine and Schiller being his
favourites, and the study of the German masters and the old classical
writers of Iceland opened his eyes to the corrupt state of Icelandic
poetry and showed him the way to make it better. The misuse of the Eddic
metaphors made the lyrical and epical poetry of the day hardly
intelligible, and, to make matters worse, the language of the poets was
mixed up with words of German and Danish origin. The great Danish
philologist and friend of Iceland, Rasmus Rask, and the poet Bjarni
Thorarensen had done much to purify the language, but Jonas Hallgrimsson
completed their work by his poems and tales, in a purer language than
ever had been written in Iceland since the days of Snorri Sturlason. The
excesses of Icelandic poetry were specially seen in the so-called
_rimur_, ballads of heroes, &c., which were fiercely attacked by Jonas
Hallgrimsson, who at last succeeded in converting the educated to his
view. Most of the principal poems, tales and essays of Jonas
Hallgrimsson appeared in the periodical _Fjolnir_, which he began
publishing at Copenhagen in 1835, together with Konrath Gislason, a
well-known philologist, and the patriotic Thomas Saemundsson. _Fjolnir_
had in the beginning a hard struggle against old prejudices, but as the
years went by its influence became enormous; and when it at last
ceased, its programme and spirit still lived in _Ny Felagsrit_ and other
patriotic periodicals which took its place. Jonas Hallgrimsson, who died
in 1844, is the father of a separate school in Icelandic lyric poetry.
He introduced foreign thoughts and metres, but at the same time revived
the metres of the Icelandic classical poets. Although his poetical works
are all comprised in one small volume, he strikes every string of the
old harp of Iceland. (S. Bl.)
HALLIDAY, ANDREW [ANDREW HALLIDAY DUFF] (1830-1877), British journalist
and dramatist, was born at Marnoch, Banffshire, in 1830. He was educated
at Marischal College, Aberdeen, and in 1849 he came to London, and
discarding the name of Duff, devoted himself to literature. His first
engagement was with the daily papers, and his work having attracted the
notice of Thackeray, he was invited to write for the _Cornhill
Magazine_. From 1861 he contributed largely to _All the Year Round_, and
many of his articles were republished in collected form. He was also the
author, alone and with others, of a great number of farces, burlesques
and melodramas and a peculiarly successful adapter of popular novels for
the stage. Of these _Little Em'ly_ (1869), his adaptation of _David
Copperfield_, was warmly approved by Dickens himself, and enjoyed a long
run at Drury Lane. Halliday died in London on the 10th of April 1877.
HALLIWELL-PHILLIPPS, JAMES ORCHARD (1820-1889), English Shakespearian
scholar, son of Thomas Halliwell, was born in London, on the 21st of
June 1820. He was educated privately and at Jesus College, Cambridge. He
devoted himself to antiquarian research, particularly in early English
literature. In 1839 he edited Sir John Mandeville's _Travels_; in 1842
published an _Account of the European MSS. in the Chetham Library_,
besides a newly discovered metrical romance of the 15th century
(_Torrent of Portugal_). He became best known, however, as a
Shakespearian editor and collector. In 1848 he brought out his _Life of
Shakespeare_, which passed through several editions; in 1853-1865 a
sumptuous edition, limited to 150 copies, of Shakespeare in folio, with
full critical notes; in 1863 a _Calendar of the Records at
Stratford-on-Avon_; in 1864 a _History of New Place_. After 1870 he
entirely gave up textual criticism, and devoted his attention to
elucidating the particulars of Shakespeare's life. He collated all the
available facts and documents in relation to it, and exhausted the
information to be found in local records in his _Outlines of the Life of
Shakespeare_. He was mainly instrumental in the purchase of New Place
for the corporation of Stratford-on-Avon, and in the formation there of
the Shakespeare museum. His publications in all numbered more than sixty
volumes. He assumed the name of Phillipps in 1872, under the will of the
grandfather of his first wife, a daughter of Sir Thomas Phillipps the
antiquary. He took an active interest in the Camden Society, the Percy
Society and the Shakespeare Society, for which he edited many early
English and Elizabethan works. From 1845 Halliwell was excluded from the
library of the British Museum on account of the suspicion attaching to
his possession of some manuscripts which had been removed from the
library of Trinity College, Cambridge. He published privately an
explanation of the matter in 1845. His house, Hollingbury Copse, near
Brighton, was full of rare and curious works, and he generously gave
many of them to the Chetham library, Manchester, to the town library of
Penzance, to the Smithsonian Institute, Washington, and to the library
of Edinburgh university. He died on the 3rd of January 1889.
HALLOWE'EN, or ALL HALLOWS EVE, the name given to the 31st of October as
the vigil of Hallowmas or All Saints' Day. Though now known as little
else but the eve of the Christian festival, Hallowe'en and its formerly
attendant ceremonies long antedate Christianity. The two chief
characteristics of ancient Hallowe'en were the lighting of bonfires and
the belief that of all nights in the year this is the one during which
ghosts and witches are most likely to wander abroad. Now on or about the
1st of November the Druids held their great autumn festival and lighted
fires in honour of the Sun-god in thanksgiving for the harvest. Further,
it was a Druidic belief that on the eve of this festival Saman, lord of
death, called together the wicked souls that within the past twelve
months had been condemned to inhabit the bodies of animals. Thus it is
clear that the main celebrations of Hallowe'en were purely Druidical,
and this is further proved by the fact that in parts of Ireland the 31st
of October was, and even still is, known as _Oidhche Shamhna_, "Vigil of
Saman." On the Druidic ceremonies were grafted some of the
characteristics of the Roman festival in honour of Pomona held about the
1st of November, in which nuts and apples, as representing the winter
store of fruits, played an important part. Thus the roasting of nuts and
the sport known as "apple-ducking"--attempting to seize with the teeth
an apple floating in a tub of water,--were once the universal occupation
of the young folk in medieval England on the 31st of October. The custom
of lighting Hallowe'en fires survived until recent years in the
highlands of Scotland and Wales. In the dying embers it was usual to
place as many small stones as there were persons around, and next
morning a search was made. If any of the pebbles were displaced it was
regarded as certain that the person represented would die within the
twelve months.
For details of the Hallowe'en games and bonfires see Brand's
_Antiquities of Great Britain_; Chambers's _Book of Days_; Grimm's
_Deutsche Mythologie_, ch. xx. (_Elemente_) and ch. xxxiv.
(_Aberglaube_); and J. G. Frazer's _Golden Bough_, vol. iii. Compare
also BELTANE and BONFIRE.
HALLSTATT, a market-place of Austria, in Upper Austria, 67 m. S.S.W. of
Linz by rail. Pop. (1900) 737. It is situated on the shore of the
Hallstatter-see and at the foot of the Hallstatter Salzberg, and is
built in amphitheatre with its houses clinging to the mountain side. The
salt mine of Hallstatt, which is one of the oldest in existence, was
rediscovered in the 14th century. In the neighbourhood is the celebrated
Celtic burial ground, where a great number of very interesting
antiquities have been found. Most of these have been removed to the
museums at Vienna and Linz, but some are kept in the local museum.
The excavations (1847-1864) revealed a form of culture hitherto unknown,
and accordingly the name Hallstatt has been applied to objects of like
form and decoration since found in Styria, Carniola, Bosnia (at
Glasinatz and Jezerin), Epirus, north Italy, France, Spain and Britain
(see CELT). Everywhere else the change from iron weapons to bronze is
immediate, but at Hallstatt iron is seen gradually superseding bronze,
first for ornament, then for edging cutting instruments, then replacing
fully the old bronze types, and finally taking new forms of its own.
There can be no doubt that the use of iron first developed in the
Hallstatt area, and that thence it spread southwards into Italy, Greece,
the Aegean, Egypt and Asia, and northwards and westwards in Europe. At
Noreia, which gave its name to Noricum (q.v.) less than 40 m. from
Hallstatt, were the most famous iron mines of antiquity, which produced
the Noric iron and Noric swords so prized and dreaded by the Romans
(Pliny, _Hist. Nat._ xxxiv. 145; Horace, _Epod._ 17. 71). This iron
needed no tempering, and the Celts had probably found it ready smelted
by nature, just as the Eskimo had learned of themselves to use telluric
iron embedded in basalt. The graves at Hallstatt were partly inhumation
partly cremation; they contained swords, daggers, spears, javelins,
axes, helmets, bosses and plates of shields and hauberks, brooches,
various forms of jewelry, amber and glass beads, many of the objects
being decorated with animals and geometrical designs. Silver was
practically unknown. The weapons and axes are mostly iron, a few being
bronze. The swords are leaf-shaped, with blunt points intended for
cutting, not for thrusting; the hilts differ essentially from those of
the Bronze Age, being shaped like a crescent to grasp the blade, with
large pommels, or sometimes with antennae (the latter found also in
Bavaria, Wurttemberg, Baden, Switzerland, the Pyrenees, Spain, north
Italy): only six arrowheads (bronze) were found. Both flanged and
socketed celts occurred, the iron being much more numerous than the
bronze. The flat axes are distinguished by the side stops and in some
cases the transition from palstave to socketed axe can be seen. The
shields were round as in the early Iron Age of north Italy (see
VILLANOVA). Greaves were found at Glasinatz and Jezerin, though not at
Hallstatt; two helmets were found at Hallstatt and others in Bosnia;
broad bronze belts were numerous, adorned in _repousse_ with beast and
geometric ornament. Brooches are found in great numbers, both those
derived from the primitive safety-pin ("Peschiera" type) and the
"spectacle" or "Hallstatt" type found all down the Balkans and in
Greece. The latter are formed of two spirals of wire, sometimes four
such spirals being used, whilst there were also brooches in animal
forms, one of the latter being found with a bronze sword. The Hallstatt
culture is that of the Homeric Achaeans (see ACHAEANS), but as the
brooch (along with iron, cremation of the dead, the round shield and the
geometric ornament) passed down into Greece from central Europe, and as
brooches are found in the lower town at Mycenae, 1350 B.C., they must
have been invented long before that date in central Europe. But as they
are found in the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age, the early iron
culture of Hallstatt must have originated long before 1350 B.C., a
conclusion in accord with the absence of silver at Hallstatt itself.
See Baron von Sacken, _Das Grabfeld von Hallstatt_; Bertrand and S.
Reinach, _Les Celtes dans les vallees du Po et du Danube_; W.
Ridgeway, _Early Age of Greece_; ARCHAEOLOGY (plate). (W. Ri.)
HALLUCINATION (from Lat. _alucinari_ or _allucinari_, to wander in mind,
Gr. [Greek: alyssein] or [Greek: alyein], from [Greek: ale], wandering),
a psychological term which has been the subject of much controversy, and
to which, although there is now fair agreement as to its denotation, it
is still impossible to give a precise and entirely satisfactory
definition. Hallucinations constitute one of the two great classes of
all false sense-perceptions, the other class consisting of the
"illusions," and the difficulty of definition is clearly to mark the
boundary between the two classes. _Illusion_ may be defined as the
misinterpretation of sense-impression, while _hallucination_, in its
typical instances, is the experiencing of a sensory presentation, i.e. a
presentation having the sensory vividness that distinguishes perceptions
from representative imagery, at a time when no stimulus is acting on the
corresponding sense-organ. There is, however, good reason to think that
in many cases, possibly in all cases, some stimulation of the
sense-organ, coming either from without or from within the body, plays a
part in the genesis of the hallucination. This being so, we must be
content to leave the boundary between illusions and hallucinations
ill-defined, and to regard as illusions _those false perceptions in
which impressions made on the sense-organ play a leading part in
determining the character of the percept_, and as hallucinations _those
in which any such impression is lacking, or plays but a subsidiary part
and bears no obvious relation to the character of the false percept_.
As in the case of illusion, hallucination may or may not involve
delusion, or belief in the reality of the object falsely perceived.
Among the sane the hallucinatory object is frequently recognized at once
as unreal or at least as but quasi-real; and it is only the insane, or
persons in abnormal states, such as hypnosis, who, when an hallucination
persists or recurs, fail to recognize that it corresponds to no physical
impression from, or object in, the outer world. Hallucinations of all
the senses occur, but the most commonly reported are the auditory and
the visual, while those of the other senses seem to be comparatively
rare. This apparent difference of frequency is no doubt largely due to
the more striking character of visual and auditory hallucinations, and
to the relative difficulty of ascertaining, in the case of perceptions
of the lower senses, e.g. of taste and smell, that no impression
adequate to the genesis of the percept has been made upon the
sense-organ; but, in so far as it is real, it is probably due in part to
the more constant use of the higher senses and the greater strain
consequently thrown upon them, in part also to their more intimate
connexion with the life of ideas.
The hallucinatory perception may involve two or more senses, e.g., the
subject may seem to see a human being, to hear his voice and to feel the
touch of his hand. This is rarely the case in spontaneous hallucination,
but in hypnotic hallucination the subject is apt to develop the object
suggested to him, as present to one of his senses, and to perceive it
also through other senses.
Among visual hallucinations the human figure, and among auditory
hallucinations human voices, are the objects most commonly perceived.
The figure seen always appears localized more or less definitely in the
outer world. In many cases it appears related to the objects truly seen
in just the same way as a real object; e.g. it is no longer seen if the
eyes are closed or turned away, it does not move with the movements of
the eyes, and it may hide objects lying behind it, or be hidden by
objects coming between the place that it appears to occupy and the eye
of the percipient. Visual hallucinations are most often experienced when
the eyes are open and the surrounding space is well or even brightly
illuminated. Less frequently the visual hallucination takes the form of
a self-luminous figure in a dark place or appears in a luminous globe or
mist which shuts out from view the real objects of the part of the field
of view in which it appears.
Auditory hallucinations, especially voices, seem to fall into two
distinct classes--(1) those which are heard as coming from without, and
are more or less definitely localized in outer space, (2) those which
seem to be within the head or, in some cases, within the chest, and to
have less definite auditory quality. It seems probable that the latter
are hallucinations involving principally kinaesthetic sensations,
sensations of movement of the organs of speech.
Hallucinations occur under a great variety of bodily and mental
conditions, which may conveniently be classified as follows.
I. _Conditions which imply normal waking Consciousness and no distinct
Departure from bodily and mental Sanity._
a. It would seem that a considerable number of perfectly healthy persons
occasionally experience, while in a fully waking state, hallucinations
for which no cause can be assigned. The census of hallucinations
conducted by the Society for Psychical Research showed that about 10% of
all sane persons can remember having experienced at least one
hallucination while they believed themselves to be fully awake and in
normal health. These sporadic hallucinations of waking healthy persons
are far more frequently visual than auditory, and they usually take the
form of some familiar person in ordinary attire. The figure in many
cases is seen, on turning the gaze in some new direction, fully
developed and lifelike, and its hallucinatory character may be revealed
only by its noiseless movements, or by its fading away _in situ_. A
special interest attaches to hallucinations of this type, owing to the
occasional coincidence of the death of the person with his hallucinatory
appearance. The question raised by these coincidences will be discussed
in a separate paragraph below.
b. A few persons, otherwise normal in mind and body, seem to experience
repeatedly some particular kind of hallucination. The voice ([Greek:
daimonion]) so frequently heard by Socrates, warning or advising him, is
the most celebrated example of this type.
II. _Conditions more or less unusual or abnormal but not implying
distinct Departure from Health._
a. A kind of hallucination to which perhaps every normal person is
liable is that known technically as "recurrent sensation." This kind is
experienced only when some sense-organ has been continuously or
repeatedly subjected to some one kind of impression or stimulation for a
considerable period; e.g. the microscopist, after examining for some
hours one particular kind of object or structure, may suddenly perceive
the object faithfully reproduced in form and colour, and lying, as it
were, upon any surface to which his gaze is directed. Perhaps the
commonest experience of this type is the recurrence of the sensations of
movement at intervals in the period following a sea voyage or long
railway journey.
b. A considerable proportion of healthy sane persons can induce
hallucinations of vision by gazing fixedly at a polished surface or
into some dark translucent mass; or of hearing, by applying a large
shell or similar object to the ear. These methods of inducing
hallucinations, especially the former, have long been practised in many
countries as modes of divination, various objects being used, e.g. a
drop of ink in the palm of the hand, or a polished finger-nail. The
object now most commonly used is a polished sphere of clear glass or
crystal (see CRYSTAL-GAZING). Hence such hallucinations go by the name
of _crystal visions_. The crystal vision often appears as a picture of
some distant or unknown scene lying, as it were, in the crystal; and in
the picture figures may come and go, and move to and fro, in a perfectly
natural manner. In other cases, written or printed words or sentences
appear. The percipient, seer or scryer, commonly seems to be in a fully
waking state as he observes the objects thus presented. He is usually
able to describe and discuss the appearances, successively
discriminating details by attentive observation, just as when observing
an objective scene; and he usually has no power of controlling them, and
no sense of having produced them by his own activity. In some cases
these visions have brought back to the mind of the scryer facts or
incidents which he could not voluntarily recollect. In other cases they
are asserted by credible witnesses to have given to the scryer
information, about events distant in time or place, that had not come to
his knowledge by normal means. These cases have been claimed as evidence
of telepathic communication or even of clairvoyance. But at present the
number of well-attested cases of this sort is too small to justify
acceptance of this conclusion by those who have only secondhand
knowledge of them.
c. Prolonged deprivation of food predisposes to hallucinations, and it
would seem that, under this condition, a large proportion of otherwise
healthy persons become liable to them, especially to auditory
hallucinations.
d. Certain drugs, notably opium, Indian hemp, and mescal predispose to
hallucinations, each tending to produce a peculiar type. Thus Indian
hemp and mescal, especially the latter, produce in many cases visual
hallucinations in the form of a brilliant play of colours, sometimes a
mere succession of patches of brilliant colour, sometimes in
architectural or other definite spatial arrangement.
e. The states of transition from sleep to waking, and from waking to
sleep, seem to be peculiarly favourable to the appearance of
hallucinations. The recurrent sensations mentioned above are especially
prone to appear at such times, and a considerable proportion of the
sporadic hallucinations of persons in good health are reported to have
been experienced under these conditions. The name "hypnagogic"
hallucinations, first applied by Alfred Maury, is commonly given to
those experienced in these transition states.
f. The presentations, predominantly visual, that constitute the
principal content of most dreams, are generally described as
hallucinatory, but the propriety of so classing them is very
questionable. The present writer is confident that his own
dream-presentations lack the sensory vividness which is the essential
mark of the percept, whether normal or hallucinatory, and which is the
principal, though not the only, character in which it differs from the
representation or memory-image. It is true that the dream-presentation,
like the percept, differs from the representative imagery of waking life
in that it is relatively independent of volition; but that seems to be
merely because the will is in abeyance or very ineffective during sleep.
The wide currency of the doctrine that classes dream-images with
hallucinations seems to be due to this independence of volitional
control, and to the fact that during sleep the representative imagery
appears without that rich setting of undiscriminated or marginal
sensation which always accompanies waking imagery, and which by contrast
accentuates for introspective reflection the lack of sensory vividness
of such imagery.
g. Many of the subjects who pass into the deeper stages of hypnosis
(see HYPNOTISM) show themselves, while in that condition, extremely
liable to hallucination, perceiving whatever object is suggested to them
as present, and failing to perceive any object of which it is asserted
by the operator that it is no longer present. The reality of these
positive and negative hallucinations of the hypnotized subject has been
recently questioned, it being maintained that the subject merely gives
verbal assent to the suggestions of the operator. But that the
hypnotized subject does really experience hallucinations seems to be
proved by the cases in which it is possible to make the hallucination,
positive or negative, persist for some time after the termination of
hypnosis, and by the fact that in some of these cases the subject, who
in the post-hypnotic state seems in every other respect normal and wide
awake, may find it difficult to distinguish between the hallucinatory
and real objects. Further proof is afforded by experiments such as those
by which Alfred Binet showed that a visual hallucination may behave for
its percipient in many respects like a real object, e.g. that it may
appear reflected in a mirror, displaced by a prism and coloured when a
coloured glass is placed before the patient's eyes. It was by means of
experiments of this kind that Binet showed that hypnotic hallucinations
may approximate to the type of the illusion, i.e. that some real object
affecting the sense-organ (in the case of a visual hallucination some
detail of the surface upon which it is projected) may provide a nucleus
of peripherally excited sensation around which the false percept is
built up. An object playing a part of this sort in the genesis of an
hallucination is known as a "_point de repere_." It has been maintained
that all hallucinations involve some such _point de repere_ or objective
nucleus; but there are good reasons for rejecting this view.
h. In states of ecstasy, or intense emotional concentration of
attention upon some one ideal object, the object contemplated seems at
times to take on sensory vividness, and so to acquire the character of
an hallucination. In these cases the state of mind of the subject is
probably similar in many respects to that of the deeply hypnotized
subject, and these two classes of hallucination may be regarded as very
closely allied.
III. _Hallucinations which occur as symptoms of both bodily and mental
diseases._
a. Dr H. Head has the credit of having shown for the first time, in
the year 1901, that many patients, suffering from more or less painful
visceral diseases, disorders of heart, lungs, abdominal viscera, &c.,
are liable to experience hallucinations of a peculiar kind. These
"visceral" hallucinations, which are constantly accompanied by headache
of the reflected visceral type, are most commonly visual, more rarely
auditory. In all Dr Head's cases the visual hallucination took the form
of a shrouded human figure, colourless and vague, often incomplete,
generally seen by the patient standing by his bed when he wakes in a
dimly lit room. The auditory "visceral" hallucination was in no instance
vocal, but took such forms as sounds of tapping, scratching or rumbling,
and were heard only in the absence of objective noises. In a few cases
the "visceral" hallucination was bisensory, i.e. both auditory and
visual.
In all these respects the "visceral" hallucination differs markedly from
the commoner types of the sporadic hallucination of healthy persons.
b. Hallucinations are constant symptoms of certain general disorders
in which the nervous system is involved, notably of the _delirium
tremens_, which results from chronic alcohol poisoning, and of the
delirium of the acute specific fevers. The hallucinations of these
states are generally of a distressing or even terrifying character.
Especially is this the rule with those of _delirium tremens_, and in the
hallucinations of this disease certain kinds of objects, e.g. rats and
snakes, occur with curious frequency.
c. Hallucinations occasionally occur as symptoms of certain nervous
diseases that are not usually classed with the insanities, notably in
cases of epilepsy and severe forms of hysteria. In the former disorder,
the sensory aura that so often precedes the epileptic convulsion may
take the form of an hallucinatory object, which in some cases is very
constant in character. Unilateral hallucinations, an especially
interesting class, occur in severe cases of hysteria, and are usually
accompanied by hemi-anaesthesia of the body on the side on which the
hallucinatory object is perceived.
d. Hallucinations occur in a large, but not accurately definable,
proportion of all cases of mental disease proper. Two classes are
recognized: (1) those that are intimately connected with the dominant
emotional state or with some dominant delusion; (2) those that occur
sporadically and have no such obvious relation to the other symptoms of
disease. Hallucinations of the former class tend to accentuate, and in
turn to be confirmed by, the congruent emotional or delusional state;
but whether these are to be regarded as primary symptoms and as the
cause of the hallucinations, or _vice versa_, it is generally impossible
to say. Patients who suffer delusions of persecution are very apt to
develop later in the course of their disease hallucinations of the
voices of their persecutors; while in other cases hallucinatory voices,
which are at first recognized as such, come to be regarded as real and
in these cases seem to be factors of primary importance in the genesis
of further delusions. Hallucinations occur in almost every variety of
mental disease, but are commonest in the forms characterized by a cloudy
dream-like condition of consciousness, and in extreme cases of this sort
the patient (as in the delirium of chronic alcohol-poisoning) seems to
move waking through a world consisting largely of the images of his own
creation, set upon a background of real objects.
In some cases hallucinations are frequently experienced for long periods
in the absence of any other symptom of mental disorder, but these no
doubt usually imply some morbid condition of the brain.
_Physiology of Hallucination._--There has been much discussion as to the
nature of the neural process in hallucination. It is generally and
rightly assumed that the hallucinatory perception of any object has for
its immediate neural correlate a state of excitement which, as regards
its characters and its distribution in the elements of the brain, is
entirely similar to the neural correlate of the normal perception of the
same object. The hallucination is a perception, though a false
perception. In the perception of an object and in the representation of
it, introspective analysis discovers a number of presentative elements.
In the case of the representation these elements are memory images only
(except perhaps in so far as actual kinaesthetic sensations enter into
its composition); whereas, in the case of the percept, some of these
elements are sensations, sensations which differ from images in having
the attribute of sensory vividness; and the sensory vividness of these
elements lends to the whole complex the sensory vividness or reality,
the possession of which character by the percept constitutes its
principal difference from the representation. Normally, sensory
vividness attaches only to those presentative elements which are excited
through stimulations of the sense-organs. The normal percept, then, owes
its character of sensory reality to the fact that a certain number of
its presentative elements are sensations peripherally excited by
impressions made upon a sense-organ. The problem is, then, to account
for the fact that the hallucination contains presentative elements that
have sensory vividness, that are sensations, although they are not
excited by impressions from the external world falling upon a
sense-organ. Most of the discussions of this subject suffer from the
neglect of this preliminary definition of the problem. Many authors,
notably W. Wundt and his disciples, have been content to assume that the
sensation differs from the memory-image only in having a higher degree
of intensity; from which they infer that its neural correlate in the
brain cortex also differs from that of the image only in having a higher
degree of intensity. For them an hallucination is therefore merely a
representation whose neural correlate involves an intensity of
excitement of certain brain-elements such as is normally produced only
by peripheral stimulation of sensory nerves in the sense-organs. But
this view, so attractively simple, ignores an insuperable objection.
Sensory vividness is not to be identified with superior intensity; for
while the least intense sensation has it, the memory image of the most
intense sensation lacks it completely. And, since intensity of
sensation is a function of the intensity of the underlying neural
excitement, we may not assume that sensory vividness is also the
expression in consciousness of that intensity of excitement. If Wundt's
view were true a progressive diminution of the intensity of a sensory
stimulus should bring the sensation to a point in the scale of
diminishing intensity at which it ceases to be sensation, ceases to have
sensory vividness and becomes an image merely. But this is not the case;
with diminishing intensity of stimulation, the sensation declines to a
minimal intensity and then disappears from consciousness. This objection
applies not only to Wundt's view of hallucinations, but also to H.
Taine's explanation of them by the aid of his doctrine of "reductives,"
for this too identifies sensory vividness with intensity. (H. Taine, _De
l'intelligence_, tome i. p. 108.)
Another widely current explanation is based on the view that the
representation and the percept have their anatomical bases in different
element-groups or "centres" of the brain, the "centre" of the
representation being assigned to a higher level of the brain than that
of the percept (the latter being sometimes assigned to the basal ganglia
of the brain, the former to the cortex). It is then assumed that while
the lower perceptual centre is normally excited only through the
sense-organ, it may occasionally be excited by impulses playing down
upon it from the corresponding centre of representation, when
hallucination results.
This view also is far from satisfactory, because the great additions
recently made to our knowledge of the brain tend very strongly to show
that both sensations and memory-images have their anatomical bases in
the same sensory areas of the cerebral cortex; and many considerations
converge to show that their anatomical bases must be, in part at least,
identical.
The views based on the assumptions of complete identity, and of complete
separateness, of the anatomical bases of the percept and of the
representation are then alike untenable; and the alternative--that their
anatomical bases are in part identical, in part different, which is
indicated by this conclusion--renders possible a far more satisfactory
doctrine. We have good reason to believe that the neural correlate of
sensation is the transmission of the nervous impulse through a
sensori-motor arc of the cortex, made up of a chain of neurones; and the
view suggests itself that the neural correlate of the corresponding
memory-image is the transmission of the impulse through a part only of
this chain of cortical elements, either the efferent motor part of this
chain or the afferent sensory part of it. Professor W. James's theory of
hallucinations is based on the latter assumption. He suggests that the
sensory vividness of sensation and of the percept is due to the
discharge of the excitement of the chain of elements in the forward or
motor direction; and that, in the case of the image and of the
representation, the discharge takes place, not in this direction through
the efferent channel of the centre, but laterally into other centres of
the cortex. Hallucination may then be conceived as caused by
obstruction, or abnormally increased resistance, of the paths connecting
such a cortical centre with others, so that, when it becomes excited in
any way, the tension or potential of its charge rises, until discharge
takes place in the motor direction through the efferent limbs of the
sensori-motor arcs which constitute the centre.
It is a serious objection to this view that, as James himself, in common
with most modern authors, maintains, every idea has its motor tendency
which commonly, perhaps always, finds expression in some change of
tension of muscles, and in many cases issues in actual movements. Now if
we accept James's theory of hallucination, we should expect to find that
whenever a representation issues in bodily action it should assume the
sensory vividness of an hallucination; and this, of course, is not the
case.
The alternative form of the view that assumes partial identity of the
anatomical bases of the percept and the representation of an object,
would regard the neural correlate of the sensation as the transmission
of the nervous impulse throughout the length of the sensori-motor arc
of the cortex, from sensory inlet to motor outlet; and that of the image
as its transmission through the efferent part of this arc only; that is
to say, in the case of the image, it would regard the excitement of the
arc as being initiated at some point between its afferent inlet and its
motor outlet, and as spreading, in accordance with the law of forward
conduction, towards the motor outlet only, so that only the part of the
arc distal or efferent to this point becomes excited.
This view of the neural basis of sensory vividness, which correlates the
difference between the sensation and the image with the only known
difference between their physiological conditions, namely the peripheral
initiation of the one and the central initiation of the other, enables
us to formulate a satisfactory theory of the physiology of
hallucinations.
The anatomical basis of the perception and of the representation of any
object is a functional system of nervous elements, comprising a number
of sensori-motor arcs, whose excitement by impulses ascending to them by
the sensory paths from the sense-organs determines sensations, and whose
excitement in their efferent parts only determines the corresponding
images. In the case of perception, some of these arcs are excited by
impulses ascending from the sense-organs, others only by the spread of
the excitement through the system from these peripherally excited arcs;
while, in the case of the representation, all alike are excited by
impulses that reach the system from other parts of the cortex and spread
throughout its efferent parts only to its motor outlets.
If then impulses enter this system by any of the afferent limbs of its
sensori-motor arcs, the presentation that accompanies its excitement
will have sensory vividness and will be a true perception, an illusion,
or an hallucination, according as these impulses have followed the
normal course from the sense-organ, or have been diverted, to a lesser
or greater degree, from their normal paths. If any such neural system
becomes abnormally excitable, or becomes excited in any way with
abnormal intensity, it is thereby rendered a path of exceptionally
low-resistance capable of diverting to itself, from their normal path,
any streams of impulses ascending from the sense-organ; which ascending
impulses, entering the system by its afferent inlets, excite sensations
that impart to the presentation the character of sensory vividness; the
presentation thus acquires the character of a percept in spite of the
absence of the appropriate impression on the sense-organ, and we call it
an hallucination.
This view renders intelligible the _modus operandi_ of many of the
predisposing causes of hallucination; e.g. the pre-occupation with
certain representations of the ecstatic, or of the sufferer from
delusions of persecution; the intense expectation of a particular sense
impression, the generally increased excitability of the cortex in states
of delirium; in all these conditions the abnormally intense excitement
of the cortical systems may be supposed to give them an undue directive
and attractive influence upon the streams of impulses ascending from the
sense-organs, so that sensory impulses may be diverted from their normal
paths. Again, it renders intelligible the part played by chronic
irritation of a sense-organ, as when chronic irritation of the internal
ear leads on to hallucinations of hearing; perhaps also the chronic
irritation of sensory nerves that must accompany the states of visceral
disease, shown by Head to be so frequently accompanied by a liability to
hallucinations; for any such chronic irritation supplies a stream of
disorderly impulses rising constantly from the sense-organ, for the
reception of which the brain has no appropriate system, and which,
therefore, readily enters any organized cortical system that at any
moment constitutes a path of low-resistance. A similar explanation
applies to the influence of fixed gazing upon a crystal, or the placing
of a shell over the ear, in inducing visual and auditory hallucinations.
The "recurrent sensations" experienced after prolonged occupation with
some one kind of sensory object may be regarded as due to an abnormal
excitability of the cortical system concerned, resulting from its unduly
prolonged exercise. The hypothesis renders intelligible also the
liability to hallucination of persons in the hysterical and hypnotic
states, in whose brains the cortical neural systems are in a state of
partial dissociation, which renders possible an unduly intense and
prolonged excitement of some one system at the expense of all other
systems (cf. HYPNOTISM).
_Coincidental Hallucinations._--It would seem that, in well-nigh all
countries and in all ages, apparitions of persons known to be in distant
places have been occasionally observed. Such appearances have usually
been regarded as due to the presence, before the bodily eye of the seer,
of the ghost, wraith, double or soul of the person who thus appears;
and, since the soul has been very commonly supposed to leave the body,
permanently at death and temporarily during sleep, trance or any period
of unconsciousness, however induced, it was natural to regard such an
appearance as evidence that the person whose wraith was thus seen was in
some such condition. Such apparitions have probably played a part,
second only to that of dreams, in generating the almost universal belief
in the separability of soul and body.
In many parts of the world traditional belief has connected such
apparitions more especially with the death of the person so appearing,
the apparition being regarded as an indication that the person so
appearing has recently died, is dying or is about to die. Since death is
so much less common an event than sleep, trance, or other form of
temporary unconsciousness, the wide extension of this belief suggests
that such apparitions may coincide in time with death, with
disproportionate frequency. The belief in the significance of such
apparitions still survives in civilized communities, and stories of
apparitions coinciding with the death of the person appearing are
occasionally reported in the newspapers, or related as having recently
occurred. The Society for Psychical Research has sought to find grounds
for an answer to the question "Is there any sufficient justification for
the belief in a causal relation between the apparition of a person at a
place distant from his body and his death or other exceptional and
momentous event in his experience?" The problem was attacked in a
thoroughly scientific spirit, an extensive inquiry was made, and the
results were presented and fully discussed in two large volumes,
_Phantasms of the Living_, published in the year 1886, bearing on the
title-page the names of Edmund Gurney, F. W. H. Myers and F. Podmore. Of
the three collaborators Gurney took the largest share in the planning of
the work, in the collection of evidence, and in the elaboration and
discussion of it.
Gurney set out with the presumption that apparitions, whether
coincidental or not, are hallucinations in the sense defined above; that
_they are false perceptions_ and are not excited by any object or
process of the external world acting upon the sense-organs of the
percipient in normal fashion; that they do not imply the presence, in
the place apparently occupied by them, of any wraith or any form of
existence emanating from, or specially connected with, the person whose
phantasm appears. This initial assumption was abundantly justified by an
examination of a large number of cases for it, which showed that, in all
important respects, most of these apparitions of persons at a distance,
whether coincidental or not, were similar to other forms of
hallucination.
The acceptance of this conclusion does not, however, imply a negative
answer to the question formulated above. The Society for Psychical
Research had accumulated an impressive and, to almost all those who had
first-hand acquaintance with it, a convincing mass of experimental
evidence of the reality of telepathy (q.v.), the influence of mind on
mind otherwise than through the recognized channels of sense. The
successful experiments had for the most part been made between persons
in close proximity, in the same room or in adjoining rooms; but they
seemed to show that the state of consciousness of one person may induce
directly (i.e. without the mediation of the organs of expression and
sense-perception) a similar state of consciousness in another person,
especially if the former, usually called the "agent," strongly desired
or "willed" that this effect should be produced on the other person, the
"percipient."
The question formulated above thus resolved itself for Gurney into the
more definite form, "Can we find any good reason for believing that
coincidental hallucinations are sometimes veridical, that the state of
mind of a person at some great crisis of his experience may
telepathically induce in the mind of some distant relative or friend an
hallucinatory perception of himself?" It was at once obvious that, if
coincidental apparitions can be proved to occur, this question can only
be answered by a statistical inquiry; for each such coincidental
hallucination, considered alone, may always be regarded as most educated
persons of the present time have regarded them, namely, as merely
accidental coincidences. That the coincidences are not merely accidental
can only be proved by showing that they occur more frequently than the
doctrine of chances would justify us in expecting. Now, the death of any
person is a unique event, and the probability of its occurrence upon any
particular day may be very simply calculated from the mortality
statistics, if we assume that nothing is known of the individual's
vitality. On the other hand, hallucinatory perceptions of persons,
occurring to sane and healthy individuals in the fully waking state, are
comparatively rare occurrences, whose frequency we may hope to determine
by a statistical inquiry. If, then, we can obtain figures expressing the
frequency of such hallucinations, we can deduce, by the help of the laws
of chance, the proportion of such hallucinations that may be expected to
coincide with (or, for the purposes of the inquiry, to fall within
twelve hours of) the death of the person whose apparition appears, if no
causal relation obtains between the coinciding events. If, then, it
appears that the proportion of such coincidental hallucinations is
greater than the laws of probability will account for, a certain
presumption of a causal relation between the coinciding events is
thereby established; and the greater the excess of such coincidences,
the stronger does this presumption become. Gurney attempted a census of
hallucinations in order to obtain data for this statistical treatment,
and the results of it, embodied in _Phantasms of the Living_, were
considered by the authors of that work to justify the belief that some
coincidental hallucinations are veridical. In the year 1889 the Society
for Psychical Research appointed a committee, under the chairmanship of
the late Henry Sidgwick, to make a second census of hallucinations on a
more extensive and systematic plan than the first, in order that the
important conclusion reached by the authors of _Phantasms of the Living_
might be put to the severer test rendered possible by a larger and more
carefully collected mass of data. Seventeen thousand adults returned
answers to the question, "Have you ever, when believing yourself to be
completely awake, had a vivid impression of seeing or being touched by a
living being or inanimate object, or of hearing a voice; which
impression, so far as you could discover, was not due to any external
physical cause?" Rather more than two thousand persons answered
affirmatively, and to each of these were addressed careful inquiries
concerning their hallucinatory experiences. In this way it was found
that of the total number, 381 apparitions of persons living at the
moment (or not more than twelve hours dead) had been recognized by the
percipients, and that, of these, 80 were alleged to have been
experienced within twelve hours of the death of the person whose
apparition had appeared. A careful review of all the facts, conditions
and probabilities, led the committee to estimate that the former number
should be enlarged to 1300 in order to make ample allowance for
forgetfulness and for all other causes that might have tended to prevent
the registration of apparitions of this class. On the other hand, a
severe criticism of the alleged death-coincidences led them to reduce
the number, admitted by them for the purposes of their calculation, to
30. The making of these adjustments gives us about 1 in 43 as the
proportion of coincidental death-apparitions to the total number of
recognized apparitions among the 17,000 persons reached by the census.
Now the death-rate being just over 19 per thousand, the probability that
any person taken at random will die on a given day is about 1 in 19,000;
or, more strictly speaking, the average probability that any person will
die within any given period of twenty-four hours duration is about 1 in
19,000. Hence the probability that any other particular event, having no
causal relation to his death, but occurring during his lifetime (or not
later than twelve hours after his death) will fall within the same
twenty-four hours as his death is 1 in 19,000; i.e. if an apparition of
any individual is seen and recognized by any other person, the
probability of its being experienced within twelve hours of that
individual's death is 1 in 19,000, if no causal relation obtains between
the two events. Therefore, of all recognized apparitions of living
persons, 1 only in 19,000 may be expected to be a death-coincidence of
this sort. But the census shows that of 1300 recognized apparitions of
living persons 30 are death-coincidences and that is equivalent to 440
in 19,000. Hence, of recognized hallucinations, those coinciding with
death are 440 times more numerous than we should expect, if no causal
relation obtained; therefore, if neither the data nor the reasoning can
be destructively criticized, we are compelled to believe that some
causal relation obtains; and, since good evidence of telepathic
communication has been experimentally obtained, the least improbable
explanation of these death-apparitions is that the dying person exerts
upon his distant friend some telepathic influence which generates an
hallucinatory perception of himself.
These death-coincidences constitute the main feature of the argument in
favour of telepathic communication between distant persons, but the
census of hallucinations afforded other data from which a variety of
arguments, tending to support this conclusion, were drawn by the
committee; of these the most important are the cases in which the
hallucinatory percept embodied details that were connected with the
person perceived and which could not have become known to the percipient
by any normal means. The committee could not find in the results of the
census any evidence sufficient to justify a belief that hallucinations
may be due to telepathic influence exerted by personalities surviving
the death of the body.
The critical handling of the cases by the committee seems to be above
reproach. Those who do not accept their conclusion based on the
death-coincidences must direct their criticism to the question of the
reliability of the reports of these cases. It is to be noted that,
although only those cases are reckoned in which the percipient had no
cause to expect the death of the person whose apparition he experienced,
and although, in nearly all the accepted cases, some record or
communication of the hallucination was made before hearing of the death,
yet in very few cases was any contemporary written record of the event
forthcoming for the inspection of the committee. (W. McD.)
HALLUIN, a frontier town of northern France, in the department of Nord,
near the right bank of the Lys, 14 m. N. by E. of Lille by rail. Pop.
(1906) town, 11,670; commune, 16,158. Its church is of Gothic
architecture. The manufactures comprise linen and cotton goods, chairs
and rubber goods, and brewing and tanning are carried on; there is a
board of trade arbitration. The family of Halluin is mentioned as early
as the 13th century. In 1587 the title of duke and peer of the realm was
granted to it, but in the succeeding century it became extinct.
HALM, CARL FELIX (1809-1882), German classical scholar and critic, was
born at Munich on the 5th of April 1809. In 1849, after having held
appointments at Spires and Hadamar, he became rector of the newly
founded Maximiliansgymnasium at Munich, and in 1856 director of the
royal library and professor in the university. These posts he held till
his death on the 5th of October 1882. It is chiefly as the editor of
Cicero and other Latin prose authors that Halm is known, although in
early years he also devoted considerable attention to Greek. After the
death of J. C. Orelli, he joined J. G. Baiter in the preparation of a
revised critical edition of the rhetorical and philosophical writings of
Cicero (1854-1862). His school editions of some of the speeches of
Cicero in the Haupt and Sauppe series, with notes and introductions,
were very successful. He also edited a number of classical texts for the
Teubner series, the most important of which are Tacitus (4th ed., 1883);
_Rhetores Latini minores_ (1863); Quintilian (1868); Sulpicius Severus
(1866); Minucius Felix together with Firmicus Maternus _De errore_
(1867); Salvianus (1877) and Victor Vitensis's _Historia persecutionis
Africanae provinciae_ (1878). He was also an enthusiastic collector of
autographs.
See articles by W. Christ and G. Laubmann in _Allgemeine deutsche
Biographie_ and by C. Bursian in _Biographisches Jahrbuch_; and J. E.
Sandys, _Hist. of Classical Scholarship_, iii. 195 (1908).
HALMA (Greek for "jump"), a table game, a form of which was known to the
ancient Greeks, played on a board divided into 256 squares with wooden
_men_, resembling chess pawns. In the two-handed game 19 men are
employed on each side, coloured respectively black and white; in the
four-handed each player has 13, the men being coloured white, black, red
and green. At the beginning of the game the men are drawn up in
triangular formation in the enclosures, or _yards_, diagonally opposite
each other in the corners of the board. The object of each player is to
get all his men into his enemy's yard, the player winning who first
accomplishes this. The moves are made alternately, the mode of
progression being by a _step_, from one square to another immediately
adjacent, or by a jump (whence the name), which is the jumping of a man
from a square in front of it into an empty square on the other side of
it. This corresponds to jumping in draughts, except that, in halma, the
hop may be in any direction, over friendly as well as hostile men, and
the men jumped over are not taken but remain on the board.
In the four-handed game either each player plays for himself, or two
adjacent players play against the other two.
See _Card and Table Games_, by Professor Hoffmann (London, 1903).
HALMAHERA ["great land"; also Jilolo or Gilolo], an island of the Dutch
East Indies, belonging to the residency of Ternate, lying under the
equator and about 128 deg. E. Its shape is extremely irregular,
resembling that of the island of Celebes. It consists of four peninsulas
so arranged as to enclose three great bays (Kayu, Bicholi, Weda), all
opening towards the east, the northern peninsula being connected with
the others by an isthmus only 5 m. wide. On the western side of the
isthmus lies another bay, that of Dodinga, in the mouth of which are
situated the two islands Ternate and Tidore, whose political importance
exceeds that of the larger island (see these articles). Of the four
peninsulas of Halmahera the northern and the southern are reckoned to
the sultanate of Ternate, the north-eastern and south-eastern to that of
Tidore; the former having eleven, the latter three districts. The
distance between the extremities of the northern and southern
peninsulas, measured along the curve of the west coast, is about 240 m.;
and the total area of the island is 6700 sq. m. Knowledge of the island
is very incomplete. It appears that the four peninsulas are traversed in
the direction of their longitudinal axis by mountain chains 3000 to 4000
ft. high, covered with forest, without a central chain at the nucleus of
the island whence the peninsulas diverge. The mountain chains are
frequently interrupted by plains, such as those of Weda and Kobi. The
northern part of the mountain chain of the northern peninsula is
volcanic, its volcanoes continuing the line of those of Makian, Ternate
and Tidore. Coral formations on heights in the interior would indicate
oscillations of the land in several periods, but a detailed geology of
the island is wanting. To the north-east of the northern peninsula is
the considerable island of Morotai (635 sq. m.), and to the west of the
southern peninsula the more important island of Bachian (q.v.) among
others. Galela is a considerable settlement, situated on a bay of the
same name on the north-east coast, in a well cultivated plain which
extends southward and inland. Vegetation is prolific. Rice is grown by
the natives, but the sago tree is of far greater importance to them.
Dammar and coco-nuts are also grown. The sea yields trepang and pearl
shells. A little trade is carried on by the Chinese and Macassars of
Ternate, who, crossing the narrow isthmus of Dodinga, enter the bay of
Kayu on the east coast. The total population is estimated at 100,000.
The inhabitants are mostly of immigrant Malayan stock. In the northern
peninsula are found people of Papuan type, probably representing the
aborigines, and a tribe around Galela, who are Polynesian in physique,
possibly remnants, much mixed by subsequent crossings with the Papuan
indigenes, of the Caucasian hordes emigrating in prehistoric times
across the Pacific. M. Achille Raffray gives a description of them in
_Tour du monde_ (1879) where photographs will be found. "They are as
unlike the Malays as we are, excelling them in tallness of stature and
elegance of shape, and being perfectly distinguished by their oval face,
with a fairly high and open brow, their aquiline nose and their
horizontally placed eyes. Their beards are sometimes thick; their limbs
are muscular; the colour of their skins is cinnamon brown. Spears of
iron-wood, abundantly barbed, and small bows and bamboo arrows free from
poison are their principal weapons." They are further described as
having temples (_sabuas_) in which they suspend images of serpents and
other monsters as well as the trophies procured by war. They believe in
a better life hereafter, but have no idea of a hell or a devil, their
evil spirits only tormenting them in the present state.
The Portuguese and Spaniards were better acquainted with Halmahera than
with many other parts of the archipelago; they called it sometimes Batu
China and sometimes Moro. It was circumnavigated by one of their vessels
in 1525, and the general outline of the coasts is correctly given in
their maps at a time when separate portions of Celebes, such as Macassar
and Menado, are represented as distinct islands. The name (Jilolo) was
really that of a native state, the sultan of which had the chief rank
among the princes of the Moluccas before he was supplanted by the sultan
of Ternate about 1380. His capital, Jilolo, lay on the west coast on the
first bay to the north of that of Dodinga. In 1876 Danu Hassan, a
descendant of the sultans of Jilolo, raised an insurrection in the
island for the purpose of throwing off the authority of the sultans of
Tidore and Ternate; and his efforts would probably have been successful
but for the intervention of the Dutch. In 1878 a Dutch expedition was
directed against the pirates of Tobalai, and they were virtually
extirpated. Slavery remains in the interior. Missionary work, carried on
in the northern peninsula of Halmahera since 1866, has been fairly
successful among the heathen natives, but less so among the Mahommedans,
who have often incited the others against the missionaries and their
converts.
HALMSTAD, a seaport of Sweden, chief town of the district (_lan_) of
Halland, on the E. shore of the Cattegat, 76 m. S.S.E. of Gothenburg by
the railway to Helsingborg. Pop. (1900), 15,362. It lies at the mouth of
the river Nissa, having an inner harbour (15 ft. depth), an outer
harbour, and roads giving anchorage (24 to 36 ft.) exposed to S. and
N.W. winds. In the neighbourhood there are quarries of granite, which is
exported chiefly to Germany. Other industries are engineering,
shipbuilding and brewing, and there are cloth, jute, hat, wood-pulp and
paper factories. The principal exports are granite, timber and hats; and
butter through Helsingborg and Gothenburg. The imports are coal,
machinery and grain. Potatoes are largely grown in the district, and the
salmon fisheries are valuable. The castle is the residence of the
governor of the province. There are both mineral and sea-water baths in
the neighbourhood.
Mention of the church of Halmstad occurs as early as 1462, and the
fortifications are mentioned first in 1225. The latter were demolished
in 1734. There were formerly Dominican and Franciscan monasteries in the
town. The oldest town-privileges date from 1307. During the revolt of
the miner Engelbrekt, it twice fell into the hands of the rebels--in
1434 and 1436. The town appears to have been frequently chosen as the
meeting-place of the rulers and delegates of the three northern
kingdoms; and under the union of Kalmar it was appointed to be the place
for the election of a new Scandinavian monarch whenever necessary. The
_lan_ of Halland formed part of the territory of Denmark in Sweden, and
accordingly, in 1534, during his war with the Danes, Gustavus Vasa
assaulted and took its chief town. In 1660, by the treaty of Copenhagen,
the whole district was ceded to Sweden. In 1676 Charles XII. defeated
near Halmstad a Danish army which was attempting to retake the district,
and since that time Halland has formed part of Sweden.
HALO, a word derived from the Gr. [Greek: halos], a threshing-floor, and
afterwards applied to denote the disk of the sun or moon, probably on
account of the circular path traced out by the oxen threshing the corn.
It was thence applied to denote any luminous ring, such as that viewed
around the sun or moon, or portrayed about the heads of saints.
In physical science, a halo is a luminous circle, surrounding the sun or
moon, with various auxiliary phenomena, and formed by the reflection and
refraction of light by ice-crystals suspended in the atmosphere. The
optical phenomena produced by atmospheric water and ice may be divided
into two classes, according to the relative position of the luminous
ring and the source of light. In the first class we have _halos_, and
_coronae_, or "glories," which encircle the luminary; the second class
includes _rainbows_, _fog-bows_, _mist-halos_, _anthelia_ and
_mountain-spectres_, whose centres are at the anti-solar point. Here it
is only necessary to distinguish halos from coronae. Halos are at
definite distances (22 deg. and 46 deg.) from the sun, and are coloured
red on the _inside_, being due to refraction; coronae closely surround
the sun at variable distances, and are coloured red on the _outside_,
being due to diffraction.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
The phenomenon of a solar (or lunar) halo as seen from the earth is
represented in fig. 1; fig. 2 is a diagrammatic sketch showing the
appearance as viewed from the zenith; but it is only in exceptional
circumstances that all the parts are seen. Encircling the sun or moon
(S), there are two circles, known as the inner halo I, and the outer
halo O, having radii of about 22 deg. and 46 deg., and exhibiting the
colours of the spectrum in a confused manner, the only decided tint
being the red on the inside. Passing through the luminary and parallel
to the horizon, there is a white luminous circle, the _parhelic circle_
(P), on which a number of images of the luminary appear. The most
brilliant are situated at the intersections of the inner halo and the
parhelic circle; these are known as _parhelia_ (denoted by the letter p
in the figures) (from the Gr. [Greek: para], beside, and [Greek:
helios], the sun) or "mock-suns," in the case of the sun, and as
_paraselenae_ (from [Greek: para] and [Greek: selene], the moon) or
"mock-moons," in the case of the moon. Less brilliant are the parhelia
of the outer halo. The parhelia are most brilliant when the sun is near
the horizon. As the sun rises, they pass a little beyond the halo and
exhibit flaming tails. The other images on the parhelic circle are the
_paranthelia_ (q) and the _anthelion_ (a) (from the Greek [Greek: anti],
opposite, and [Greek: helios], the sun). The former are situated at from
90 deg. to 140 deg. from the sun; the latter is a white patch of light
situated at the anti-solar point and often exceeding in size the
apparent diameter of the luminary. A vertical circle passing through the
sun may also be seen. From the parhelia of the inner halo two oblique
curves (L) proceed. These are known as the "arcs of Lowitz," having been
first described in 1794 by Johann Tobias Lowitz (1757-1804). Luminous
arcs (T), tangential to the upper and lower parts of each halo, also
occur, and in the case of the inner halo, the arcs may be prolonged to
form a quasi-elliptic halo.
The physical explanation of halos originated with Rene Descartes, who
ascribed their formation to the presence of ice-crystals in the
atmosphere. This theory was adopted by Edme Mariotte, Sir Isaac Newton
and Thomas Young; and, although certain of their assumptions were
somewhat arbitrary, yet the general validity of the theory has been
demonstrated by the researches of J. G. Galle and A. Bravais. The memoir
of the last-named, published in the _Journal de l'Ecole royale
polytechnique_ for 1847 (xviii., 1-270), ranks as a classic on the
subject; it is replete with examples and illustrations, and discusses
the various phenomena in minute detail.
The usual form of ice-crystals in clouds is a right hexagonal prism,
which may be elongated as a needle or foreshortened like a thin plate.
There are three refracting angles possible, one of 120 deg. between two
adjacent prism faces, one of 60 deg. between two alternate prism faces,
and one of 90 deg. between a prism face and the base. If innumerable
numbers of such crystals fall in any manner between the observer and the
sun, light falling upon these crystals will be refracted, and the
refracted rays will be crowded together in the position of minimum
deviation (see REFRACTION OF LIGHT). Mariotte explained the inner halo
as being due to refraction through a pair of alternate faces, since the
minimum deviation of an ice-prism whose refracting angle is 60 deg. is
about 22 deg. Since the minimum deviation is least for the least
refrangible rays, it follows that the red rays will be the least
refracted, and the violet the more refracted, and therefore the halo
will be coloured red on the inside. Similarly, as explained by Henry
Cavendish, the halo of 46 deg. is due to refraction by faces inclined at
90 deg. The impurity of the colours (due partly to the sun's diameter,
but still more to oblique refraction) is more marked in halos than in
rainbows; in fact, only the red is at all pure, and as a rule, only a
mere trace of green or blue is seen, the external portion of each halo
being nearly white.
The two halos are the only phenomena which admit of explanation without
assigning any particular distribution to the ice-crystals. But it is
obvious that certain distributions will predominate, for the crystals
will tend to fall so as to offer the least resistance to their motion; a
needle-shaped crystal tending to keep its axis vertical, a plate-shaped
crystal to keep its axis horizontal. Thomas Young explained the parhelic
circle (P) as due to reflection from the vertical faces of the long
prisms and the bases of the short ones. If these vertical faces become
very numerous, the eye will perceive a colourless horizontal circle.
Reflection from an excess of horizontal prisms gives rise to a vertical
circle passing through the sun.
The parhelia (p) were explained by Mariotte as due to refraction through
a pair of alternate faces of a vertical prism. When the sun is near the
horizon the rays fall upon the principal section of the prisms; the
minimum deviation for such rays is 22 deg., and consequently the
parhelia are not only on the inner halo, but also on the parhelic
circle. As the sun rises, the rays enter the prisms more and more
obliquely, and the angle of minimum deviation increases; but since the
emergent ray makes the same angle with the refracting edge as the
incident ray, it follows that the parhelia will remain on the parhelic
circle, while receding from the inner halo. The different values of the
angle of minimum deviation for rays of different refrangibilities give
rise to spectral colours, the red being nearest the sun, while farther
away the overlapping of the spectra forms a flaming colourless tail
sometimes extending over as much as 10 deg. to 20 deg. The "arcs of
Lowitz" (L) are probably due to small oscillations of the vertical
prisms.
The "tangential arcs" (T) were explained by Young as being caused by the
thin plates with their axes horizontal, refraction taking place through
alternate faces. The axes will take up any position, and consequently
give rise to a continuous series of parhelia which touch externally the
inner halo, both above and below, and under certain conditions (such as
the requisite altitude of the sun) form two closed elliptical curves;
generally, however, only the upper and lower portions are seen.
Similarly, the tangential arcs to the halo of 46 deg. are due to
refraction through faces inclined at 90 deg.
The paranthelia (q) may be due to two internal or two external
reflections. A pair of triangular prisms having a common face, or a
stellate crystal formed by the symmetrical interpenetration of two
triangular prisms admits of two internal reflections by faces inclined
at 120 deg., and so give rise to two colourless images each at an
angular distance of 120 deg. from the sun. Double internal reflection by
a triangular prism would form a single coloured image on the parhelic
circle at about 98 deg. from the sun. These angular distances are
attained only when the sun is on the horizon, and they increase as it
rises.
The anthelion (a) may be explained as caused by two internal reflections
of the solar rays by a hexagonal lamellar crystal, having its axis
horizontal and one of the diagonals of its base vertical. The emerging
rays are parallel to their original direction and form a colourless
image on the parhelic circle opposite the sun.
REFERENCES.--Auguste Bravais's celebrated memoir, "Sur les halos et
les phenomenes optiques qui les accompagnent" (_Journ. Ecole poly._
vol. xviii., 1847), contains a full account of the geometrical theory.
See also E. Mascart, _Traite d'optique_; J. Pernter, _Meteorologische
Optik_ (1902-1905); and R. S. Heath, _Geometrical Optics_.
HALOGENS. The word halogen is derived from the Greek [Greek: hals]
(sea-salt) and [Greek: gennan] (to produce), and consequently means the
sea-salt producer. The term is applied to the four elements fluorine,
chlorine, bromine and iodine, on account of the great similarity of
their sodium salts to ordinary sea-salt. These four elements show a
great resemblance to one another in their general chemical behaviour,
and in that of their compounds, whilst their physical properties show a
gradual transition. Thus, as the atomic weight increases, the state of
aggregation changes from that of a gas in the case of fluorine and
chlorine, to that of a liquid (bromine) and finally to that of the solid
(iodine); at the same time the melting and boiling points rise with
increasing atomic weights. The halogen of lower atomic weight can
displace one of higher atomic weight from its hydrogen compound, or from
the salt derived from such hydrogen compound, while, on the other hand,
the halogen of higher atomic weight can displace that of lower atomic
weight, from the halogen oxy-acids and their salts; thus iodine will
liberate chlorine from potassium chlorate and also from perchloric acid.
All four of the halogens unite with hydrogen, but the affinity for
hydrogen decreases as the atomic weight increases, hydrogen and fluorine
uniting explosively at very low temperatures and in the dark, whilst
hydrogen and iodine unite only at high temperatures, and even then the
resulting compound is very readily decomposed by heat. The hydrides of
the halogens are all colourless, strongly fuming gases, readily soluble
in water and possessing a strong acid reaction; they react readily with
basic oxides, forming in most cases well defined crystalline salts which
resemble one another very strongly. On the other hand the stability of
the known oxygen compounds increases with the atomic weight, thus iodine
pentoxide is, at ordinary temperatures, a well-defined crystalline
solid, which is only decomposed on heating strongly, whilst chlorine
monoxide, chlorine peroxide, and chlorine heptoxide are very unstable,
even at ordinary temperatures, decomposing at the slightest shock.
Compounds of fluorine and oxygen, and of bromine and oxygen, have not
yet been isolated. In some respects there is a very marked difference
between fluorine and the other members of the group, for, whilst sodium
chloride, bromide and iodide are readily soluble in water, sodium
fluoride is much less soluble; again, silver chloride, bromide and
iodide are practically insoluble in water, whilst, on the other hand,
silver fluoride is appreciably soluble in water. Again, fluorine shows a
great tendency to form double salts, which have no counterpart among the
compounds formed by the other members of the family.
HALS, FRANS (1580?-1666), Dutch painter, was born at Antwerp according
to the most recent authorities in 1580 or 1581, and died at Haarlem in
1666. As a portrait painter second only to Rembrandt in Holland, he
displayed extraordinary talent and quickness in the exercise of his art
coupled with improvidence in the use of the means which that art secured
to him. At a time when the Dutch nation fought for independence and won
it, Hals appears in the ranks of its military gilds. He was also a
member of the Chamber of Rhetoric, and (1644) chairman of the Painters'
Corporation at Haarlem. But as a man he had failings. He so ill-treated
his first wife, Anneke Hermansz, that she died prematurely in 1616; and
he barely saved the character of his second, Lysbeth Reyniers, by
marrying her in 1617. Another defect was partiality to drink, which led
him into low company. Still he brought up and supported a family of ten
children with success till 1652, when the forced sale of his pictures
and furniture, at the suit of a baker to whom he was indebted for bread
and money, brought him to absolute penury. The inventory of the property
seized on this occasion only mentions three mattresses and bolsters, an
armoire, a table and five pictures. This humble list represents all his
worldly possessions at the time of his bankruptcy. Subsequently to this
he was reduced to still greater straits, and his rent and firing were
paid by the municipality, which afterwards gave him (1664) an annuity of
200 florins. We may admire the spirit which enabled him to produce some
of his most striking works in his unhappy circumstances: we find his
widow seeking outdoor relief from the guardians of the poor, and dying
obscurely in a hospital.
Hals's pictures illustrate the various strata of society into which his
misfortunes led him. His banquets or meetings of officers, of
sharpshooters, and gildsmen are the most interesting of his works. But
they are not more characteristic than his low-life pictures of itinerant
players and singers. His portraits of gentlefolk are true and noble, but
hardly so expressive as those of fishwives and tavern heroes.
His first master at Antwerp was probably van Noort, as has been
suggested by M. G. S. Davies, but on his removal to Haarlem Frans Hals
entered the atelier of van Mander, the painter and historian, of whom he
possessed some pictures which went to pay the debt of the baker already
alluded to. But he soon improved upon the practice of the time,
illustrated by J. van Schoreel and Antonio Moro, and, emancipating
himself gradually from tradition, produced pictures remarkable for truth
and dexterity of hand. We prize in Rembrandt the golden glow of effects
based upon artificial contrasts of low light in immeasurable gloom. Hals
was fond of daylight of silvery sheen. Both men were painters of touch,
but of touch on different keys--Rembrandt was the bass, Hals the treble.
The latter is perhaps more expressive than the former. He seizes with
rare intuition a moment in the life of his sitters. What nature displays
in that moment he reproduces thoroughly in a very delicate scale of
colour, and with a perfect mastery over every form of expression. He
becomes so clever at last that exact tone, light and shade, and
modelling are all obtained with a few marked and fluid strokes of the
brush.
In every form of his art we can distinguish his earlier style from that
of later years. It is curious that we have no record of any work
produced by him in the first decade of his independent activity, save an
engraving by Jan van de Velde after a lost portrait of "The Minister
Johannes Bogardus," who died in 1614. The earliest works by Frans Hals
that have come down to us, "Two Boys Playing and Singing" in the gallery
of Cassel, and a "Banquet of the officers of the 'St Joris Doele'" or
Arquebusiers of St George (1616) in the museum of Haarlem, exhibit him
as a careful draughtsman capable of great finish, yet spirited withal.
His flesh, less clear than it afterwards becomes, is pastose and
burnished. Later he becomes more effective, displays more freedom of
hand, and a greater command of effect. At this period we note the
beautiful full-length of "Madame van Beresteyn" at the Louvre in Paris,
and a splendid full-length portrait of "Willem van Heythuysen" leaning
on a sword in the Liechtenstein collection at Vienna. Both these
pictures are equalled by the other "Banquet of the officers, of the
Arquebusiers of St George" (with different portraits) and the "Banquet
of the officers of the 'Cloveniers Doelen'" or Arquebusiers of St Andrew
of 1627 and an "Assembly of the officers of the Arquebusiers of St
Andrew" of 1633 in the Haarlem Museum. A picture of the same kind in the
town hall of Amsterdam, with the date of 1637, suggests some study of
the masterpieces of Rembrandt, and a similar influence is apparent in a
picture of 1641 at Haarlem, representing the "Regents of the Company of
St Elizabeth" and in the portrait of "Maria Voogt" at Amsterdam. But
Rembrandt's example did not create a lasting impression on Hals. He
gradually dropped more and more into grey and silvery harmonies of tone;
and two of his canvases, executed in 1664, "The Regents and Regentesses
of the Oudemannenhuis" at Haarlem, are masterpieces of colour, though in
substance all but monochromes. In fact, ever since 1641 Hals had shown a
tendency to restrict the gamut of his palette, and to suggest colour
rather than express it. This is particularly noticeable in his flesh
tints which from year to year became more grey, until finally the
shadows were painted in almost absolute black, as in the "Tymane
Oosdorp," of the Berlin Gallery. As this tendency coincides with the
period of his poverty, it has been suggested that one of the reasons, if
not the only reason, of his predilection for black and white pigment was
the cheapness of these colours as compared with the costly lakes and
carmines.
As a portrait painter Frans Hals had scarcely the psychological insight
of a Rembrandt or Velazquez, though in a few works, like the "Admiral de
Ruyter," in Earl Spencer's collection, the "Jacob Olycan" at the Hague
Gallery, and the "Albert van der Meer" at Haarlem town hall, he reveals
a searching analysis of character which has little in common with the
instantaneous expression of his so-called "character" portraits. In
these he generally sets upon the canvas the fleeting aspect of the
various stages of merriment, from the subtle, half ironic smile that
quivers round the lips of the curiously misnamed "Laughing Cavalier" in
the Wallace Collection to the imbecile grin of the "Hille Bobbe" in the
Berlin Museum. To this group of pictures belong Baron Gustav
Rothschild's "Jester," the "_Bohemienne_" at the Louvre, and the "Fisher
Boy" at Antwerp, whilst the "Portrait of the Artist with his second
Wife" at the Ryks Museum in Amsterdam, and the somewhat confused group
of the "Beresteyn Family" at the Louvre show a similar tendency. Far
less scattered in arrangement than this Beresteyn group, and in every
respect one of the most masterly of Frans Hals's achievements is the
group called "The Painter and his Family" in the possession of Colonel
Warde, which was almost unknown until it appeared at the winter
exhibition at the Royal Academy in 1906.
Though a visit to Haarlem town hall, which contains the five enormous
Doelen groups and the two Regenten pictures, is as necessary for the
student of Hals's art as a visit to the Prado in Madrid is for the
student of Velazquez, good examples of the Dutch master have found their
way into most of the leading public and private collections. In the
British Isles, besides the works already mentioned, portraits from his
brush are to be found at the National Gallery, the Edinburgh Gallery,
the Glasgow Corporation Gallery, Hampton Court, Buckingham Palace,
Devonshire House, and the collections of Lord Northbrooke, Lord
Ellesmere, Lord Iveagh and Lord Spencer.
At Amsterdam is the celebrated "Flute Player," once in the Dupper
collection at Dort; at Brussels, the patrician "Heythuysen"; at the
Louvre, "Descartes"; at Dresden, the painter "Van der Vinne." Hals's
sitters were taken from every class of society--admirals, generals and
burgomasters pairing with merchants, lawyers, clerks. To register all
that we find in public galleries would involve much space. There are
eight portraits at Berlin, six at Cassel, five at St Petersburg, six at
the Louvre, two at Brussels, five at Dresden, two at Gotha. In private
collections, chiefly in Paris, Haarlem and Vienna, we find an equally
important number. Amongst the painter's most successful representations
of fishwives and termagants we should distinguish the "Hille Bobbe" of
the Berlin Museum, and the "Hille Bobbe with her Son" in the Dresden
Gallery. Itinerant players are best illustrated in the Neville-Goldsmith
collection at the Hague, and the Six collection at Amsterdam. Boys and
girls singing, playing or laughing, or men drinking, are to be found in
the gallery of Schwerin, in the Arenberg collection, and in the royal
palace at Brussels.
For two centuries after his death Frans Hals was held in such poor
esteem that some of his paintings, which are now among the proudest
possessions of public galleries, were sold at auction for a few pounds
or even shillings. The portrait of "Johannes Acronius," now at the
Berlin Museum, realized five shillings at the Enschede sale in 1786. The
splendid portrait of the man with the sword at the Liechtenstein gallery
was sold in 1800 for L4, 5s. With his rehabilitation in public esteem
came the enormous rise in values, and, at the Secretan sale in 1889, the
portrait of "Pieter van de Broecke d'Anvers" was bid up to L4420, while
in 1908 the National Gallery paid L25,000 for the large group from the
collection of Lord Talbot de Malahide.
Of the master's numerous family none has left a name except FRANS HALS
THE YOUNGER, born about 1622, who died in 1669. His pictures represent
cottages and poultry; and the "Vanitas" at Berlin, a table laden with
gold and silver dishes, cups, glasses and books, is one of his finest
works and deserving of a passing glance.
Quite in another form, and with much of the freedom of the elder HALS,
DIRK HALS, his brother (born at Haarlem, died 1656), is a painter of
festivals and ball-rooms. But Dirk had too much of the freedom and too
little of the skill in drawing which characterized his brother. He
remains second on his own ground to Palamedes. A fair specimen of his
art is a "Lady playing a Harpsichord to a Young Girl and her Lover" in
the van der Hoop collection at Amsterdam, now in the Ryks Museum. More
characteristic, but not better, is a large company of gentle-folk rising
from dinner, in the Academy at Vienna.
LITERATURE.--See W. Bode, _Frans Hals und seine Schule_ (Leipzig,
1871); W. Unger and W. Vosmaer, _Etchings after Frans Hals_ (Leyden,
1873); Percy Rendell Head, _Sir Anthony Van Dyck and Frans Hals_
(London, 1879); D. Knackfuss, _Frans Hals_ (Leipzig, 1896); G. S.
Davies, _Frans Hals_ (London, 1902). (P. G. K.)
HALSBURY, HARDINGE STANLEY GIFFARD, 1ST EARL OF (1825- ), English lord
chancellor, son of Stanley Lees Giffard, LL.D., was born in London on
the 3rd of September 1825. He was educated at Merton College, Oxford,
and was called to the bar at the Inner Temple in 1850, joining the North
Wales and Chester circuit. Afterwards he had a large practice at the
central criminal court and the Middlesex sessions, and he was for
several years junior prosecuting counsel to the treasury. He was engaged
in most of the celebrated trials of his time, including the Overend and
Gurney and the Tichborne cases. He became queen's counsel in 1865, and a
bencher of the Inner Temple. Mr Giffard twice contested Cardiff in the
Conservative interest, in 1868 and 1874, but he was still without a seat
in the House of Commons when he was appointed solicitor-general by
Disraeli in 1875 and received the honour of knighthood. In 1877 he
succeeded in obtaining a seat, when he was returned for Launceston,
which borough he continued to represent until his elevation to the
peerage in 1885. He was then created Baron Halsbury and appointed lord
chancellor, thus forming a remarkable exception to the rule that no
criminal lawyer ever reaches the woolsack. Lord Halsbury resumed the
position in 1886 and held it until 1892 and again from 1895 to 1905, his
tenure of the office, broken only by the brief Liberal ministries of
1886 and 1892-1895, being longer than that of any lord chancellor since
Lord Eldon. In 1898 he was created earl of Halsbury and Viscount
Tiverton. Among Conservative lord chancellors Lord Halsbury must always
hold a high place, his grasp of legal principles and mastery in applying
them being pre-eminent among the judges of his day.
HALSTEAD, a market-town in the Maldon parliamentary division of Essex,
England, on the Colne, 17 m. N.N.E. from Chelmsford; served by the Colne
Valley railway from Chappel Junction on the Great Eastern railway. Pop.
of urban district (1901), 6073. It lies on a hill in a pleasant wooded
district. The church of St Andrew is mainly Perpendicular. It contains a
monument supposed to commemorate Sir Robert Bourchier (d. 1349), lord
chancellor to Edward III. The Lady Mary Ramsay grammar school dates from
1594. There are large silk and crape works. Two miles N. of Halstead is
Little Maplestead, where the church is the latest in date of the four
churches with round naves extant in England, being perhaps of
12th-century foundation, but showing early Decorated work in the main.
The chancel, which is without aisles, terminates in an apse. Three
miles N.W. from Halstead are the large villages of Sible Hedingham (pop.
1701) and Castle Hedingham (pop. 1097). At the second is the Norman keep
of the de Veres, of whom Aubrey de Vere held the lordship from William
I. The keep dates from the end of the 11th century, and exhibits much
fine Norman work. The church of St Nicholas, Castle Hedingham, has fine
Norman, Transitional and Early English details, and there is a black
marble tomb of John de Vere, 15th earl of Oxford (d. 1540), with his
countess.
There are signs of settlement at Halstead (Halsteda, Halgusted, Halsted)
in the Bronze Age; but there is no evidence of the causes of its growth
in historic times. Probably its situation on the river Colne made it to
some extent a local centre. Throughout the middle ages Halstead was
unimportant, and never rose to the rank of a borough.
HALT. (1) An adjective common to Teutonic languages and still appearing
in Swedish and Danish, meaning lame, crippled. It is also used as a
verb, meaning to limp, and as a substantive, especially in the term
"string-halt" or "spring-halt," a nervous disorder affecting the muscles
of the hind legs of horses. (2) A pause or stoppage made on a march or a
journey. The word came into English in the form "to make alto" or "alt,"
and was taken from the French _faire alte_ or Italian _far alto_. The
origin is a German military term, _Halt machen_, _Halt_ meaning "hold."
HALUNTIUM (Gr. [Greek: Alontion], mod. S. Marco d'Alunzio), an ancient
city of Sicily, 6 m. from the north coast and 25 m. E.N.E. of Halaesa.
It was probably of Sicel origin, though its foundation was ascribed to
some of the companions of Aeneas. It appears first in Roman times as a
place of some importance, and suffered considerably at the hands of
Verres. The abandoned church of S. Mark, just outside the modern town,
is built into the cella of an ancient Greek temple, which measures 62
ft. by 18. A number of ancient inscriptions have been found there.
HALYBURTON, JAMES (1518-1589), Scottish reformer, was born in 1518, and
was educated at St Andrews, where he graduated M.A. in 1538. From 1553
to 1586 he was provost of St Andrews and a prominent figure in the
national life. He was chosen as one of the lords of the congregation in
1557, and commanded the contingents sent by Forfar and Fife against the
queen regent in 1559. He took part in the defence of Edinburgh, and in
the battles of Langside (1568) and Restalrig (1571). He had stoutly
opposed the marriage of Mary with Darnley, and when, after Restalrig, he
was captured by the queen's troops, he narrowly escaped execution. He
represented Morton at the conference of 1578, and was one of the royal
commissioners to the General Assembly in 1582 and again in 1588. He died
in February 1589.
HALYBURTON, THOMAS (1674-1712), Scottish divine, was born at Dupplin,
near Perth, on the 25th of December 1674. His father, one of the ejected
ministers, having died in 1682, he was taken by his mother in 1685 to
Rotterdam to escape persecution, where he for some time attended the
school founded by Erasmus. On his return to his native country in 1687
he completed his elementary education at Perth and Edinburgh, and in
1696 graduated at the university of St Andrews. In 1700 he was ordained
minister of the parish of Ceres, and in 1710 he was recommended by the
synod of Fife for the chair of theology in St Leonard's College, St
Andrews, to which accordingly he was appointed by Queen Anne. After a
brief term of active professorial life he died from the effects of
overwork in 1712.
The works by which he continues to be known were all of them published
after his death. Wesley and Whitefield were accustomed to commend them
to their followers. They were published as follows: _Natural Religion
Insufficient, and Revealed Religion Necessary, to Man's Happiness in
his Present State_ (1714), an able statement of the orthodox
Calvinistic criticism of the deism of Lord Herbert of Cherbury and
Charles Blount; _Memoirs of the Life of Mr Thomas Halyburton_ (1715),
three parts by his own hand, the fourth from his diary by another
hand; _The Great Concern of Salvation_ (1721), with a word of
commendation by I. Watts; _Ten Sermons Preached Before and After the
Lord's Supper_ (1722); _The Unpardonable Sin Against the Holy Ghost_
(1784). See Halyburton's _Memoirs_ (1714).
HAM, in the Bible. (1) [Hebrew: Ham], _Ham_, in Gen. v. 32, vi. 10, vii.
13, ix. 18, x. 5, 1 Chron. i. 4, the _second_ son of Noah; in Gen. ix.
24, the _youngest_ son (but cf. below); and in Gen. x. 6, 1 Chron. i. 8,
the father of Cush (Ethiopia), Mizraim (Egypt), Phut and Canaan. Genesis
x. exhibits in the form of genealogies the political, racial and
geographical relations of the peoples known to Israel; as it was
compiled from various sources and has been more than once edited, it
does not exactly represent the situation at any given date,[1] but Ham
seems to stand roughly for the south-western division of the world as
known to Israel, which division was regarded as the natural sphere of
influence of Egypt. Ham is held to be the Egyptian word _Khem_ (black)
which was the native name of Egypt; thus in Pss. lxxviii. 51, cv. 23,
27, cvi. 22, Ham = Egypt. In Gen. ix. 20-26 Canaan was originally the
third son of Noah and the villain of the story. Ham is a later addition
to harmonize with other passages.
(2) [Hebrew: Ham], _Ham_, 1 Chron. iv. 40, apparently the name of a
place or tribe. It can hardly be identical with (1); nothing else is
known of this second Ham, which may be a scribe's error; the Syriac
version rejects the name.
(3) [Hebrew: Ham], _Ham_, Gen. xiv. 5; the place where Chedorlaomer
defeated the Zuzim, apparently in eastern Palestine. The place is
unknown, and the name may be a scribe's error, perhaps for Ammon. (W. H.
Be.)