WOOD FINISHING
=69. Filling.=--(=A.=) After wood has been smoothed and made ready to
receive the finish, it is prepared by _filling_, by which is meant
the process of filling the grain so that the finish itself will not
soak in. This, if well done, makes it possible to do as good a job of
finishing with two or three coats as could be done on some kinds of
wood with from five to eight coats without the filling. Open-grained
woods, such as oak, ash, etc., especially need filling, as before the
process of filling was discovered, the open grain, or cellular part of
the wood, had to be filled by shellac, or other expensive material,
before there was a surface suitable to receive the polish. (=B.=)
There are two forms of filler--_the paste_, which is for use upon
open-grained woods, and _the liquid_, which is adapted to filling the
pores of close-grained woods like pine, poplar, cherry, etc., and which
takes the place of one coat of the more expensive shellac or other
finish. The paste may be purchased ready-made, and colored to suit the
taste, or it may be made by using whiting, silex, or corn starch, and
any dry colors necessary to secure the desired stain. The ingredients
should be well ground, and thoroughly mixed with boiled linseed oil to
a thick paste; to this should be added as much japan drier as there
is of the oil, or one quarter as much as there is of the paste. The
whole may then be thinned with turpentine, benzine, or gasolene to
a consistency which will allow it to be spread easily, but it should
still be quite thick.
(=C.=) Filler need not be spread very smoothly, but the surface of
the wood must be covered, and the filling thoroughly worked into the
grain. After this has been done, the wood should be allowed to stand
a few minutes, until the filler has become dull or powdery, and seems
to stick to the wood if rubbed lightly with the finger, when it should
be rubbed off with shavings or excelsior, rubbing across the grain
wherever possible. Do not use cloth until cleaning up after the filler
is all off, as it is more apt to take the filling out of the grain than
either excelsior or shavings. The corners should be cleaned out with a
sharp stick, after which the work should stand for several hours, or
over night, before the finish is applied, as otherwise the moisture in
the filler may cause the finish to bubble. Care should be used that
the filling does not stand too long before rubbing off, or it will be
very difficult to remove it; hence, it is best not to spread any more
than can be cleaned off before it gets too hard. Be sure that there
is enough filling mixed to do the job before any is applied, as it is
difficult to match colors.
(=D.=) Liquid filling should be spread as smoothly and as evenly as
possible, as the laps will be apt to show through the finish which is
spread over it.
=70. Staining wood= (=A.=) is for the purpose of imparting some other
than the natural color to the wood.
(=B.=) In finishing open-grained woods, a stain often is used which
will color the wood before it is filled, though upon general work, it
is the custom to color the stain only. This does not make the work all
of one color, as the cells of the wood will retain more filling than
will the harder part of the grain. By this method the quarter grain
may be made more prominent. If an open-grained wood is being treated,
it should be filled after being stained. Close-grained woods are ready
for the finish as soon as the stain has dried. Stains which will do the
work satisfactorily may be made of various chemicals. There are also
many satisfactory stains upon the market, which can be purchased in as
small packages as desired, offering the student a large range of colors
from which to select.
(=C.=) Stains for close-grained woods may be made by mixing dry colors
with turpentine or benzine, and a little boiled oil and japan to bind
the color. These stains should be applied the same as the filler, but
not allowed to become so hard before cleaning off, or there will be
light places rubbed in the finish. The rubbing or cleaning off should
be done with a soft cloth, care being used that there are no places
left uncleaned, especially in the corners, as the finish will make them
muddy.
(=D.=) A very good _old cherry_ stain may be made by mixing Venetian
red and rose pink until the desired shade is produced.
(=E.=) _Black walnut_ may be imitated by mixing burnt umber with
turpentine, oil, and japan, and if a reddish tinge is desired, a little
burnt sienna may be added; this is a much better color than can be
produced by umber alone. Asphaltum, thinned to the desired color, makes
a good walnut stain.
(=F.=) Many of the best stains are mixed with water as a vehicle, as
a depth and brilliancy of color may be obtained which is impossible
with any stain that has oil in it. The objection to using water is that
the grain of the wood is lifted by the moisture, and has to be sanded
smooth before it can be finished. Even with this serious objection,
water stains are used extensively upon the best work.
(=G.=) The rich mahogany stain which is so much admired may be made
by mixing the same colors as mentioned in (=D.=), and adding carmine
until the desired color is obtained. An oil stain will not give the
best results, therefore a water stain should be used, with a piece of
gum arabic about twice the size of a pea dissolved in a pint or less of
the stain for a binder, or about the same proportion of mucilage. This
stain should be cleaned off the same as the oil stain above described.
(=H.=) Cherry may be darkened by applying nitric acid; other woods may
be darkened or aged by using ammonia, potash, or a strong solution of
tobacco or coffee. Nitrate of silver, if exposed to the sunlight, gives
a beautiful brown.
(=I.=) A rich brown may be produced by using equal parts of
permanganate of potash and sulphate of magnesia, dissolved in water; as
many coats as desired may be applied, sanding with number 00 sandpaper
between the coats. Better results are obtained if the stain is applied
hot.
(=J.=) A beautiful green of any intensity may be produced by mixing
verdigris and indigo in hot vinegar, and applying hot. Several coats
may be necessary, sanding between the coats. The indigo should be used
cautiously, or the green may have too much of a bluish cast.
(=K.=) A rich brownish black may be obtained by using a solution of
logwood (pulverized) and sulphate of iron, applied in coats in the
order named. Each solution should be hot.
(=L.=) _Ebony_ may be obtained by giving any close-grained wood, cherry
preferred, a coat of sulphate of iron, using a weak solution, and after
that has dried and been sanded, a coat of solution of nutgalls. If
the iron is too strong, a white efflorescence will appear, which in
open-grained woods will bring out the grain in strong relief. If this
is objectionable, the grain should be filled with a black filler.
(=M.=) _Shellac_ (see =71, A.=) and boneblack, if well mixed, make
an ebony finish which is often used upon common work; black varnish
sometimes is used the same as black shellac, but for the best work
these are not satisfactory, as they do not strike into the wood to the
same extent as do acid, turpentine, or water stain.
=71. Shellac.=--(=A.=) This is a product of Africa and South America.
It is the combination of a secretion of the female of a small insect
and the sap of a tree, in the bark of which the insect deposits its
eggs. The gum thus formed is gathered, and after passing through
various refining processes becomes the shellac known to commerce. It
is cut or dissolved by either wood or grain alcohol, when it is ready
for use. Some of the best furniture is finished with shellac, and
unless continuously exposed to moisture or hard usage, the finish is
practically everlasting.
(=B.=) Shellac finish does not crack as varnish is liable to, neither
does its luster dim by exposure to the various gases present in every
house, which are due to domestic causes, though most varnishes will do
this after some years.
Upon ordinary work, two coats of shellac may be satisfactory, though
three coats generally will improve the work sufficiently to make it
advisable to apply the extra coat. Shellac should not be laid in too
thick coats, or it will pit badly in drying, and make work in rubbing
to a surface, which can be avoided if moderately thin coats are spread,
though perhaps the greatest advantage in laying thin coats is that
the wood may be covered more evenly, and there will be fewer runs and
laps visible. Shellac should always be laid with quick strokes, never
working over a place already covered; for this work, use a brush as
large as possible to do the work without clumsiness.
(=C.=) In applying shellac finish, one coat is laid upon the other,
each coat being rubbed down with number 00 sandpaper, or with
pulverized pumice stone before the next coat is spread. For this
purpose, a sheet of sandpaper should be cut into eighths, and one of
these pieces folded in the center of its long dimension, and held in
the hand as shown in Fig. 99, which keeps its edges from scratching the
surface. If it is desired to rub the shellac down to a surface with
pumice stone, it should be applied with hair-cloth, or with harness
maker’s felt, moistened with oil or water; but for ordinary work,
sandpaper will give satisfaction, and as it is more convenient, it is
much used.
If the best results are desired, the last coat should be rubbed with
pumice stone and sweet oil, applied as above, though boiled oil is
satisfactory; and for ordinary work, number 00 sandpaper is used,
though it is liable to show scratches. After the rubbing is done, the
oil should be wiped off with a soft rag, and very fine rotten stone
dusted on and polished with a clean, soft cloth. Many finishers use the
palm of the hand in putting on the finishing touches. If a dead, or
mat, finish is desired, the final rubbing should be done with water,
used sparingly, as oil imparts a high gloss, if the work is well done.
(=D.=) Care should be used on any kind of work upon which waste or oily
rags are used; these rags should be gathered and burned unless they are
wanted again soon, in which case they may be spread out separately;
since, if crushed together and thrown, as they often are, into a waste
box, they furnish the necessary conditions for a case of spontaneous
combustion.
[Illustration: FIG. 99.--METHOD OF GRASPING SANDPAPER IN RUBBING DOWN
SHELLAC FINISH.]
(=E.=) The gloss upon dried shellac and varnishes of all kinds is
very showy, and lacks the finish and the texture of a rubbed finish.
Moreover, any dust settling upon moist varnish is held, giving the
surface an effect of countless minute points; rubbing removes these,
and gives the smooth, glossy surface desired upon most work. Upon the
most artistic furniture, a gloss, which is the result of a built-up
polish, is not considered good taste; the use of muscle and a very
little oil, applied at intervals during a term of years, gives a polish
and a beauty which can be obtained by no other method, and it is to
attain this ideal in a few days that so many varieties of finish exist.
(=F.=) In rubbing, be sure that the corners are not rubbed through, as
the pressure will naturally be more upon the corners than upon a broad
surface. This may be avoided by using care that the pressure is not
applied so as to bear on the corner; grasp the rubbing material in such
a way that no loose edges will be beyond control, as in Fig. 99, or the
finish may be badly scratched; this applies especially to the corners.
The rubbing should always be in the direction parallel with the grain
of the wood.
(=G.=) If the finish is rubbed through to the wood, it may be
repolished or patched by sandpapering the bare wood with fine
sandpaper, and staining it to bring it to the same condition as the
rest of the wood before the first coat of finish was applied. Using
the same finishing material as the finish of the rest of the piece,
lay a very thin coat, a little larger than the place to be patched,
being careful to avoid a ridge at the edge of the patch. This ridge may
be drawn out by a small camel’s-hair brush, and the patch left until
thoroughly dried; then apply another patch a little larger than the
first one, treating the edge as in the first patch. Continue this until
the finish is built up to the same thickness as that of which it is
a part. This should be rubbed very carefully to bring it to the same
finish as the rest of the surface, using care not to rub through the
old finish at the edge of the patch. As it is the corners which are
most liable to be rubbed through, this process will not generally be
difficult of application; all that is necessary to secure a successful
patch is to use care at each step, and not to hurry the drying of the
different patches.
=72. Wax finishing= is a good method of finishing any kind of hard
or dark-colored wood; (=A.=) it does not give as satisfactory
results, however, as do some other methods of finishing, upon soft
or light-colored wood. There are a number of different kinds of wax
finishes which can be purchased in almost any desired quantity, (=B.=)
but an economical and satisfactory wax finish may be made by dissolving
as much pulverized resin as may be picked up on a cent in a half pint
of turpentine or gasolene heated in a water or steam double vessel.
After this is clear, cut up and add a piece of beeswax as large as a
thimble, and allow the finish to simmer slowly, until it is clear, when
it is ready for use. This may be mixed in larger quantities by using
the same proportions. If placed in an air-tight vessel, it will keep
indefinitely.
(=C.=) This finish should be applied hot, with a brush, as smoothly and
as evenly as possible, and allowed to stand until it has become quite
hard, when it should be polished with a soft rag which is free from
lint. As many coats as desired may be applied, each coat being treated
in the same way, and adding to the beauty of the finish. Another method
of applying this finish, and which gives satisfactory results upon
broad surfaces, is to make a pad of a rag, and rub the wax on the wood,
rubbing until it is dry. This is not as satisfactory as it is to use a
brush upon work where there are many corners to finish around.
One of the advantages of this wax finish is that it may be brightened
if it becomes dim by going over it with a soft cloth, or it may be
renewed and improved by another coat at slight expense and little
trouble.
This is also a satisfactory method of finishing a dark floor made of a
wood which will not splinter when it is rubbed.
=73.= (=A.=) =Oil finish= is perhaps the most simple way to finish
a piece of furniture; it is best adapted to hard, dark woods. The
material is made by mixing a quarter of a pint of turpentine with seven
eighths of a quart of boiled linseed oil. It should be spread evenly
over the surface to be finished, and should stand until as much of it
as will, has soaked into the wood, when the surface should be brought
to a finish by rubbing. This will require muscle, as the finish should
stand about ten hours, during which time a thin film or skin will form,
which must be removed by rubbing. Only a soft rag, free from lint,
should be used, and be sure that the folds of the cloth do not leave
their marks upon the surface. Rub with the grain.
(=B.=) Oil finish is a very durable finish, easily taken care of, and
is used to some extent in finishing the most artistic furniture, being
especially adapted to finishing mahogany. It has a character peculiarly
its own, and exposure to moisture and heat affects it less than almost
any other form of finish. As it should be occasionally oiled, it
improves with age and care. This finish was used in olden times, and
the care of generations gives a polish attainable by no other method.
=74. Varnish= forms the finish which is used most commonly upon all
grades and kinds of work. (=A.=) The different grades are made of
various vegetable gums and resins, cut in turpentine and mixed with
boiled oil. A cheap grade of varnish or hard oil may be made by boiling
resin, turpentine, and boiled oil together. Other gums may be treated
the same way; the varnish used upon the best work, for instance, is
made from copal, a vegetable product of the tropics. By a very careful
process of boiling, straining, and ripening, extending over months,
copal is made into the product which is used so extensively upon
furniture finishing, carriages, etc.
(=B.=) Varnish should be applied in a room heated to about 80° F., the
dust should be laid by sprinkling, and there should be no drafts of
air, nor flies or other insects to light upon it, if the best results
are desired.
(=C.=) In flowing varnish, instead of laying a thin coat as in shellac,
a thick coat should be applied. This may be done by using a thick,
heavy brush; some prefer a heavy, round brush, and others think they
can obtain the best results from a broad, flat brush. The finer the
hairs, the better the results obtained.
The brush must be taken up full of varnish, enough to cover the entire
surface, if possible, and spread or flowed very quickly. The brush
should then be wiped out in the varnish pot. With the brush thus dried,
go over the surface, picking up all that the brush will absorb; wipe
this out in the pot, and repeat the operation until nothing is left but
a thin film of varnish. If this is done properly, it will prevent all
runs and streaks which result from unskillful workmanship.
When this coat is thoroughly dried, rub with number 00 sandpaper,
pulverized pumice stone, or a smooth block of pumice stone (carriage
painter’s method), and repeat the process until the desired body of
varnish is obtained. Rub down last coat with oil and polish. Allow as
much time between last coats as possible, as the harder the varnish is,
the better and more durable the work will be when completed.
=75. Polishing.=--This term applies to the process by which a polish
is built up by rubbing, or “ragging” as workmen sometimes call it. The
piece to be polished should receive two or three coats of shellac or
varnish, which should be rubbed down to a surface, when it is ready for
the polish.
To make a pad of convenient size for polishing, fold a piece of old,
soft cloth, free from lint, and fill it with cotton waste; or the end
of a roll of cloth may be covered by the piece which is to do the
actual polishing. Provide a cup of moderately thin shellac and another
of boiled oil, of which about one quarter is turpentine; or better, a
cup of sweet oil without turpentine. Dip the pad into the oil and allow
it to soak in completely, then do the same with the shellac. Now dip
the pad again into the shellac, and with the finger put on a single
drop of oil, and rub lightly upon the work, with a circular motion,
or if the work is large enough, the stroke may be longer. If the work
is done with a straight stroke, do not stop at the end of the stroke,
as the instant between the end of one stroke and the beginning of the
return may be enough to allow the shellac to stick and make a hole
in the surface, which will be difficult to repair; begin and end the
stroke with a sweeping motion. The idea of this method of polishing is
to bring the shellac to a polish, using as little oil as possible for
lubricating, as the less oil used, the better will be the polish.
=76. Brushes.=--(=A.=) If brushes are to be used for stain or for
filling, a cheap brush of any suitable size will do, a flat brush being
preferred upon ordinary work. For shellac and varnish, the finer the
brush, the better the results usually obtained. Ordinarily it is the
best practice to use as large a brush as the nature of the work will
permit, as it will hold more, and cover more surface, than a smaller
brush, and have fewer “laps.” Chisel-pointed, flat brushes, from 1½” to
2½” in width, will be found satisfactory for the work of schools and
amateurs, but upon professional work, brushes from 3½” to 5” often are
used.
(=B.=) The care of the brushes is an important part of the work of
those who use them, as neglect or carelessness may destroy a valuable
brush overnight. Unless a brush is going to be used again the next day,
it is always best to clean it thoroughly. If a stain, filling, paint,
or varnish brush, use gasolene or turpentine, but if a shellac brush,
use wood alcohol, cleaning off all the small particles. To obtain the
best results, all brushes should be washed in hot, soapy water, and
afterward rinsed in clean water; in general, however, this latter
precaution may be dispensed with, unless the brushes are to be laid
away indefinitely. Unless the above precautions have been taken, care
should be taken that shellac and varnish brushes are not changed from
one to the other. Never allow a brush to stand on its side for more
than a few minutes at a time, as a wrong direction is easily given
the bristles, and the brushes may be quickly destroyed by a little
carelessness or negligence.
Old brushes, well broken in and cared for, will give better results
than new brushes; therefore they should be treated with every possible
consideration.
Varnish brushes often are left in the varnish pot, and if they are hung
up so that they will not rest upon their bristles, this is the best way
to keep them when they are in almost constant daily use.
SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES
69. Why is wood filler used? Describe paste filler. Describe the
process of spreading filler and of rubbing it off. Describe liquid
filler and the process of spreading it.
70. Why do we stain wood? What is the difference in the results
of staining and filling and of filling alone? How may stains for
open-grained woods be mixed and used? Describe a simple cherry or
mahogany stain. Describe black walnut stain. What is the objection to
a water stain? How may a rich mahogany stain be mixed? How may woods
be darkened? Describe the composition of a rich brown stain; of a
good green stain; of a brownish black. Describe ebonizing. For what
purposes are shellac and lampblack and black varnish used?
71. Of what does shellac finish consist? What is the source of supply
of shellac? Compare shellac and copal varnish. Demonstrate the
application of shellac. Are thin or thick coats of shellac the better?
Why is rubbing down necessary? Demonstrate. What precautions should be
taken in regard to oily rags? Why? What should be guarded against in
rubbing? What is a convenient size for a piece of sandpaper? Describe
and demonstrate patching.
72. Describe the preparation of wax finish. Describe and demonstrate
two methods of applying wax finish.
73. Describe oil finish and its application. Describe its qualities.
74. Describe briefly the manufacture of varnish. Describe ideal
conditions for flowing varnish. Describe and demonstrate the method of
flowing varnish.
75. Describe and demonstrate the process of polishing.
76. Describe the kinds of brushes suitable for different kinds of
work. How should brushes be cleaned? What should be the general
treatment of a brush? How may varnish brushes be kept ready for use?
INDEX
Age of tree, 2.
Alburnum, _see_ Sapwood.
Annual layer, formation of, 1, 2, 3;
covering over breaks, 9, 10;
in quarter-sawed lumber, 23;
shrinking around, 48.
Apple wood, description of, 29.
Arkansas stone, 106.
Ash, description of, 28.
Auger, cross-handled, 91.
Auger bit, described, 91;
filing of, 92, 93.
Axe, hand, described, 66.
Backsaw, described, 69.
Balsam fir, illustrated, 43.
Band saw, 19.
Bark, of tree trunk, 4, 5, 6.
Basswood (or linden), description of, 29.
Bast, of tree trunk, 4, 5, 6.
Bastard sawing, 22.
Beech, description of, 30, 31.
Bell-faced hammer, described, 65.
Benches, types of, described, 57-59.
Bevel, described, 62.
Bill stuff, sawing of, 22.
Birch, description of, 30, 32.
Bird’s-eye maple, description of, 36.
Bitbrace, or stock, described, 93;
ratchet, described, 94.
Bits, described, 90.
Black walnut, _see_ Walnut.
Black walnut stain, 130.
Blemishes, in grading lumber, 23, 24.
Blind nailing, described, 66.
Block plane, description and use of, 84.
Boards, sawing of, to dimension, 20;
surveying or estimating of, 25;
measuring of, 26;
for siding, 28;
piling of, 48, 49.
Brushes, for gluing, 120;
for staining and filling, 140.
Burnisher, use of, in sharpening scraper, 97-100.
Butternut (or white walnut), description of, 32.
Buttonwood, _see_ Sycamore.
Cable, hauling logs by, 15.
Calipers, described, 95.
Cam, of plane, 73, 75.
Cambium, of tree trunk, 4, 5, 6.
Canoe birch, 32.
Cap iron, of plane, use of, 74.
Cap screw, of plane, use of, 73, 75.
Carborundum, as grindstone, 106;
as oilstone, 107.
Carpenter’s bench, 57, 58.
Cedar, description of, 32.
Cellular grain of wood, 2.
Center bit, described, 92.
Checking, or cracking, of lumber, 6, 8.
Cherry, description of, 32;
stain, 130;
how to darken, 131.
Chestnut, description of, 33.
Chisels, described, 88.
Circular saw, 19, 20.
Claw hammer, described, 64.
Clefts, or splits, 9.
Close-grained woods, filling of, 128;
staining of, 130.
Coarse-grained lumber, 8.
Color of wood, 2, 25.
Comb-grained lumber, 23.
Common boards, grading of, 26;
measuring of, 26.
Compass (or keyhole) saw, described, 68;
filing of, 113.
Compasses, or dividers, described, 95.
Coniferous trees, 2, 3.
Corundum, as grindstone, 106;
as oilstone, 107.
Cross-grained lumber, 8.
Culls, 24.
Cup shakes, 7, 8.
Cutting-off saw, described, 68;
filing of, 111.
Cypress, description of, 33.
Decay of tree, how prevented, 25.
Deciduous trees, 2.
Defects in lumber, 7-10.
Dimension timber, sawing of, 20, 22.
Discolorations in lumber, 9, 24.
Dividers, _see_ Compasses.
Drawshave, described, 90.
Duramen, _see_ Heartwood.
Ebony stain, 132.
Edge, squaring an, with try-square, 60, 61.
Edges, square and beveled, 97.
Elm, description of, 34.
Emery, as grindstone, 106;
as oilstone, 107.
Emery wheel, use of, in sharpening a plane, 77.
Endogenous trees, 1.
Estimating lumber, 25.
Exogenous trees, 1.
Extension bit, described, 92.
Files, description and use of, 108-113.
Filler, how to make, 128;
how to spread, 129.
Fine-grained lumber, 8.
Finishing woods, 128-141.
Flooring, best grades of, 23, 28.
Framing, lumber for, 27, 28, 50.
Framing square, 62.
Gauge, description and use of, 63, 64.
German bit, described, 92.
Glue, different kinds of, 118;
testing of, 119;
how to use, 120-122.
Gouges, described, 90.
Grading of lumber, 23.
Grain of woods, cause of, 1, 2, 6, 7;
kinds of, 8.
_See also_ Close-grained, etc.
Grindstone, use of, in sharpening a plane, 77;
described, 105.
Ground glue, 118.
Gum (sweet gum), description of, 34.
Hammer, described, 63.
Handscrews, use of, 103-105, 122.
Hard wood, cause of, 1, 2.
Hatchet, described, 66.
Hemlock, description of, 35.
Heart shakes, 7, 8.
Heartwood, formation of, 3, 4, 5.
Hickory, description of, 35.
Insects, injurious to trees, 10, 25.
Inside finish, lumber for, 28.
Jack plane, described, 81;
use of, 86-88.
Jointer, described, 82.
Jointing a saw, 109.
Joists or scantling, surveying of, 26.
Keyhole saw, _see_ Compass saw.
Kiln, filling a, 53;
length of time lumber should be left in, 54.
Kiln-dried lumber, 28, 50-54.
Kilns, moist air, 50;
induced draft, 52.
Knife blades, described, 72.
Linden, _see_ Basswood.
Liquid filler, 128.
Locust, description of, 35.
Logging, 12-19.
Lumber, unseasoned, 3;
checking, or cracking of, 6;
defects in, 7, 8;
grain of, 1, 2, 6, 7, 8;
when to cut, 10;
manufacture of, 12-23;
grading of, 23, 24;
testing of, 24, 25;
surveying or estimating of, 25-27;
piling of, 45-49;
weather-dried, 49;
kiln-dried, 50-54.
_See also_ special subjects.
Lumbering, processes of, 12.
Mahogany, description of, 36;
sanding of, 126;
stain, 131.
Mallets, described, 67.
Manual-training bench, 57, 58.
Maple, description of, 35;
sugar maple, illustrated, 31.
Medullary rays, 4, 5, 6;
sawing woods having, 22.
Moist air, or natural draft, kilns, 50.
Moisture, in lumber, 4.
Moldings, sandpapering of, 125.
Monkey wrench, 103.
Nail set, use of, 66, 102;
burnisher made from, 99.
Nailing, described, 65, 66.
Nippers, described, 95.
Oak, tree trunk, section of, 5;
plain and quartered, 5;
description of, 36.
Odor of wood, 2, 25.
Oil finish, 137.
Oilstones, artificial, use of, 107.
Open-grained woods, filling of, 128;
staining of, 129.
“Out of wind,” 60, 61.
Outside finish, lumber for, 27, 28.
Panel work, sandpapering, 126.
Paper birch, 32.
Paste filler, 128.
Piling of lumber, 45-49.
Pine, yellow, section of, 2;
description of different varieties of, 36.
Pine logs, load of white, 14.
Pith, of tree trunk, 4, 5.
Plain sawing, 22.
Plane, adjusting mechanism of, 73-75;
other parts of, 75, 76;
sharpening a, 76-81.
Planes, description and use of, 72-88.
Pliers, described, 95.
Polishing, 139.
Poplar (or whitewood), description of, 40.
Position, in using tools, 85.
Preserving wood, 55.
Prices, sliding scale of, 26.
Quarter-sawed lumber, 22, 23, 48.
Ratchet bitbrace, described, 94.
Ratchet screwdrivers, described, 94.
Redwood, description of, 40.
Rift-sawed lumber, 23.
Ripsaw, described, 67;
filing of, 112.
Rule, use of, in setting gauge, 63.
Rules, fourfold and zigzag, described, 59.
Sandpaper, testing of, 122;
how to use, 123-127.
_See also_ Finishing.
Sap, motion of, 3;
allowed, in grading lumber, 23.
Sapwood, formation of, 3, 4, 5.
Saw filing, described, 109-113.
Saw handle, reset, 72.
Saw set, hand and anvil, described, 110.
Sawing of lumber, 12, 18-23.
Sawmills, types of, 18.
Saws, description and use of, 67-72.
Scale used in measuring lumber, 26, 27.
Scraper, description of, 96;
sharpening of, 97-102.
Scratch plane, for use in gluing, 121.
Screwdriver, described, 94.
Shellac, use of, 132-136.
Shingles, quality of, 28.
Shrinking of lumber, quarter-sawed, 23, 48.
Silver grain, 5, 6, 22.
Skidways, use of, 13-17.
Slash sawing, 22.
Slip stones, use of, 107.
Smoothing plane, described, 82.
Soft wood, cause of, 1, 2.
Spokeshave, described, 90.
Spruce, cutting of, 13, 14 (figs. 5, 6);
description of, 40.
Staining wood, 129-132.
Star shakes, 7, 8, 48.
Steaming wood, 55.
Steel, or framing, square, 62.
Stock, _see_ Bitbrace.
Straight-grained lumber, 8.
Stumpage, explanation of, 13.
Sugar maple forest, 31.
Surveying of lumber, 25.
Sycamore (or buttonwood), description of, 42.
Tacking, described, 65.
Testing of lumber, 24.
Timbers to be buried, quality of, 28.
Toenailing, described, 65.
Tools, how to purchase, 57;
description and use of, 57-108.
Travoy road, 13, 15.
Tree trunk, tissues of, 4.
Trees, kinds of, used for lumber, 1, 2;
annual layer of, 1;
grain of, 1, 2, 6, 7, 8;
age of, 2;
defects in, 8-10;
when to cut, 10;
felling of, 12-15;
decay of, 25.
_See also_ special subjects.
Try-square, description and use of, 59-62, 71.
Twist drill, described, 92.
Varnish, 137.
Vertical-grained lumber, 23.
Vises, on benches, 59.
Walnut, black, description of, 42;
white, _see_ Butternut.
Walnut stain, black, 130.
Warping of lumber, 48.
Washita stone, 106.
Waste, care in use of, 134.
Wax finishing, 136.
Ways, permanent lumber, 45.
Weather-dried lumber, 12, 28, 49.
Whetstones, description and use of, 106.
Whetting and grinding of plane, 77-80.
Whitewood, _see_ Poplar.
Wind shakes, or cup shakes, 7, 8.
Winding sticks, 61.
Wood, growth of, 1-11;
grain of, 1, 2;
color of, 2, 4;
odor of, 2;
soft and hard, 1, 2;
qualities of, 27-29;
varieties of, 29-42;
steaming, 55;
preserving, 55;
filling grain of, 128;
staining, 129.
_See also_ special subjects.
Wrenches, described, 103.
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
By JOHN M. GILLETTE, Professor of Sociology in the State University of
North Dakota
$1.00
In this volume is presented for teachers, superintendents, and
teachers’ reading circles an illuminating discussion of the present
general movement for vocational education. By this phrase is meant not
only industrial education; but all the training courses needed to meet
the practical demands of life.
¶ The author explains at some length the principles, demands, and
methods of vocational education; he states the grounds upon which hopes
of success may reasonably rest; he indicates some actual results gained
by schools conducted on more practical lines; and he points out others
which would follow upon the reorganization of our educational system in
general.
¶ The vocationalizing of the schools has regard to the constitution,
inclination and ability of the individual, and is intended to give
him suitable training for his niche in life, to show him how he can
make the most of himself and in what line he can prove himself most
productive to society. At the same time, this scheme of education
does not ignore the informational, the cultural, and the disciplinary
aspects--it insists that the individual be fitted for good citizenship.
¶ The introduction of vocational education into the public school
system of the United States, with the curriculum adapted to the chief
kinds of occupation belonging to each community, will mean greater
development and power for the country. From vocational education,
introduced to meet the differing community needs, will result greater
efficiency and better appreciation of the schools, increased attendance
of pupils, greater compensation for teachers, greater productiveness,
higher wages, and improved society.
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
AN ELEMENTARY TEXT-BOOK OF THEORETICAL MECHANICS
By GEORGE A. MERRILL, B.S., Principal of the California School of
Mechanical Arts, and Director of the Wilmerding School of Industrial
Arts, San Francisco
$1.50
MERRILL’S MECHANICS is intended for the upper classes in secondary
schools, and for the two lower classes in college. Only a knowledge of
elementary algebra, plane geometry, and plane trigonometry is required
for a thorough comprehension of the work.
¶ By presenting only the most important principles and methods, the
book overcomes many of the difficulties now encountered by students in
collegiate courses who take up the study of analytic mechanics, without
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subject without the use of the calculus, and consequently does not
bewilder the beginner with much algebraic matter, which obscures the
chief principles.
¶ The book is written from the standpoint of the student in the
manner that experience has proved to be the one most easily grasped.
Therefore, beyond a constant endeavor to abide by the fundamental
precepts of teaching, no one method of presentation has been used to
the exclusion of others. The few necessary experiments are suggested
and outlined, but a more complete laboratory course can easily be
supplied by the instructor.
¶ The explanation of each topic is followed by a few well-chosen
examples to fix and apply the principles involved. A number of pages
are devoted to the static treatment of force, with emphasis on the idea
of action and reaction. Four-place tables of the natural trigonometric
functions are included.
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
ELEMENTS OF DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY
By ALBERT E. CHURCH, LL.D., late Professor of Mathematics, United
States Military Academy, and GEORGE M. BARTLETT, M.A., Instructor in
Descriptive Geometry and Mechanism, University of Michigan.
$2.25
Part I. Orthographic Projections. $1.75
This is a modern treatment of descriptive geometry with applications to
spherical projections, shades and shadows, perspective, and isometric
projections, for the use of technical schools and colleges. Though
based upon Professor Church’s Descriptive Geometry, and retaining as
much as possible the original lucidity and conciseness, this work
differs from it quite widely.
Among the salient features of the book are the following: The figures
and text are included in the same volume, each figure being placed
beside the corresponding text; General cases are preferred to special
ones; A sufficient number of problems are solved in the third angle
to familiarize the student with its use; A treatment of the profile
plane of projection is introduced; Many exercises for practice have
been introduced; Several new problems have been added; The old figures
have been redrawn, and many of them have been improved; Several of the
more difficult elementary problems have been illustrated by pictorial
views; In the treatment of curved surfaces, all problems relating to
single-curved surfaces are taken up first, then those relating to
warped surfaces, and finally those relating to surfaces of revolution.
Experience proves this order to be a logical one, as the procedure is
from the simple to the more complex. Also the student is more quickly
prepared for work on intersections and developments.
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE OF HIGH SCHOOL AND COLLEGE TEXT-BOOKS
Published Complete and in Sections
We issue a Catalogue of High School and College Text-Books, which we
have tried to make as valuable and as useful to teachers as possible.
In this catalogue are set forth briefly and clearly the scope and
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AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
Transcriber’s Notes:
Italics are shown thus: _sloping_.
Small capitals have been capitalised.
Variations in spelling and hyphenation are retained.
Perceived typographical errors have been changed.