LUMBERING AND VARIETIES OF WOOD
=8. The manufacture of lumber=.--(=A.=) There are two distinct
processes in the preparation of lumber for commercial purposes,
_logging_ and _sawing_; the former includes all the steps from felling
the tree to the delivery of the logs at the sawmill; there the logs are
sawed into boards, planks, and timbers of certain dimensions, which are
piled and exposed to the sun and air for a sufficient time to allow a
large part of the water in them to evaporate, when the lumber is said
to be “weather dried,” and ready for shipment to the consumer.
[Illustration: FIG. 4.--FELLING A TREE.]
(=B.=) If a lumber concern desires to begin operations in one of the
great forest areas, a “land-looker” or “timber-cruiser” is sent to spy
out the land, and to report upon the probable yield of timber within
certain areas, and the conditions which would aid or retard the work
of getting out the logs. If the report is favorable, the standing
timber may be purchased by “stumpage,” which means that a certain price
will be paid for each thousand feet of lumber cut, or the land may be
purchased outright, though in the early history of lumbering cases have
been known where these little formalities were omitted.
[Illustration: FIG. 5.--CUTTING SMALL BRANCHES FROM FELLED SPRUCE.]
Camps are located at convenient points throughout the boundary, roads
are made through the woods, and foundations, or “skidways,” built at
right angles to them, to receive the logs as they are hauled down
the “travoy” roads, which are narrow trails cut through the woods at
frequent distances for this purpose.
[Illustration: FIG. 6.--SKIDWAY OF SPRUCE LOGS.]
[Illustration: FIG. 7.--LOAD OF WHITE PINE LOGS.]
(=C.=) The above preparations completed, the work of felling the
trees is begun (Fig. 4); this part of the work requires nice skill
and judgment, as it is necessary that the tree should fall so that it
will cause the least damage to itself and to surrounding trees. After
the tree is down, the branches are cut close to the trunk (Fig. 5)
and carried to one side so that they will not be in the way of the
horses. The trunk is then sawed into logs, twelve, fourteen, sixteen,
or eighteen feet in length, as the imperfections and the length of the
tree trunk may allow. Longer or shorter logs are rarely cut except for
special purposes.
[Illustration: FIG. 8.--HAULING LOGS BY STEEL CABLE.]
(=D.=) One end of the log is placed upon a drag, or is gripped by a
pair of tongs, and hauled to the nearest travoy road and skidway, where
it is piled (Fig. 6). (=E.=) From the skidway the logs are loaded upon
trucks, cars, or sledges (Fig. 7), and carried to the cable (Fig. 8),
which is a method of hauling logs used in some parts of the country, or
to the railroad (Fig. 9), or floated down a river (Fig. 10). If either
of these latter methods of transportation is employed, the logs are
generally piled upon another skidway until there is enough for a train
load, or until the conditions upon the river are favorable for them to
be floated to the mill.
[Illustration: FIG. 9.--LOADING LOGS FROM SHEDWAY TO TRAIN.]
[Illustration: FIG. 10.--BOOM OF LOGS.]
[Illustration: FIG. 11.--LOG JAM.]
(=F.=) Figure 11 illustrates a jam of logs, which is generally the most
dangerous obstacle the lumberman has to face. A jam usually depends
upon one key log, which, if loosened, will allow the jam to break
instantly. The work of loosening the key log is frequently done by one
or two men, who must be men of spring steel nerves and muscles, and
possessed of the highest possible skill and activity, or they cannot
hope to break a large jam and escape with their lives.
[Illustration: FIG. 12.--SAWMILL IN THE BIG TREE DISTRICT.]
(=G.=) The mill illustrated by Fig. 12 is one which receives its logs
by both rail and river. In this case the logs which come in by rail are
rolled into the river, as they can be more easily placed upon the chain
feed of the mill. In winter, a small pond of water is heated, in which
the logs are soaked before they are taken into the mill; this draws the
frost out of them, and allows them to be worked much more easily.
(=H.=) There are different types of sawmills, in which the logs are
worked into commercial shapes. The small enterprises use portable
mills, which are moved into the woods and located upon a tract of land,
remaining until all the desirable timber in the vicinity has been
sawed, and then moved to another locality and the process repeated.
Large operations are conducted upon a different plan; mills of a
permanent type are erected as near the forest as practicable, roads
are built, tracks laid, and the logs brought from the woods by one of
the methods previously illustrated; or, where it is feasible, flumes
are built, and the logs floated in these to the mill. In erecting a
mill of this sort, a location is selected upon a waterway if possible,
as the logs may be floated more cheaply than by any other method of
transportation, though some of the heavier woods will not float, and
have to be handled on land. (=I.=) The immersion of logs in water also
improves the quality of the lumber, as the action of the water upon the
sap prevents to some degree the tendency to decay, and also facilitates
the seasoning of the manufactured product. If the log is left in the
water until it becomes water-logged, it will sink, and while it is not
injured for many purposes, the wood loses some of the strength which it
is supposed to have. In many localities, the salvage of sunken logs has
become an industry.
(=J.=) In modern large lumbering operations, the timber to be cut is
selected by trained foresters, thus insuring a permanent supply, and in
the near future all extensive lumbering operations will, beyond doubt,
be conducted upon a scientific basis, as it is apparent that unless
lumbering is carried on differently than it has been in the past, the
supply for the future will be entirely inadequate for the demand.
(=K.=) In the smaller sawmills, the logs are usually sawed into lumber
of various dimensions by a circular saw (Fig. 13); but in the larger
mills, the band saw generally is used. Figure 14 illustrates a double
cut band sawmill, in which it will be seen that the saw makes a cut
each time the log is carried either way.
[Illustration: FIG. 13.--CIRCULAR SAW.]
=9. To saw lumber of irregular dimensions.=--(=A.=) Besides sawing
dimension timber, joists, scantlings, boards, and planks of different
thicknesses are sawed, as follows: 1”, 1¼”, 1½”, 2”, 2½”, 3”, 3½”, 4”;
and thicker, if desired.
(=B.=) If lumber is cut again from its original dimensions, it is said
to be _resawed_. When boards or planks of the above dimensions are
dressed on both sides, they will be about ⅛” thinner; thus, a board
sawed 1” thick will, when seasoned and dressed, be but ⅞”, and a 2”
plank will be but 1⅞” or 1¾”, though still classed by their sawed
dimensions.
Thicker lumber than that above-mentioned usually comes under the head
of dimension timber, which is not used to the extent that it was
formerly, as steel and concrete are replacing it upon heavy work.
[Illustration: FIG. 14.--DOUBLE CUT BAND SAW.]
If ½” boards are wanted, 1¼” or “five quarter” lumber is usually
resawed to furnish it, and after resawing, is planed upon each side
to the desired thickness. Boards for box stock and other special
purposes are sometimes sawed as thin as ¼”.
[Illustration: FIG. 15.--PLAIN, SLASH, OR BASTARD SAWING.]
[Illustration: FIG. 16.--FOUR METHODS OF QUARTERING.]
(=C.=) The method of cutting a log illustrated by Fig. 15 is known as
_plain_, _slash_, or _bastard sawing_, and is the cheapest way to cut
logs, both as to time and waste. The log is first squared to secure
a bed upon which it may lie while being sawed, which also makes it
unnecessary to run each board by the edging saw to straighten the
edges. The slabs at _a_ are sawed into boards as the log is squared,
and the bark, or “live edges,” sawed off afterward. These make an
inferior grade of boards, as they are nearly all sap, but they are well
worth saving, if large logs are being cut.
In sawing dimension timber, or “bill stuff,” good judgment is necessary
to cut a log so that the greatest amount of marketable lumber can be
made from it. This is done by cutting various sizes from a log, if it
will not cut all of one size without too much waste.
(=D.=) In cutting woods which have prominent medullary rays or silver
grain, the log is sawed by one of the methods shown in Fig. 16, the
object being to bring the rays as nearly parallel to the surface of
the board as possible, thus giving the broad silver, or quarter, grain
which is so highly prized.
The best results are obtained from sections _a_, _b_; this method also
gives the most waste. In plain sawed lumber, the boards from the
middle of the log will have the quarter grain; these are usually culled
and sold as quarter-sawed.
Neither of these methods results in economy of time or material, as
about 25 per cent of each is used in excess of that required in plain
sawing; hence, quarter-sawed lumber is more expensive than the plain,
or bastard, sawed.
(=E.=) Quarter-sawed lumber (Fig. 16) is preferred not only on account
of its handsomer grain, but because it holds its shape better than
lumber sawed in any other way, as the annual layers are approximately
square with the surface of the board. As the board shrinks in the
direction parallel with the annual layers, and very little from the
center to the outside of the tree, it is obvious that there is much
less shrinking and warping in quarter-sawed lumber than in that which
is sawed plain.
The best grades of flooring are quarter-sawed, and stand usage without
the surface splintering much better than does the common plain sawed
material. Quarter-sawed lumber is known also as “rift-sawed,” “vertical
grain,” and “comb grained.”
=10. The grading of lumber.=--Custom varies somewhat in different
localities as to the grading of lumber, but there are generally four
grades, which are often subgraded into qualities suitable for various
uses.
“Number 1” lumber should be practically perfect, though in large
dimensions, small and unimportant blemishes may be allowed. These
blemishes in a board are usually restricted to not more than one inch
of sap, a small sound knot, or small discoloration, and but one
blemish to a board is allowed.
“Number 2” lumber is generally allowed two sound knots, an inch of sap,
and one other blemish.
“Common boards” are allowed three or four sound knots, but two thirds
of one side must be clear stock.
“Culls,” the lowest grade, are used only upon the cheapest work. One
half of the board must be usable.
In many cases the boards are graded by the width of clear stock
which can be taken out. There are tables published by the different
associations of lumber manufacturers which give the gradings under
which their lumber has been measured and shipped, but as these vary
from time to time no permanent list can be given.
The principal reason why there can be no permanent grading of lumber is
that the forests from which the finest timber can be cut in marketable
quantities are being destroyed faster than they can be replaced by
nature. In anticipation of this condition, the Division of Forestry
of the Department of Agriculture is actively engaged in organizing
government forest preserves, in educating the people, and in promoting
legislation aimed at the husbanding of our forests. When we consider
the abundance of high grade lumber a few years ago, and the fabulous
prices which the same grades now bring, it is evident that this
movement should have begun during the days of our grandfathers, instead
of waiting until nearly all the best lumber in the great forests east
of the Mississippi had been cut, and inestimable damage wrought by
forest fires.
=11. The testing of lumber.=--(=A.=) Dry, sound stock, if struck with
the knuckles or with a hammer, will give a clear ringing response,
while a wet or decaying piece will give a dull response to the blow.
(=B.=) Every kind of lumber has its peculiar odor, by which, as well
as by the grain, the student should learn to distinguish the woods
in common use. This may be more easily done before the wood has been
thoroughly seasoned. Wood in general has a sweet and pleasing odor;
if a sour or musty smell is perceptible, it indicates that decay is
present.
(=C.=) If there is much variation in the color of timber, or black and
blue spots, the stick is probably diseased.
(=D.=) Decay is a disease, which may be prevented by dryness or
ventilation, and frequently may be cured by soaking the wood in water
for several days, or by steaming. The disease of decay is cured also by
chemical preservatives being forced into lumber by pressure; this at
the same time prevents insects from boring into the tree.
Alternate wetting and drying will produce rot, but most lumber, if
permanently submerged or if kept perfectly dry, will last almost
indefinitely. Dry rot spreads to adjoining timbers, and even to those
which have no connection with the one originally infected.
=12. Surveying or estimating lumber.=--(=A.=) It is the custom to
consider any board less than one inch in thickness as an inch board,
and anything over one inch is measured as so many inches and fractions
of an inch. For instance, a board ¾” thick is surveyed as a full inch,
while one which is sawed 1½” in thickness is estimated by obtaining its
surface measure, and increasing it by one half. Thus, a plank 12’ long,
8” wide, and 1½” thick would have twelve feet board measure in it.
In some localities there is a sliding scale of prices which varies
with each quarter inch in thickness of resawed lumber, but this is not
universal.
(=B.=) In surveying joists or scantling, it is customary to obtain the
fraction of a foot, board measure, for each lineal foot. Thus, a piece
of 2 × 4 (inches understood) has two thirds of a foot for each foot
in length; a 2 × 6 has one foot, and a piece of 2 × 8 has one and one
third feet of lumber for each foot in length of lumber measured. If a
joist is 2 × 12, doubling its length gives the number of square feet,
board measure, that the joist contains.
(=C.=) In measuring a common board, the widest parallel piece which
can be cut from it is the width of the board being measured; therefore
the board should be surveyed at the narrowest place. In measuring more
expensive lumber, it is customary to average the width of the board.
(=D.=) In estimating all kinds of lumber in common use, the lumber
scale shown in Fig. 17 is used. It is made of thin, cleft hickory,
about three feet long, with one end large enough for a suitable handle;
on the other end is a metal head, which is held against the edge of the
board while the scale is being read.
The length of the board is marked near the handle, and at the end of
the socket of the metal head, as at _a_.
In using this scale, the hooked end, or head, is held against the edge
of the board, as at _b_; the eye follows along the same line of figures
upon which the length of the board is found, reading those figures
nearest the width of the board. Thus, a scale laid upon a board 16’
long would, without further measuring or calculating, show that the
board contains 17’ board measure. If the board were 12’ long, it would
contain 13’; and if 14’ long, by reading the middle line of figures,
the board would be seen to contain 15’.
In using this scale, it is customary to read to the nearest figure, and
when there is no difference, to alternate between the lower and the
higher figures upon different boards. Thus, a board 12’ long and 8¾” or
9¼” wide would be read as having 9’ board measure in it. Two boards 8½”
wide, of the same length as the above, would be measured as having 8’
and 9’, respectively, in their surfaces. In short, the fractions of a
foot are not considered in surveying the lumber in common use.
[Illustration: FIG. 17.--LUMBER SCALE.]
=13. Qualities of wood.=--(=A.=) Certain kinds of wood are adapted
for some purposes better than are others; the wood-worker, therefore,
should be familiar with the qualities which conditions demand, and the
kinds of woods which have these qualities.
Lumber for framing should be strong and durable; it should be cut from
trees which grow to a size that will allow large dimensions to be cut
from them.
For outside finish, the material should be wood which will stand the
weather, can be easily worked, and will hold its shape well.
Timbers that are to be buried must possess the quality of durability,
and should be of sufficient strength to resist the strain which will be
put upon them.
Flooring should wear well, hold its shape, and be of good appearance.
In providing lumber for inside finish, care should be used that it has
good grain and color, is not too soft, and that it will hold its shape
well. Almost any wood may be used as far as strength is concerned, but
lumber which shrinks and warps badly is unfit for finishing.
Shingles should be of wood which will resist decay, and which has the
least tendency to warp and split.
Boards which are to be used for siding should hold paint well, and be
as free as possible from the tendency to warp, split, and twist when
exposed to the weather.
(=B.=) All material used in framing a building should be weather-dried
in good drying weather for at least thirty days for each inch in
thickness, and that used for inside and outside finish and floors
should be thoroughly kiln-dried, and kept in a dry place until ready
for use. These conditions are not always obtainable, but if the best
results are desired, they should be followed as closely as possible.
The woods hereafter described comprise the principal varieties used by
the wood-workers of the United States.
(=C.=) _Ash_ (deciduous, or broad-leaved) is an open-grained,
light-colored wood, in which the porous portions of the annual rings
are quite prominent, thus making it somewhat coarse-grained.
It grows in the Northern states, and is a wood of medium weight and
hardness. It is tough and elastic, the young growth being much used in
the manufacture of wagons, machinery frames, and for similar purposes,
as it is not expensive, quite easily worked, and very strong. It has a
tendency to decay, and is often badly infested with insects; therefore
it is not suitable for building construction or for contact with soil.
Ash grows in forests with other broad-leaved trees, and is plentiful
in many localities. There are two kinds of this wood recognized in
commerce: the _white_, which is light-colored, and the _black_, which
is of a brownish tinge, though there is little difference in the grain
of the two. Sap is not considered a defect, but is regarded as the best
part of the tree for some purposes. The wood grown in the Northern
states is generally tougher than that grown farther south.
The wood from the older and larger trees is not so tough and hard as
that from the younger growth, and is much used for cabinet work and for
interior finish. It should be filled with a paste-filler, after which
it may be brought to a fine polish. The wood holds its shape well and
is useful for the purposes mentioned.
(=D.=) _Apple_ (dec.) is not used for construction, as the proper
dimensions cannot be secured, and as it is very stubborn to work. It is
one of the best woods known to resist splitting, and is much used for
chisel and saw handles.
(=E.=) _Basswood_, or _linden_ (dec.), is a soft, porous wood, which
shrinks considerably in drying. It is used for the backing of veneer
work, for drawer bottoms of the common grades of furniture, for case
backs, and similar purposes, and is also much used in the manufacture
of spools and other small articles which are made in large quantities.
In building construction, basswood is used for ceilings, and for other
work where strength is not needed, though for use in such places it
should be thoroughly seasoned, or the joints will open.
If steamed, basswood may be bent to almost any form. Steaming also
cures to a great extent the tendency of this wood to shrink and swell.
(=F.=) _Beech_ (dec.) is adapted for use in places where the ability to
resist a heavy strain or hard wear is necessary, as in plane stocks,
tool handles, and parts of machinery. In building work, it is used to
some extent for flooring and for inside finishing. It is used also for
furniture, though the difficulty of working it makes it more expensive
than other equally desirable woods.
If exposed to alternations of dryness and dampness, it decays rapidly;
if submerged, it gives fair satisfaction.
Beech trees are common through the Ohio and Mississippi valleys, and
are found to some extent in all of the states between the Great Lakes
and the Atlantic seaboard.
(=G.=) _Birch_ (dec.) is one of our most useful hard woods. It is found
in abundance in the broad-leaved forests of the Eastern states and
Canada. There are two varieties recognized in commerce, the _red_ and
the _white birch_. The former is used considerably for inside finish
and for furniture. It takes a stain well, and may be made to imitate
cherry or mahogany so exactly as to deceive any one but an expert.
When finished in its own natural color, it is a satisfactory wood for
the above uses, but as it ages, it turns to a muddy brown; as it is a
stubborn wood to work, it is not popular.
[Illustration: FIG. 18.--BEECH AND SUGAR MAPLE FOREST.]
_Canoe_, or _paper_, _birch_ is softer than the red variety, and is
used to some extent by paper pulp makers, and for the manufacture of
spools, dowels, and a large variety of small articles.
(=H.=) _Butternut_ or _white walnut_ (dec.) has a good grain and color;
it is quite soft, though not so easily worked as are some harder woods,
for it has a tendency to string while being dressed to a fine surface.
It does not absorb moisture readily, and holds its shape under trying
conditions.
Butternut does not split easily, takes a fine polish, and is used
considerably for furniture and for interior finish.
(=I.=) _Cedar_ (coniferous, or needle-leaved) is of two varieties, the
_red_ and the _white_. The former is used considerably for cooperage
and veneers, lead pencils, and for lining moth-proof drawers and
chests, as its strong odor and bitter taste protects it from the
ravages of insects. The supply of red cedar is becoming limited, and
it is now too expensive for common use, though our forefathers used it
for shingles. The unwise and avaricious cutting of this valuable timber
and of others, notably white and Georgia pine, has destroyed what would
have been a supply for all time, if the cutting had been properly
controlled.
White cedar is much more plentiful, and a much inferior wood; it is
used for shingles, water tanks, boat building, and in the manufacture
of barrels and cigar boxes. It is a very durable wood, and shrinks but
little in drying. It is well adapted for burying, though not strong
enough to resist a very heavy strain. It grows faster than the red
cedar, and makes a larger tree.
(=J.=) _Cherry_ (dec.) is one of the best of our native woods. It is
much used for fine finish and for cabinet work, as it holds its shape
well, if thoroughly seasoned, and takes a fine finish. Its grain is
of fine, even texture, of reddish color, and often stained to imitate
mahogany. When well ebonized, it cannot be distinguished from the
genuine wood except by weight.
Cherry is used by pattern makers for parts of patterns which are to
stand rough usage. The tree is found in all of the states east of
Texas, and in the Mississippi valley, but it is becoming too scarce for
common use.
(=K.=) _Chestnut_ (dec.) is a soft, open-grained wood, adapted to use
in exposed situations. It is used a great deal for inside finish, as it
will take a fine polish, and as the figures formed by the grain make it
a very handsome wood for the purpose.
Not being a strong wood, it will not stand a heavy strain, and will
shrink and crack badly in drying.
(=L.=) _Cypress_ (con.) is similar to cedar. It is one of our most
durable woods, and perhaps the best we have for outside work. It is
used extensively for shingles; roofs covered with cypress shingles
have been known to last for more than seventy-five years. The wood is
light, straight-grained, and soft; it is easily worked, and holds its
shape well. It is to great extent taking the place of white pine in the
manufacture of doors, sash, and blinds, and is considered by many to be
equal, if not superior, to that wood. It is much used in building small
boats, and for use in places where it will be exposed to dampness.
Eaves, troughs, and tanks made of it give better satisfaction than
those made of any other woods except redwood and cedar, which are the
only woods having anti-decaying qualities equal to cypress.
Cypress may be obtained in boards of almost any dimensions, and if it
were stronger and harder, it would be one of our best woods for framing
and finishing. It is used for the latter purpose to a considerable
extent, as it has a handsome grain, and will take a polish well; if
thoroughly seasoned, it will hold its shape as well as any wood. If it
is seasoned slowly, it does not crack to an appreciable extent, but if
forced, it is apt to be filled with fine shakes. Sap is not considered
a blemish.
Cypress grows in the swamps and along the rivers of the Southern
states, the best of it coming from those bordering on the gulf.
(=M.=) _Elm_ (dec.) is a moderately hard wood, difficult to split. It
warps and checks to some extent in drying, but when well seasoned it
holds its shape as well as most woods in common use. It is susceptible
to a good polish, and is used a great deal for interior finish and
furniture, as it takes a stain well. Much of the quartered oak used in
the manufacture of cheap furniture grew upon an elm stump. It is used
largely in cooperage, and stands contact with the soil satisfactorily.
The elm is found in nearly all parts of the United States, but is more
abundant east of the Mississippi river.
(=N.=) _Gum_ (dec.), or, as it is more generally known, _sweet gum_,
is extensively used for interior finish upon the better class of
buildings. It warps and shrinks badly unless thoroughly seasoned, in
which condition it is a very satisfactory wood. It is tough and strong,
cross-grained, and of fine texture; its color is a warm, reddish brown,
and it finishes handsomely. The gum tree grows abundantly in the
Southern states.
(=O.=) _Hemlock_ (con.) is found in most of the Northern states, and
is used for scantlings, rough boards, under floors, and for boarding
preparatory to siding. It is a fairly durable wood, but splits easily,
and is apt to be full of wind shakes. It holds nails firmly.
(=P.=) _Hickory_ (dec.) is the hardest native wood in common use,
and the toughest wood that we have; it is too hard to be used for
building material. It is flexible, and its principal use is for wagon
and carriage work, and for other purposes where bent wood and great
strength is required. As it does not split easily, it is much used in
the manufacture of tool handles. It is liable to attacks from boring
insects, and these pests often destroy much valuable timber.
Sap is not considered a defect, and the sapwood is in fact the most
desirable part of the tree, on account of its creamy whiteness and
great strength.
(=Q.=) _Locust_ (dec.) is found in nearly all parts of the country, and
is a useful and durable wood. It is much used for fence posts and, in
damp locations, for railway ties, and sometimes for furniture, as it
has a yellowish brown color which takes a polish well.
(=R.=) _Maple_ (dec.) is a heavy, strong wood, nearly white, with a
yellow or brownish tinge. There are several kinds of maple, but the
kind generally used for commercial purposes is the _sugar_ or _rock
maple_. It does not shrink excessively, seasons without serious
checking, and from it a very fine surface for polishing may be
obtained. It is much used in places where it is exposed to wear, as
in floors, butchers’ tables, etc., and to a considerable extent as a
cabinet wood, and for interior finish. Maple does not resist decay as
well as do some other woods.
Sap is not considered a defect, and on account of its whiteness the
sapwood is often preferred to the heartwood for many uses.
_Bird’s-eye maple_ is of this wood, but some peculiarity in the growth
of certain trees, believed by many to be caused by woodpeckers, has
caused the tree to have what seem to be numerous small knots, known
as curls or eyes. The presence of these imparts a beauty which is
possessed by no other wood, and has never been successfully imitated.
(=S.=) _Mahogany_ (dec.) is an imported wood, and is much used in the
finish of fine buildings and in the manufacture of fine furniture. It
is of a rich red color, and has a beautiful grain and other desirable
qualities which make it the finest wood for finish in use. It holds its
shape remarkably well, unless it is very cross-grained, and is in every
respect an ideal cabinet wood. Its cost is all that prevents it from
being universally used.
(=T.=) _Oak_ (dec.) is our best all-round native wood. It is found
abundantly in nearly all parts of the country, and forms the larger
part of our broad-leaved forests. There are a number of species of
oak, but they are in general known to commerce as the _red_ and the
_white oak_. Nearly all these trees are cut for commercial purposes,
but the white oak is the finest. The wood of some varieties of oak is
so similar to the white oak that the difference cannot be distinguished
after the work is finished, therefore they are all put together and
sold as a medium grade of white oak for purposes where the strength
of the genuine is not required. This will generally account for the
difference in the grain and the color which is noticed in handling the
commercial white oak.
Red oak is a coarser wood, and is more apt to give trouble in seasoning
than white oak, though they both have to be dried very carefully, or
there may be checks and cracks to such an extent that the wood will
be ruined. Both the red and the white oak are used extensively in
finishing and cabinet work, but the red oak is used commonly upon the
cheaper grades, as it is easier to work.
The two varieties should never be used upon the same job, unless the
wood is to be stained a dark color, as there is a marked difference in
their appearance when finished. White oak is much used for flooring,
quartered oak resulting in a beautiful floor, if the work is well done.
Oak is not a suitable wood for exposure to trying climatic conditions,
though if buried deeply, or in water, where there is no alteration in
moisture or dryness, it gives satisfaction. White oak is used to great
extent for railroad ties, but what these are to be made of in the
future is causing much speculation, as the end of the present supply of
white oak is already in sight.
(=U.=) _Pine_ (con.) in its different varieties is used more than any
other kind of wood. It is found in nearly all parts of the United
States and in Canada. Certain sections of the country which were once
covered with virgin pine forests have, however, been so denuded of
their wealth, and so many of their young trees destroyed, within a
few short years, by the depredations of lumbermen who cared more for
their immediate profit than for the prospective good of the nation,
that instead of a permanent and continual supply of this valuable wood,
there are now nothing but barren hillsides, and the moss-grown ruins
of the lumber camps and sawmills by means of which this irremediable
wrong was perpetrated against posterity.
_White pine_ is soft, easily worked, and when thoroughly seasoned
will hold its shape better than any other wood except mahogany. For
these reasons, and on account of its adaptability to gluing, it is
used almost exclusively by pattern makers. It is found in the Northern
states and in Canada. Farther south is the belt in which grows the
grade of pine known as “Carolina,” the _bastard_ or _yellow pine_. This
belt extends from the Mississippi valley to the Atlantic coast, and is
of a width to include Virginia and the Carolinas. This pine is harder
to work, and has a more pronounced grain than has the white pine, but
it makes a handsome wood for interior trim, as it is capable of a fine
finish. Carolina pine is neither so hard nor so strong as “Georgia”
pine, which is also known commercially as _long-leaved pine_, _pitch
pine_, or _hard pine_. This wood is found from Virginia to Texas, in
the states bordering upon the ocean and the gulf.
Pitch pine has a finer, closer grain than has either of the two above
described, being much stronger and more dense. This is the wood which
is used for heavy timbers of large buildings, and the above described
grades should never be confused with it, the Carolina pine resulting
in work of less strength, for instance, if used where the pitch pine
was intended. Although this wood is very hard and strong, and is the
best wood for heavy construction, as has been stated, it should never
be used in any place which is not dry and well ventilated, as it will
decay rapidly if placed in a damp location, or where it will come in
contact with the earth.
[Illustration: FIG. 19.--WHITE PINE FOREST.]
There are several varieties of pine besides those above mentioned.
These are generally less desirable for finish or for construction than
is the white, yellow, or Carolina pine, but they are used extensively
for the common work of light building, and by box factories.
(=V.=) _Poplar_ or _whitewood_ (dec.) is cut from the tulip tree,
and is found principally in the Middle West and in some parts of the
South. It is of light weight and color, with few knots, and is soft and
easily worked. It is used for the common grades of cabinet work, inside
finishing, veranda posts, etc. It takes a stain remarkably well, and
its even texture makes it a favorite with wood carvers. It warps and
shrinks considerably in seasoning, and unless held in its place, it is
apt to twist.
(=W.=) _Redwood_ (con.) is taken from the big trees on the Pacific
slope; it is straight-grained, soft, and free from knots, and may be
obtained in boards of any size which it is possible to cut. It has the
reputation of being one of the best woods for use in trying conditions,
or where it will be exposed to alternations of dryness and moisture.
It has a very coarse grain and takes a finish well, but it is not apt
to become very popular for inside finish, as it is easily marred, and,
although very soft, will, when thoroughly dry, destroy the edge of
tools quicker than many harder woods. It turns to a dull, unattractive
brown as it ages, if it is finished in its natural color.
It is claimed by many to be the best wood for shingles, as it resists
decay indefinitely. It shrinks both ways of the grain, and burns very
slowly.
[Illustration: FIG. 20.--DOUGLAS SPRUCE FOREST.]
(=X.=) _Spruce_ (con.) is moderately hard and strong, and in New
England is used generally for framing light buildings and for rough
boarding. Its color is almost pure white, and it has the valuable
quality of holding nails firmly. There is little difference between the
heart and the sap wood, and its texture is sometimes such that it is
difficult to distinguish it from white pine. It warps and twists badly
in seasoning, and on that account is not suitable for framing trusses,
unless seasoned lumber is used.
Spruce is used also for a cheap grade of clapboards, for flooring,
ceiling, and laths, and also by paper pulp manufacturers in immense
quantities. It is a fairly satisfactory wood for immersion, but if
exposed to alternations of dryness and moisture, it decays rapidly.
(=Y.=) _Sycamore_, or _buttonwood_ (dec.), is found in nearly all parts
of the Mississippi valley and in the Eastern states. It is a moderately
stiff and strong wood, coarse-grained, and quite difficult to smooth to
a surface, as the grain seems to run in all directions at once. It has
also a disagreeable habit of warping and twisting as it seasons, but if
well seasoned and properly handled, it will give no more trouble than
do other woods. It takes a good polish, and is a desirable wood for
inside finish.
(=Z.=) _Walnut_, or _black walnut_ (dec.), is found in all the Middle
and Eastern states. It is heavy, firm, and strong, of a chocolate
color, and takes a fine finish. It is well adapted to inside finish and
to furniture work.
At one time nearly all the best work was done in this wood, but at
present it is out of style, as oak and other woods are more in favor.
Like other varieties of our best woods, this has been cut out, and is
now too expensive to be considered as anything but a fancy wood.
_White walnut_ is described under butternut.
[Illustration: FIG. 21.--RED SPRUCE AND BALSAM FIR KILLED BY FIRE.]
SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES
8. How are small lumbering operations conducted? Large operations?
What is the favorite method of bringing logs to the mill? Why? Compare
the circular and the band saw as to economy. Why is scientific
forestry a necessity?
9. What are the usual thicknesses to which planks are sawed? How
much thinner is dressed than sawed lumber? How are ½ boards usually
sawed? How should a log be sawed to get the most out of it? To
furnish dimension lumber? Describe the advantages and the methods of
quarter-sawing. Compare plain and quarter-sawed lumber as to economy.
Compare and give reasons for their different shrinking qualities. What
are the different names by which quarter-sawed lumber is known?
10. Describe and demonstrate the four grades of lumber as they are
commonly graded.
11. What will be the nature of the sound if a dry, perfect piece of
timber is struck with the knuckles? A wet or decaying piece? What does
it usually signify if there is a great variety of color in a board?
How may decayed lumber be detected by its odor? How may incipient
decay be stopped? How may decay be prevented or cured?
12. How is lumber less than 1” in thickness surveyed? Lumber over 1”
in thickness? How are joists and scantlings measured? To what lengths
are logs sawed in the forest? In surveying, where should a common
board be measured? A quarter-sawed board? Demonstrate the use of the
lumber scale.
13. What should be the qualities of a good framing timber? Of timber
for outside finish? To be buried? For floors? For inside finish? For
shingles? For siding? How long should lumber be dried before using?
How should lumber for inside finish be cared for while waiting for
use? Describe the qualities and the uses of the following kinds of
lumber: ash, apple, basswood, beech, birch, butternut, cedar, cherry,
chestnut, cypress, elm, hemlock, hickory, locust, maple, mahogany,
oak, pine, poplar, spruce, sycamore, walnut.