The Andes rise in the extreme south at Cape Horn, run in a
northerly course through Patagonia and southern Chili; thence
continuing in three nearly parallel ranges, the western chain called
the Andes, the others known as the Cordilleras, through Peru, {2}
Bolivia and Ecuador to Colombia. The Cordilleras and the Andes are
connected in several places by knots or cross-chains of mountains. In
Colombia the Andes turn to the northwest, reaching their lowest
elevation at the Panama canal, and continue thence, through Central
America and North America as the Rocky Mountains, to the Arctic ocean.
Near the source of the Magdalena and Cauca rivers in Colombia, the
eastern range is deflected to the east along the northern coast of
South America. The central range disappears between the Magdalena and
Cauca rivers.
The Andes form the water-shed of the continent. The waters on the
western slope flow into the Pacific ocean. The rivers that rise on the
eastern slope, in northern Peru and Ecuador, force their way through
the Cordilleras and at their foot drain the montaña of Bolivia, Peru
and Brazil. In the southern part of Peru and upper Chili there is a
broad sierra or plateau, at an elevation of from twelve to fourteen
thousand feet. The streams that rise in this sierra either empty into
salt or alkaline lakes or sink into the ground.
Unlike all other long ranges of mountains, the continental or eastern
side of the Cordilleras is nearly as precipitous as that extending to
the Pacific. Craters of extinct volcanoes and volcanoes now in
eruption are found in all parts of the chain. In Ecuador there are
fifty-two volcanoes, and twenty of these, covered with perpetual snow
and presided over by Chimborazo and Cotopaxi, rise out of a group of
mountains encircling the valley of Quito, and are all visible from a
single point. Three are active and five others have been in eruption
at one or more times since the conquest. One of these, Sangai, is the
most active volcano on the globe: it sends forth a constant stream of
fire, water, mud and ashes, and some assert that it has done so
without intermission for 300 years; 267 explosions have been counted
in one hour. This is also the land of earthquakes: in 1868, 50,000
lives, we are told, were lost in one day; the tremor was felt over
four countries and from the Andes to the Sandwich Islands. The tidal
wave washed a gunboat of the United States on shore at Arica in lower
Peru, 1000 miles to the south, and sixteen hours later the wave was
felt across the Pacific at New Zealand.
A range of mountains separates Eastern Venezuela and Guiana from the
valley of the Amazon. Other ranges south of the Amazon run
southwestwardly, following the Atlantic coast line from Cape St. Roque
to the Rio de la Plata.
{3} RIVER SYSTEMS.
A great oceanic current flows along the western coast of Africa to the
equator, where it is deflected across the Atlantic ocean and becomes
the equatorial current. On reaching the coast of South America near
Cape St. Roque, it is again deflected north and south. Trade winds
blowing over the equatorial current reach the coast at Brazil
surcharged with vapor; as they follow up the valley of the Amazon the
vapors are partially condensed and frequent showers refresh the land;
but when the clouds at the foot-hills of the Andes meet the colder
winds from the south and strike the snow summits of the Cordilleras,
all the moisture is condensed, and the rain falls in tropical showers
for half the year and waters the largest and richest valley in the
world.
In this valley, among the Cordilleras, three great rivers--the
Orinoco, the Amazon and La Plata--rise. The mountain ranges north and
south of the Amazon divide this great valley into three lesser
valleys, down which the Orinoco, the Amazon and La Plata flow,
watering three-fourths of South America.
_The Orinoco_.
The headwaters of the Orinoco rise in two ranges of mountains; the
Cordilleras in the west, and the mountains of Venezuela many hundred
miles to the east. Four hundred tributaries, abounding in beautiful
falls and cataracts, unite to form this great river.
The whole valley for 1600 miles is filled with dense and tangled
forests. Noble trees of unrivalled beauty blossom in endless
prodigality. Birds of gorgeous plumage nestle in their lofty recesses.
Tall ferns, vines, creeping plants and parasites form a dense tangle
of undergrowth, swarming with life. Myriads of insects in great
variety, reptiles of strange and singular form, lizards and venemous
serpents find their homes and sustenance in the wild, dense mass of
vegetation.
_The Amazon_.
The valley of the Amazon collects its waters from a region 1800 miles
wide from north to south and 2500 miles long from the Andes to the
Atlantic ocean. Even at the foot of the Andes the Amazon is a mighty
river. The valley rapidly narrows to a width of 600 or 700 miles, and
then more gradually to the ocean, {4} where it is only 150 miles wide.
Its total fall from the foot-hills of the Andes to the Atlantic is
very slight, not over three or four hundred feet, and probably
considerably less.
The rims of the valley are formed of diorite and sandstone, and are
raised only a little above the flood-plain, which is formed of mud and
silt, the detritus brought down by the Amazon and its tributaries. The
flood-plain is from fifty to one hundred miles wide, gradually
narrowing as it approaches the ocean. Through this valley the Amazon
cuts its way, separating often into channels which sometimes run
parallel to each other for several hundred miles, frequently forming
large islands, or expanding into lakes. Similar flood-plains are found
on all its larger tributaries.
Up from the ocean into this valley an immense tidal wave rolls, with a
bore, twice a day, forcing back the current of the Amazon 500 miles
and inundating a portion of the flood-plain.
In the early autumn the equatorial rise commences in the headwaters of
its tributaries, far south of the equator. The rains and melting snow
raise the streams, and these the waters of the Amazon. As the sun
crosses the equator and moves to the north the rain follows its
course, and the branches that have their source in the east and
northeast add their flood to the waters of the southerly branches. The
flood in the Amazon is thus continued for nearly six months, raising
its waters from 30 to 50 feet. The channels are filled, and the
flood-plains are overflowed. The whole valley becomes a net-work of
navigable waters, with islands and channels and lakes innumerable,
forming a great inland sea, which the Brazilians call the
Mediterranean of America. The upland, though only a little above the
flood-plain, is rarely overflowed.
The plants and animals of the flood-plain were formerly considered as
distinct from those of the upland as are the plants and animals of
Europe from those of America; but later investigations show that there
is but little difference between the species.
The sea breeze blows up the valley about a thousand miles. Then for
1500 miles the atmosphere is stagnant and sultry; the climate is that
of a permanent vapor bath. The dense foliage forms dark, lofty vaults
which the sunlight never penetrates, and over all hangs a perpetual
mist. The abundance and beauty of vegetation increases, and the trees
which at the mouth of the river blossom only once a year, here bloom
and bear fruit all the year round.
{5} Many great rivers run into the Amazon from the north and the
south, most of them navigable, for many hundred miles. The Madeira,
its greatest tributary, after running 2000 miles, empties into the
king of rivers, without making any perceptible difference in its width
or depth.
This mighty current, rushing into the ocean, meets the equatorial
current and for over one hundred miles keeps on nearly a straight
course, when the stronger and mightier oceanic current deflects it to
the north. At from 200 to 300 miles from land, the sea is strongly
tinged, and in April and May has nearly the clay-yellow hue of the
Amazon. And even further north, about 400 miles from its mouth, the
naturalist on the Amazon tells us, "we passed numerous patches of
floating grass mingled with tree trunks and withered foliage; among
these I espied many fruits of the Amazonian palm. And this was the
last I saw of the Amazon."
_The Rio de la Plata_.
The La Plata, the outlet of the waters of central South America, is
formed by the union of the Uruguay and Parana, about 150 miles from
the ocean; a little lower down, at Montevideo, it is 62 miles wide and
widens rapidly to the Atlantic, where it discharges more water than
all the rivers of Europe. The tributaries of the Parana are
fan-shaped. Its most eastern branches rise in the mountains of Brazil,
within seventy miles of the Atlantic ocean; and 1500 miles away, on
the other side of the continent, its most western tributaries rise
only 125 miles from the Pacific.
Steamers ascend the Parana, Paraguay and Cuyaba, 2100 miles to Cuyaba,
and the river with its branches is navigable for 5000 miles.
_The San Francisco_.
The San Francisco, about 1800 miles long, rises near Rio de Janeiro
and flows north about 1200 miles between parallel ranges of mountains,
then turns east and forces its way through the coast range to the
Atlantic ocean. It runs through the gold and diamond regions of
Brazil, and has a considerable population along its banks. It has many
falls and rapids, and considerable slack-water navigation.
{6} GENERAL DESCRIPTION.
In Asia, the different countries have natural boundaries; the people,
soil and climate of one country are unlike those of others. In Europe
there are few natural boundaries, though different races inhabit the
several states.
In South America only one dominant race is found, and though natural
boundaries exist, yet they do not serve as boundaries to the different
states, other than Venezuela and Guiana. Venezuela and Guiana are
watered by the Orinoco and by several rivers that flow from the
Amazonian mountains to the ocean. The whole coast is low and fertile,
but hot and unhealthy. The principal product is sugar, raised by
negroes and coolies. The interior is sultry and thickly wooded; it is
inhabited by Indian tribes, the principal of which are the cannibal
Caribs, and by negroes as uncivilized as any of the tribes in Africa.
Guiana is controlled by the English, French, and Dutch. Cayenne, the
prison for French convicts, is the capital of French Guiana.
Colombia and Ecuador occupy the northwestern part of South America.
They are situated on both sides of the Andes, and have every variety
of climate. The country is well watered; fertile but unhealthy on the
coast, fertile and healthy on the elevated plains, cold and barren on
the mountains.
In Brazil, besides the Amazon, La Plata and San Francisco, there are
several large rivers with fertile valleys; but occasional droughts,
sometimes lasting for two years, will prevent portions of Brazil from
becoming densely inhabited.
On the Pacific coast south of Ecuador, the rainfall becomes less and
less. For three thousand miles along the coast of Peru and Chili there
is no natural harbor; a plain from ten to fifty miles in width extends
from the Pacific to the foot-hills of the Andes. The Antarctic current
runs along this coast; the southeasterly winds blow over it on to the
land and cool the air; but as the winds are of low temperature their
scanty vapor is dissipated by the heat radiated from the land, and not
a drop of rain refreshes the thirsty soil. Many mountain torrents run
from the snow-clad summits of the Andes, and the beauty of their
narrow valleys forms a grateful contrast to the dry and barren sands
of the plain.
In the southern part of Chili and in that part formerly called
Patagonia, rain is abundant and the country is fertile.
The longest stretch of low and comparatively level land to be {7}
found in the world extends through the center of South America. A boat
starting from the Caribbean sea could sail up the Orinoco over a
thousand miles, then down the Casquiare, which runs from the Orinoco
into the Rio Negro, down that river to the Amazon, up the Amazon to
the Madeira, then up that river and one of its branches through Brazil
and Bolivia, and with a short portage of six and a half miles to one
of the branches of the Paraguay, down the Paraguay and La Plata to the
ocean.
The level land crosses the La Plata and continues southward through
the Argentine Republic and Patagonia to the Straits of Magellan.
Within this plain lie all the interior of Venezuela and Brazil, a part
of Bolivia, all Paraguay, Uruguay, and the Argentine Republic. The
pampas resemble our prairies, but run from north to south, while the
prairies run from east to west.
The streams in the plain south of the valley of the La Plata rise in
the Andes and flow southeastward to the Atlantic.