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AREA HANDBOOK FOR ROMANIA
_Co-Authors_
Eugene K. Keefe
Donald W. Bernier
Lyle E. Brenneman
William Giloane
James M. Moore, Jr.
Neda A. Walpole
Research and writing were completed February 1972
Published 1972
DA Pam 550-160
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 72-600095
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
Office Washington, D.C. 20402--Price $2.75
FOREWORD
This volume is one of a series of handbooks prepared by Foreign Area
Studies (FAS) of The American University, designed to be useful to
military and other personnel who need a convenient compilation of basic
facts about the social, economic, political, and military institutions
and practices of various countries. The emphasis is on objective
description of the nation's present society and the kinds of possible or
probable changes that might be expected in the future. The handbook
seeks to present as full and as balanced an integrated exposition as
limitations on space and research time permit. It was compiled from
information available in openly published material. An extensive
bibliography is provided to permit recourse to other published sources
for more detailed information. There has been no attempt to express any
specific point of view or to make policy recommendations. The contents
of the handbook represent the work of the authors and FAS and do not
represent the official view of the United States government.
An effort has been made to make the handbook as comprehensive as
possible. It can be expected, however, that the material,
interpretations, and conclusions are subject to modification in the
light of new information and developments. Such corrections, additions,
and suggestions for factual, interpretive, or other change as readers
may have will be welcomed for use in future revisions. Comments may be
addressed to:
The Director
Foreign Area Studies
The American University
5010 Wisconsin Avenue, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20016
PREFACE
The former Kingdom of Romania emerged from the post-World War II chaos
as the Romanian People's Republic, a communist satellite so closely
aligned to the policies of the Soviet Union that it often appeared to be
ruled from Moscow. During the 1950s, however, Romania cautiously began
seeking to loosen its ties to Moscow and to assert some measure of
autonomy. The widening Sino-Soviet rift of the early 1960s provided an
atmosphere of tension among communist states that the Romanians used to
their own advantage by remaining neutral in the communist struggle and
by seeking greater contacts with noncommunist states. In internal
affairs, the Romanian regime maintained a rigid hold on all elements of
the society. In 1965 the regime changed the name of the country to the
Socialist Republic of Romania and proclaimed that it was well on the way
toward communism. In the early 1970s Romania remains a member of the
Soviet-led military and economic alliances but has become known as the
most independent member.
The changes wrought by the Communists during a quarter century in power
are numerous and far reaching. Despite the desires of the Soviet leaders
that Romania remain predominantly agricultural, the new Romanian
leadership was determined to industrialize. Enforced socialization and
concurrent industrialization brought a host of problems in the
political, social, and economic life of the country. Reorientation of
the society and the political structure was brought about by force when
necessary, but the restructuring of the economy within the framework of
the avowed Marxist-Leninist ideology proved to be more difficult and led
to problems that had still not been overcome by early 1972.
This handbook attempts to describe the social, political, and economic
bases of Romanian society and, more particularly, how these bases have
been affected by Romania's independent stance within the alliances of
Eastern European communist countries. The authors of the handbook have
tried to be objective in order to provide a comprehensive exposition of
the dominant aspects of Romanian life in the early 1970s. Often hampered
by a lack of credible statistical information as well as an
overabundance of biased propaganda, the authors have attempted to piece
together sufficient factual material to present an accurate appraisal
and an indication of observable trends.
English usage follows _Webster's Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary_.
Place names used in the text are those approved by the United States
Board on Geographic Names. Tonnages are given in the metric system, but
for other measurements standard United States terminology has been used.
The use of Romanian words has been held to a minimum and, where used,
they have been explained in the text and in the Glossary, which is
appended for the reader's convenience. The acronym PCR, derived from
Partidul Comunist Roman (Romanian Communist Party), is used throughout
the book and is fully explained in the Glossary.
COUNTRY SUMMARY
1. COUNTRY: Officially redesignated the Socialist Republic of Romania
under Constitution of 1965. Established originally as the Kingdom of
Romania in 1881, was converted into the Romanian People's Republic in
1948 by communist party with Soviet backing.
2. GOVERNMENT: Constitution of 1965 provides for a unicameral
legislature and a collegial executive known as the Council of State.
Romanian Communist Party controls elections and runs the government at
all levels. Top party officials concurrently occupy top governmental
offices. Ultimate political power rests in the party hierarchy,
particularly in the person of the party general secretary who, since
1967, has also been head of state.
3. SIZE AND LOCATION: Area of over 91,700 square miles. In southeastern
Europe, shares 1,975 miles of demarcated and undisputed land borders
with Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Hungary, and the Soviet Union. With 150 miles
of shoreline, shares riparian rights on Black Sea with Turkey, Bulgaria,
and the Soviet Union.
4. TOPOGRAPHY: Terrain is generally irregular. The Transylvania basin in
the northwest occupies about one-third of the country and is separated
from the plains and lowlands of Walachia, Dobruja, and Moldavia to the
south and east by the curving course of the Carpathian Mountains and the
Transylvanian Alps, which cut across the central portion of the country.
5. CLIMATE: Generally Eastern European Continental, dominated by high
pressure systems from European Soviet Union and north-central Asia.
Little variation or moderation experienced in the prevailing long cold
winters and short hot summers.
6. POPULATION: Almost 20.6 million in 1971; annual growth rate of 1.3
percent, among the highest in Eastern Europe. Density more than 224
persons per square mile. Largest minority is Hungarian, comprising 8
percent of population, followed by German, with 2 percent.
7. LANGUAGE: Romanian, the official language, spoken by virtually all
elements of the population. Hungarian and German also recognized and
utilized in areas of large minority concentrations.
8. LABOR: Working population employed by the state in 1969 numbered
about 5 million. About 40 percent were employed in industry; about 51
percent, in agriculture. Women constituted about 43 percent of the
industrial and 57.5 percent of the collective farm labor forces.
9. RELIGION: Freedom of worship is guaranteed by Constitution, but state
controls all church activities. About two-thirds of population belong to
Romanian Orthodox Church. Importance of Roman Catholic and Protestant
minorities enhanced because of their identity with Hungarian and German
ethnic groups.
10. EDUCATION: Restructured in 1948 into a highly centralized system
with a broad base, standardized curricula, mandatory attendance through
tenth grade, and heavy emphasis on vocational and technical subjects
above the elementary level. Political indoctrination permeates entire
system.
11. JUSTICE: Theoretically independent, the three-level court system
(local, district, and Supreme Court) functions as part of executive
branch. Military tribunals operate as part of system under Supreme
Court.
12. ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS: Thirty-nine counties, each subdivided into
varying numbers of communes, villages, and municipalities. Bucharest
administered as an independent political entity. Governmental
functioning ostensibly decentralized, but policy and control exercised
by higher state and party organs.
13. ECONOMY: Government controlled, with basic five-year plans patterned
on Soviet model. Development hampered by scarcity of raw materials and
manufacturing equipment and by insufficient number of experienced
workers and managers.
14. AGRICULTURE: About 63 percent of land is agricultural; of this, 65
percent under cultivation. Food production adequate for domestic needs,
but exports limited because of insufficient investment and lack of labor
incentives.
15. INDUSTRY: Rapid growth since 1950 stimulated by massive inputs of
capital, labor, and imports of modern machinery and technology. Labor
productivity and quality of manufactured products have improved but
remain low.
16. FOREIGN ECONOMIC RELATIONS: Foreign trade is state monopoly and is
conducted primarily with Soviet Union and East European communist
countries. Balance of trade generally negative, reflecting imports of
high-quality machinery from West necessary for industrial advancement.
Exports limited to light machinery, foodstuffs, and some consumer goods.
17. FINANCE: Monetary unit is the nonconvertible leu. The to tourist
rates of about 16 lei per US$1. Currency and foreign exchange are state
controlled, administered through the National Bank.
18. COMMUNICATIONS: All information media party or state owned and
controlled. Press and radio more extensively developed than television,
but all function as parts of ideological and political indoctrination
system.
19. RAILROADS: Important freight and passenger carrier. About 6,900
miles of trunkline in operation, almost all standard gauge. About 100
miles electrified, and rest of system converting to use of diesel
locomotives.
20. HIGHWAYS: Of 47,800 total road mileage, about 6,600 miles nationally
maintained as principal operating network. System supplanting railroads
as major short-haul carrier of freight and passengers.
21. INLAND WATERWAYS: About 1,500 miles of principal rivers and canals
are navigable. Water transport has minor role as a cargo carrier.
22. AIRWAYS: Romanian Air Transport, the state-owned airline, operates
domestic service to twelve principal cities and to about twenty national
capitals in Europe and the Middle East.
23. PIPELINES: Largest network serves oilfields and moves most liquid
petroleum and refined products to refineries and ports. Natural gas
lines exist, but mountainous terrain limits general distribution.
24. MERCHANT MARINE: Small in number but operates modern ships and
equipment. Transport limited principally to truck cargo and freight.
25. ARMED FORCES: In 1972 consisted of about 200,000 men organized into
ground, naval, air, air defense, and frontier forces, all administered
by a single ministry. All elements operate as part of army, which is
largest single component.
26. SECURITY: Security forces, nationally organized and centrally
controlled by Ministry of Internal Affairs, consist of ordinary police
(militia) and security troops, which perform counter-espionage and
counter-subversive functions.
27. INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS: Member of the United Nations and a
number of its specialized agencies. Member of the Warsaw Treaty
Organization (Warsaw Pact) and the Council for Mutual Economic
Assistance (COMECON).
ROMANIA
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
FOREWORD iii
PREFACE v
COUNTRY SUMMARY vii
SECTION I. SOCIAL
Chapter 1. General Character of the Society 1
2. Historical Setting 9
Early Origin--Formation of the Principalities--
Western Influences--National Independence--World
War I--Interwar Years, 1918-40--World War II--
Communist Seizure of Power--The Communist State
3. Physical Environment and Population 29
Natural Features and Resources--Boundaries and
Political Subdivisions--Population--Living
Conditions--Transportation
4. Social System and Values 49
Ethnic Composition--Social Structure--Social Values
5. Religion 65
Church-State Relations--The Romanian Orthodox
Church--The Roman Catholic Church--Protestant
Churches--Other Religions and Churches
6. Education 73
Background--Educational Reforms Since 1948--
Literacy--The Educational System--Education of
Minorities
7. Artistic and Intellectual Expression 91
The Role of the Arts Under Communism--Art,
Sculpture, and Architecture--Music--Theater--Films
--Literature--Scholarship and Research
SECTION II. POLITICAL
8. Governmental System 109
The Constitutional System--The Structure and
Functioning of the Government--The Electoral
System
9. Political Dynamics and Values 129
Major Political Developments, 1965 to 1970--
Political Organizations--Party Policies and
Programs--Political Values and Attitudes
10. Foreign Relations 155
Determinants of Foreign Policy--Conduct of Foreign
Affairs--International Relations
11. Public Information 175
Government and Freedom of Information--The Press
--Radio and Television--Book Publishing--Libraries
--Films--Informal Information Media
SECTION III. NATIONAL SECURITY
12. Public Order and Internal Security 193
Internal Security--Public Order--Crime and the
Penal System
13. Armed Forces 211
Historical Background--Governmental and Party
Control Over the Armed Forces--Organization and
Mission--Foreign Military Relations--Manpower,
Training, and Support--The Military Establishment
and the National Economy
SECTION IV. ECONOMIC
14. Character and Structure of the Economy 229
Organization--Structure and Growth--Planning--
Price System--Budget--Banking--Currency--Foreign
Trade
15. Agriculture 253
Agricultural Regions--Land Use--Organization--Farm
Labor--Investment and Credit--Production
16. Industry 275
Natural Resources--Electric Power--Organization--
Labor--Investment and Construction--Production
BIBLIOGRAPHY 291
GLOSSARY 305
INDEX 307
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure Page
1 Romania xiv
2 Romania, Historic Provinces 10
3 Topography of Romania 31
4 Romanian Transportation System 44
5 Romania, Distribution of Ethnic Groups, 1966 51
6 Romania, Structure of Education, 1972 81
7 Structure of the Government of Romania, 1971 115
8 Romania, Organization of the Council of Ministers, 1971 120
9 Organization of the Romanian Communist Party, 1972 138
10 Romania, Organization of the Armed Forces, 1972 214
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1 Romania, Population Structure, by Age and Sex, 1971
Estimate 40
2 Use of Transportation Facilities in Romania, 1950, 1960,
and 1969 45
3 Principal Romanian Daily Newspapers, 1971 179
4 National Income (Net Material Product) of Romania, by
Economic Sector, 1960, 1967, and 1970 232
5 Gross National Product of Romania, by Sector of Origin,
1960 and 1967 233
6 Foreign Trade of Romania, by Groups of Countries, 1960
and 1969 250
7 Land Use in Romania, Selected Years, 1960-70 255
8 Cultivated Acreage in Romania, by Major Crops, 1960 and
1969 256
9 Agricultural Land in Romania, by Type of Ownership, 1969 258
10 Production of Major Crops in Romania, Selected Years,
1960-69 272
11 Output of Livestock Products in Romania, Selected Years,
1960-69 272
12 Crop Production and Livestock Products in Romania, by
Type of Farm, 1969 274
13 Output of Selected Industrial Products in Romania, 1960
and 1969 288
[Illustration: _Figure 1. Romania_.]
SECTION I. SOCIAL
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE SOCIETY
The Romanian Communist Party (Partidul Comunist Roman--PCR) is the
leading force in the political, economic, and social life of Romania.
The party general secretary, Nicolae Ceausescu, in early 1972 celebrated
his seventh anniversary in power, displaying complete confidence in the
stability of his regime. Ceausescu serves concurrently as the president
of his country, which is known officially as the Socialist Republic of
Romania. Although tied militarily and economically to the Soviet Union
through membership in the Warsaw Treaty Organization (Warsaw Pact) and
the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON), Romania since the
mid-1950s has pursued an independent course in both its internal
development and its foreign relations.
In April 1964, in furtherance of its independent stance, the PCR Central
Committee issued a statement concerning the rights of all communist
parties and socialist states to choose their own methods of development
according to "the concrete historic conditions prevailing in their own
countries." This statement, which has been referred to as Romania's
declaration of independence, was directed primarily to the leaders of
the Soviet Union and, in effect, was a warning to them to cease their
interference in the domestic and foreign affairs of Romania. It was a
declaration of sovereign rights and self-determination by which the
Romanian Communists asserted that they were the masters of their
country's destiny rather than a puppet state to be manipulated by and
for outside interests.
The reasons that the Soviet Union did not crack down on its former
subservient satellite are both obscure and complex. One factor operating
in favor of the Romanians was the rift that had developed between the
two communist giants--the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of
China. The rift had become very deep, and the Soviets were striving to
gain adherents to their position in the struggle and probably were
reluctant to use force against Romania because of the danger of
alienating other communist parties. It is probable that dissension
within the Moscow leadership, which shortly ended the career of Premier
Nikita Khrushchev, also inhibited action against Romania.
In their drive to establish rights of autonomy and free choice for their
country, Romania's leaders have not tried to withdraw from the Soviet
alliances, nor have they changed the basic nature of their communist
government. Their actions have demonstrated that their goals have been
to lessen the influence of the Soviet Union in Romania's domestic and
foreign affairs, at the same time they themselves maintained an
absolute, single-party monopoly of power.
After issuing their declaration of independence, the Romanians in
subsequent years earned a reputation for opposition to the Soviet Union
within the Warsaw Pact and COMECON as well as in the conduct of their
relations with noncommunist states. Pursuit of these goals has sometimes
led the Romanians into situations that have been considered dangerous by
outside observers, and the leadership has often expressed fears of
Soviet retaliation against Romania's independent line.
One obvious result of the independent status has been the resurgence of
Romanian nationalism. Ceausescu, when he talks about "Romania for the
Romanians," even though he may be speaking in the context of building a
communist society, receives wide popular support and, at times, appears
to have genuine appeal among the people he rules. In contrast to the new
nationalism, during the early years of the Romanian communist era it was
generally accepted (at least by party members) that the Soviet Union
deserved to be emulated in every aspect of national life. Not only were
the party and government patterned on Soviet models, but the entire
social and economic life of the country was altered to the point of
almost losing its Romanian uniqueness.
Russian became a required language in the schools, and the history books
were rewritten to play down the traditional orientation toward Western
Europe and to highlight Russian influence in the country, which had been
considerable since the time of Tsar Peter the Great but which had not
always been beneficial from the Romanian point of view. Pseudoscholars
intent on the Russification of their country were publishing papers in
the late 1940s "proving" that the ancient Dacians, to whom modern
Romanians trace their ancestry, were actually Slavic tribes--a thesis
that had never before been suggested. Other spurious scholarship
attempted to show that the Romanian language was Slavic-based rather
than Latin-based as linguists had clearly shown.
While Josef Stalin, Soviet dictator and generally acknowledged leader of
world communism, was still alive, Romania was an obedient satellite, and
Stalinism was the hallmark of communist rule. Even before Stalin's
death in March 1953, however, there was dissension in the Romanian
communist ranks as a Moscow-oriented group vied for power with
indigenous Communists. The latter group was eventually victorious and,
after a series of purges, Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej emerged as a party
strong man; the first glimmerings of a distinctive brand of Romanian
communism can be traced to this period in the early 1950s.
The blending of nationalism and communism did not, however, ameliorate
the conditions that existed in the country. Gheorghiu-Dej was a
totalitarian ruler, the party brooked no opposition, few basic freedoms
for the people existed except in the constitution, and the secret police
was an effective instrument of control over the people. Gheorghiu-Dej
did, however, establish a foundation, albeit a very shaky one, for a
structure of national communism. He and his successor, Ceausescu,
strengthened this structure through the years to the point that Romania
became known as the most independent of the former Soviet satellites
with the exception of Yugoslavia, which has been traveling its own path
since 1948.
The Socialist Republic of Romania, ruled in early 1972 by Ceausescu and
the PCR, comprised over 91,700 square miles and contained a population
of more than 20.6 million. The size and shape of modern Romania is
remarkably similar to the ancient country of Dacia, which was conquered
by the Romans in the early second century A.D. and became a province of
the Roman Empire. Although Roman occupation lasted only about 165 years,
it is to the mixture of Roman legionnaires and colonists with indigenous
Dacians that modern Romanians trace their origin. These Daco-Romans are
almost absent from history's pages for several centuries, but Romanian
historians state that they existed in the mountains, tending their
flocks and fending off the vast migrations and avoiding absorption by
invaders who used the territory as a crossroads into the Balkans or into
Europe. After they did achieve some semblance of autonomy during the
Middle Ages, primarily in the historic provinces of Moldavia and
Walachia, they were always pressured by powerful empires that existed
during various historic epochs, and a great portion of former Dacia, the
province of Transylvania, was occupied by Magyars (Hungarians) and was
not joined to Romania until after World War I.
The great majority of the people are ethnic Romanians, although two
sizable minority groups, Hungarian and German, still resided within
Romania's borders in 1972. Other, much smaller, minority groups include
Jews, Ukrainians, Serbs, Russians, Bulgarians, Czechs and Slovaks,
Tatars, Turks, and Gypsies. Most of the lesser minorities have been
assimilated to some degree, particularly in the use of the Romanian
language in the conduct of their daily affairs. The Hungarians and the
Germans, however, have resisted assimilation, and their education,
business, and social lives are carried on in their native tongues. Their
cultural traditions also reflect their Hungarian or German background
rather than that of the country in which they live.
The religious affiliations of the people follow very closely their
ethnic differentiations. The vast majority of ethnic Romanians are
members of the Romanian Orthodox Church, which is one of the
autocephalous branches of the Eastern Orthodox church. The Romanian
Orthodox Church was traditionally considered the state or national
church, which, with its great size, gave it a favored position. Although
its near-monopoly position was contested by Roman Catholics, Uniates,
and several Protestant denominations, particularly after the post-World
War I inclusion of Transylvania within Romania's borders, it still
remained the predominant religion and was able to retain this position
even after the communist takeover.
The Hungarians of Romania are Roman Catholics, Calvinists, and
Unitarians; similarly, the Germans are divided between Roman Catholicism
and Lutheranism. These religions suffered a period of repression under
the Communists, some of their clergy being imprisoned and some of their
churches falling into disrepair because of lack of funds. Nevertheless,
their adherents still numbered in the hundreds of thousands in the early
1970s, and the former vigorous effort by the government to discourage
the practice of religion seems to have softened as the regime
concentrates on dissuading young people from the acceptance of religious
beliefs rather than trying to eliminate such beliefs in older
generations.
The post-World War II Romanian Jewish community has shrunk considerably
through emigration to Israel, which has been allowed by the government
and encouraged by Jewish leaders. There continue to be many Jewish
enclaves, particularly in urban areas, but because Jews have not been
listed separately in official statistics since the mid-1950s, it is
difficult to estimate how many remain in the country. There are several
operating synagogues, but most Jewish services are led by laymen because
emigration has drained away almost all rabbis and none are being trained
in the country; the last rabbinical school was closed during the late
1950s because of lack of faculty and students.
Most of the small Slavic minorities belong to the Orthodox faith, and
the few remaining Muslims--Turks and Tatars--retain their adherence to
Islam and have their principal mosque in the port city of Constanta.
Relatively small numbers of Romanians are Baptists, Seventh-Day
Adventists, and Unitarians. Officially, the communist-ruled country
advocates atheism, but the Constitution allows for freedom of religion
or freedom to profess no religion. Atheism does not seem to have made
any great inroads into the established religions during the first
quarter century of communist rule.
The activities of all religions are supervised by the government through
its Department of Cults. The separation of church and state is
constitutionally guaranteed, but in practice this guarantee serves to
impose limitations on the churches and clergy but does not in any manner
restrict government interference in religious activities.
Though the Communists were unsuccessful in eradicating religion in the
country, they have been successful in transforming the politics,
society, and economy. With the promulgation of the 1948 Constitution,
based on the Soviet Constitution of 1936, and the establishment of the
Romanian People's Republic, the new rulers were ready to construct a
socialist state. Out of this transformation, the leaders were confident
that a "new socialist man" would ultimately evolve, just as Marx and
Lenin had prophesied.
In more pragmatic areas the Communists altered the form of government,
the social structure, and the economy. The 1948 Constitution established
a form of government much like that of the Soviet Union and other
communist-ruled states in that the government is structured to be the
instrument through which the party runs the country. There is an
interlocking of party and government positions that ensures party
control over every facet of Romanian life. There are no competing
political parties, but there are several mass organizations, thoroughly
PCR dominated, in which the people are urged to participate. These
include labor unions, youth leagues, women's organizations, and sports
societies, which serve to involve the people in national and local
affairs while the party hierarchy retains absolute authority in all
areas.
The 1948 Constitution was superseded by another in 1952 that brought no
significant changes and did not greatly alter the structure that had
been established earlier. The Constitution of 1965, however, changed the
name of the country to the Socialist Republic of Romania, and, in
communist jargon, this change was of particular importance because it
signified that the transition from bourgeois capitalism to socialism had
been achieved and that Romania could now proceed on its path toward
communism. Significant also in the 1965 Constitution was the absence of
any mention of the Soviet Union, which had been featured prominently in
the previous documents as a model to be copied and as the liberator of
Romania.
The most prominent feature of the Romanian political system is its
extreme centralization in both the party structure and the government
organization. The people vote for their representatives at all levels of
government from a single list of party-approved candidates. Local
governments always look for direction from a higher level or from the
center. The PCR has a similar pyramidal structure, the topmost organs
being self-selecting and self-perpetuating. The concentration of power
in the hands of the party hierarchy has prevented the rise of any overt
opposition groups, and there has been no observable coalition of
dissenters within the party ranks.
In the transformation of the social structure, the Communists brought
down the former aristocracy and anyone else who they considered might be
opposed to the new order. They then attempted to elevate the status of
the former lower classes--that is, the workers and peasants--but because
of the elitist structure of the party the great leveling process
faltered, and new classes were created despite the prescribed ideology
of a classless society. The party elite became the new upper class, and
immediately below them was a growing group of lesser party
functionaries, technocrats, managers, scientists, teachers, and other
professionals. The privileges, life-styles, and aspirations of these
groups ran far ahead of those of the workers and peasants who once again
found themselves at the bottom of the social pyramid.
Upward mobility is possible, and the key to it is education; the key to
educational opportunity, however, is most often political influence,
which also plays a large role in the accessibility to jobs that lead to
higher social status. A stabilizing of the social structure that became
apparent toward the end of the 1960s, although it did not block upward
mobility, would seem to indicate that such social movement will be more
difficult in the future. Children of workers and peasants will not be
denied opportunity for higher education, but it would appear that the
path to opportunity will be easier for children of the party elite and
the professional classes.
To the people, education is important as a means of social advancement;
to the regime, however, the educational system is the prime means
through which it inculcates socialist ideals and trains the
professionals, technicians, and skilled workers needed to run the
country. The first great goal under the Communists was the eradication
of illiteracy, which, according to the government, had been achieved by
1958. A concurrent and continuing goal was the training of skilled
technicians, foremen, and middle-level managers. The country's rapid
industrialization and economic growth caused severe shortages in these
categories and, in the early 1970s, the educational and training
programs still had not met the demands for the upgrading of unskilled
workers.
Modifications of the educational system have been concentrated on the
extension of basic primary education from the four-year program that
existed after World War II to a compulsory ten-year program that is
expected to be fully operative by 1973. Along with the expansion of
curricula and the extension of the time spent in primary grades, the
regime has also reemphasized the importance of ideological and political
indoctrination for the nation's youth. Adult education has also been
stressed by the government in its efforts to raise the overall
educational and skill levels of the entire population.
In the cultural area there has been a shifting of attitudes by the party
overseers that has seemingly left artists and intellectuals confused and
wary about the limits of creativity. In the early communist period
there was slavish imitation of the Soviet doctrine known as Socialist
Realism, which required that all expression reflect the struggle for
social justice and the positive aspects of communist achievements.
After the death of Stalin and particularly after the initiation of
de-Stalinization in the Soviet Union, there was a relaxation of the
dogmatic controls forced upon Romanian artists and intellectuals,
and more emphasis was placed on historical themes and nationalism.
Restrictions continued, however, and "art for art's sake" was not
tolerated; even the mild liberalization permitted during the 1960s was
curtailed to some degree in 1971 as the regime tightened controls on
artistic and intellectual expression. The new hard-line approach of 1971
did not signal a return to the extreme dogmatism of the early 1950s but
was a stern reminder to artists, writers, and journalists of their
duties to the socialist society.
Militarily, Romania in 1972 maintained about 200,000 men in its armed
forces, the great majority serving in the army and much smaller numbers
serving in the navy, air force, and frontier troops. All armed services
are administered by the Ministry of the Armed Forces, but policymaking
is a top-level function of the PCR. Manpower needs are filled through
universal conscription, and serving a term in the military seems to be
accepted as a normal way of life by young Romanian males.
Romania is a signatory to the Warsaw Pact, but Ceausescu's refusal to
participate in the Soviet-led invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 and his
subsequent condemnation of that action placed the country in the
position of being a rather reluctant ally within the pact. Ceausescu has
also refused to allow Warsaw Pact maneuvers to be held in his country,
and during the Czechoslovak invasion he refused to allow Bulgarian
troops to cross Romanian territory. These actions, plus Ceausescu's
repeated reference in public speeches to the desirability of the
dissolution of both the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and
the Warsaw Pact, caused publication of anti-Romanian propaganda in the
Soviet Union and the omission of an invitation to Ceausescu to attend a
meeting of Eastern European leaders in the summer of 1971. The Romanian
people were reportedly concerned about possible Soviet intervention in
their internal affairs, as they had been often since 1968, but the
situation seemed to stabilize in late 1971, at least in outward
appearance.
Despite the military and political uncertainties brought about by
Romania's independent stance in the Warsaw Pact and COMECON, the country
has enjoyed a rapid economic growth rate. Direction of the country's
economy is highly centralized and rigidly controlled by the PCR. A
variety of economic ministries within the governmental structure are
responsible for the administering of specific sectors of the economy,
but policymaking is a function of the Standing Presidium of the party.
The economy operates in accordance with five-year and annual plans that
are all-encompassing and binding on all economic enterprises. Some
attempts at decentralization have been made since 1968 in an effort to
increase initiative on the part of lower level managers, but
intransigence on the part of the hierarchy in releasing its hold has all
but nullified the lukewarm reform efforts.
In 1972 Romania was into the second year of its Five-Year Plan (1971-75)
and was beset by a host of economic problems. The planners had set high
goals for growth during the period, but past overemphasis on heavy
industrialization had left a residue of problems in all other areas.
Agriculture had been neglected, production of consumer goods had never
reached planned goals, and balance of payment deficits with Western
nations threatened the foreign trade base. In seeking political and
economic independence from the Soviet Union, the regime had placed
itself in a precarious position, which forced it to find ways of
becoming more competitive in world markets and fulfilling the basic
needs of its people at the same time it sought to mollify the
resentments of its COMECON partners and retain its ideological
commitments to socialism and ultimate communism. Despite its maverick
approach and its growing relations with the West, Romania was still tied
by treaty, ideology, and geography to the Soviet Union and to its
Eastern European communist neighbors.