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A CLASS ROOM LOGIC
DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE
WITH SPECIAL APPLICATION TO THE
SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING
BY
GEORGE HASTINGS McNAIR, PH. D.
HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF LOGIC AND MATHEMATICS,
CITY TRAINING SCHOOL FOR TEACHERS.
JAMAICA. NEW YORK CITY
THE ETHLAS PRESS
FIVE NORTH BROADWAY. NYACK. NEW YORK
COPYRIGHT, 1914, BY
GEORGE HASTINGS McNAIR
To
MY WIFE.
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PREFACE.
This treatise is an outgrowth of our class room work in logic.
It has been published in the hope of removing some of the difficulties
which handicap the average student.
We trust that the language is simple and definite and that the
illustrative exercises and diagrams may be helpful in making clear some
of the more abstruse topics.
If a speedy review for examination is necessary, it is recommended
that the briefer course as outlined on page 493 be followed and that
the summaries closing each chapter be carefully read.
Only the fundamentals of deductive and inductive logic have received
attention. Moreover emphasis has been given to those phases which
appear to commend themselves because of their practical value.
Further than this we trust that the book may fulfill in some small way
the larger mission of inspiring better thinking and, in consequence, of
leading to a more serviceable citizenship.
Surely as civilization advances it is with the expectation of giving
greater significance to the assumption “that man is a _rational_
animal.”
I am indebted to a number of writers on logic, notably to Mill,
Lotze, Keynes, Hibben, Fowler, Aikins, Hyslop, Creighton and Jevons.
I am likewise under obligation to that large body of students who, by
frankly revealing their difficulties, have given me a different point
of view.
For constructive criticism and definite encouragement I owe a personal
debt of gratitude to Prof. Charles Gray Shaw of New York University,
to Prof. Frank D. Blodgett of the Oneonta Normal School and to Prin.
A. C. MacLachlan of the Jamaica Training School for Teachers.
G. H. McN.
City Training School for Teachers,
Jamaica, N. Y. City.
October 3, 1914.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1.――THE SCOPE AND NATURE OF LOGIC.
1. The Mind.
2. Logic Related to Other Subjects.
3. Logic Defined.
4. The Value of Logic to the Student.
5. Outline.
6. Summary.
7. Review Questions.
8. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.
CHAPTER 2.――THOUGHT AND ITS OPERATION.
1. The Knowing Mind Compared with the Thinking Mind.
2. Knowing by Intuition.
3. The Thinking Process.
4. Notions, Individual and General.
5. Knowledge and Idea as Related to the Notion.
6. The Logic of the Psychological Terms Involved in the Notion.
7. Thought in the Sensation and Percept.
8. Evolution and the Thinking Mind.
9. The Concept as a Thought Product.
10. The Judgment as a Thought Product.
11. Inference as a Thought Product.
12. Thinking and Apprehension.
13. Stages in Thinking.
14. Outline.
15. Summary.
16. Review Questions.
17. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.
CHAPTER 3.――THE PRIMARY LAWS OF THOUGHT.
1. Two Fundamental Laws.
2. The Law of Identity.
3. The Law of Contradiction.
4. The Law of Excluded Middle.
5. The Law of Sufficient Reason.
6. Unity of Primary Laws of Thought.
7. Outline.
8. Summary.
9. Illustrative Exercises.
10. Review Questions.
11. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.
CHAPTER 4.――LOGICAL TERMS.
1. Logical Thought and Language Inseparable.
2. Meaning of Term.
3. Categorematic and Syncategorematic Words.
4. Singular Terms.
5. General Terms.
6. Collective and Distributive Terms.
7. Concrete and Abstract Terms.
8. Connotative and Non-connotative Terms.
9. Positive and Negative Terms.
10. Contradictory and Opposite Terms.
11. Privative and Nego-positive Terms.
12. Absolute and Relative Terms.
13. Outline.
14. Summary.
15. Illustrative Exercises.
16. Review Questions.
17. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.
CHAPTER 5.――THE EXTENSION AND INTENSION OF TERMS.
1. Two-fold Function of Connotative Terms.
2. Extension and Intension Defined.
3. Extended Comparison of Extension and Intension.
4. A List of Connotative Terms Used in Extension and Intension.
5. Other Forms of Expression for Extension and Intension.
6. Law of Variation in Extension and Intension.
6a. Important Facts in Law of Variation.
6b. Law of Variation Diagrammatically Illustrated.
7. Outline.
8. Summary.
9. Illustrative Exercises.
10. Review Questions.
11. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.
CHAPTER 6.――DEFINITION.
1. Importance.
2. The Predicables.
3. The Nature of a Definition.
4. Definition and Division Compared.
5. The Kinds of Definitions.
6. When the Three Kinds of Definitions are Serviceable.
7. The Rules of Logical Definition.
8. Terms Which Cannot be Defined Logically.
9. Definitions of Common Educational Terms.
10. Outline.
11. Summary.
12. Illustrative Exercises.
13. Review Questions.
14. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.
CHAPTER 7.――LOGICAL DIVISION AND CLASSIFICATION.
1. Nature of Logical Division.
2. Logical Division Distinguished from Enumeration.
3. Logical Division as Partition.
4. Four Rules of Logical Division.
5. Dichotomy.
6. Classification Compared with Division.
7. Kinds of Classification.
8. Two Rules of Classification.
9. Use of Division and Classification.
10. Outline.
11. Summary.
12. Review Questions.
13. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.
CHAPTER 8.――LOGICAL PROPOSITIONS.
1. The Nature of Logical Propositions.
2. Kinds of Logical Propositions.
3. The Four Elements of a Categorical Proposition.
4. Logical and Grammatical Subject and Predicate Distinguished.
5. The Four Kinds of Categorical Propositions.
6. Propositions which do not Conform to Logical Type.
7. Propositions not Necessarily Illogical.
8. The Relation between Subject and Predicate.
9. Outline.
10. Summary.
11. Illustrative Exercises.
12. Review Questions.
13. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.
CHAPTER 9.――IMMEDIATE INFERENCE――OPPOSITION.
1. The Nature of Inference.
2. Immediate and Mediate Inference.
3. The Forms of Immediate Inference.
(1) Opposition.
CHAPTER 10.――IMMEDIATE INFERENCE (Continued).
(2) Immediate Inference by Obversion.
(3) Immediate Inference by Conversion.
(4) Immediate Inference by Contraversion.
4. Epitome of the Four Processes of Immediate Inference.
◆ Inference by Inversion.
5. Outline.
6. Summary.
7. Illustrative Exercises.
8. Review Questions.
9. Problems for Original Thought and Investigation.
CHAPTER 11.――MEDIATE INFERENCE――THE SYLLOGISM.
1. Inference and Reasoning.
2. The Syllogism.
3. The Rules of the Syllogism.
4. Rules of Syllogism Explained.
5. Aristotle’s Dictum.
6. Canons of the Syllogism.
7. Mathematical Axioms.
8. Outline.
9. Summary.
10. Illustrative Exercises.
11. Review Questions.
12. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.
CHAPTER 12.――FIGURES AND MOODS OF THE SYLLOGISM.
1. The Four Figures of the Syllogism.
2. The Moods of the Syllogism.
3. Testing the Validity of the Moods.
4. Special Canons of the Four Figures.
5. Special Canons Related.
6. Mnemonic Lines.
7. Relative Value of the Four Figures.
8. Outline.
9. Summary.
10. Illustrative Exercises.
11. Review Questions.
12. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.
CHAPTER 13.――INCOMPLETE SYLLOGISMS AND IRREGULAR ARGUMENTS.
1. Enthymeme.
2. Epicheirema.
3. Polysyllogisms. Prosyllogism――Episyllogism.
4. Sorites.
5. Irregular Arguments.
6. Outline.
7. Summary.
8. Review Questions.
9. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.
CHAPTER 14.――CATEGORICAL ARGUMENTS TESTED ACCORDING TO FORM.
1. Arguments of Form and Matter.
2. Order of Procedure in a Formal Testing of Arguments.
3. Illustrative Exercise in Testing Arguments which are Complete
and whose Premises are Logical.
4. Illustrative Exercise in Testing Completed Arguments, one or
both of whose Premises are Illogical.
5. Incomplete and Irregular Arguments.
6. Common Mistakes of the Student.
7. Outline.
8. Summary.
9. Review Questions.
10. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.
CHAPTER 15.――HYPOTHETICAL AND DISJUNCTIVE ARGUMENTS INCLUDING THE
DILEMMA.
1. Three Kinds of Arguments.
2. Hypothetical Arguments.
3. Antecedent and Consequent.
4. Two Kinds of Hypothetical Arguments.
5. Rule and Two Fallacies of Hypothetical Argument.
6. Hypothetical Arguments Reduced to Categorical Form.
7. Illustrative Exercises Testing Hypothetical Arguments of All
Kinds.
8. Disjunctive Arguments.
9. Two Kinds of Disjunctive Arguments.
10. First Disjunctive Rule.
11. Second Disjunctive Rule.
12. Reduction of Disjunctive Argument.
13. The Dilemma.
14. Four Forms of Dilemmatic Arguments.
15. The Rule of Dilemma.
16. Illustrative Exercises Testing Disjunctive and Dilemmatic
Argument.
17. Ordinary Experiences Related to Disjunctive Proposition and
Hypothetical Argument.
18. Outline.
19. Summary.
20. Review Questions.
21. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.
CHAPTER 16.――THE LOGICAL FALLACIES OF DEDUCTIVE REASONING.
1. A Negative Aspect.
2. Paralogism and Sophism.
3. A Division of the Deductive Fallacies.
4. General Divisions Explained.
5. Fallacies of Immediate Inference.
6. Fallacies in Language (Equivocation).
7. Fallacies in Thought (Assumption).
8. Outline.
9. Summary.
10. Illustrative Exercises in Testing Arguments in Both Form and
Meaning.
11. Review Questions.
12. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.
CHAPTER 17.――INDUCTIVE REASONING.
1. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning Distinguished.
2. The “Inductive Hazard.”
3. Complexity of the Problem of Induction.
4. Various Conceptions of Induction.
5. Induction and Deduction Contiguous Processes.
6. Induction an Assumption.
7. Universal Causation.
8. Uniformity of Nature.
9. Inductive Assumptions Justified.
10. Three Forms of Inductive Research.
11. Induction by Simple Enumeration.
12. Induction by Analogy.
13. Induction by Analysis.
14. Perfect Induction.
15. Traduction.
16. Outline.
17. Summary.
18. Review Questions.
19. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.
CHAPTER 18.――MILL’S FIVE SPECIAL METHODS OF OBSERVATION AND
EXPERIMENT.
1. Aim of Five Methods.
2. Method of Agreement.
3. Method of Difference.
4. The Joint Method of Agreement and Difference.
5. The Method of Concomitant Variations.
6. The Method of Residues.
7. General Purpose and Unity of Five Methods.
8. Outline.
9. Summary.
10. Review Questions.
11. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.
CHAPTER 19.――AUXILIARY ELEMENTS IN INDUCTION.
OBSERVATION――EXPERIMENT――HYPOTHESIS.
1. Foundation of Inductive Generalizations.
2. Observation.
3. Experiment.
4. Rules for Logical Observation and Experiment.
5. Common Errors of Observation and Experiment.
6. The Hypothesis.
7. Induction and Hypothesis Distinguished.
8. Hypothesis and Theory Distinguished.
9. The Requirements of a Permissible Hypothesis.
10. Uses of Hypothesis.
11. Characteristics Needed by Scientific Investigators.
12. Outline.
13. Summary.
14. Review Questions.
15. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.
CHAPTER 20.――LOGIC IN THE CLASS ROOM.
1. Thought is King.
2. Special Functions of Induction and Deduction.
3. Two Types of Minds.
4. Conservatism in School.
5. The Method of the Discoverer.
6. Real Inductive Method not in Vogue in Class Room Work.
7. As a Method of Instruction, Deduction Superior.
8. Conquest, not Knowledge, the Desideratum.
9. Motivation as Related to Spirit of Discovery.
10. Discoverer’s Method Adapted to Class Room Work.
11. Question and Answer Method not Necessarily One of Discovery.
12. Outline.
13. Summary.
14. Review Questions.
15. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.
CHAPTER 21.――LOGIC AND LIFE.
1. Logic Given a Place in a Secondary Course.
2. Man’s Supremacy Due to Power of Thought.
3. Importance of Progressive Thinking.
4. Necessity of Right Thinking.
5. Indifferent and Careless Thought.
6. The Rationalization of the World of Chance.
7. The Rationalization of Business and Political Sophistries.
8. The Rationalization of the Spirit of Progress.
9. A Rationalization of the Attitude Toward Work.
10. The Logic of Success.
11. Outline.
12. Summary.
13. Review Questions.
14. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.
GENERAL EXERCISES IN TESTING CATEGORICAL ARGUMENTS.
GENERAL EXERCISES IN TESTING HYPOTHETICAL, DISJUNCTIVE AND
DILEMMATIC ARGUMENTS.
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS FOR TRAINING SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
OUTLINE OF BRIEFER COURSE.
INDEX.
CHAPTER 1.
THE SCOPE AND NATURE OF LOGIC.
=1. THE MIND.=
As to the true conception of matter the world is ignorant. Yet when
asked, “What does matter do?” the reply is, “Matter moves, matter
vibrates.” Moreover, relative to the exact nature of mind, the world
is likewise ignorant. But to the question, “What does mind do?” the
response comes, “The Mind _knows_, the mind _feels_, the mind _wills_.”
The mind has ever manifested itself in these three ways. Because of
this three-fold function it is easy to think of the mind as being
separated into distinct compartments, each constituting an independent
activity. This is erroneous. The mind is a living unit having three
sides but never acting one side at a time. When the mind knows it also
feels in some way and wills to some extent. To illustrate: Music is
heard and one _knows_ it to be Rubinstein’s Melody in F. The execution
being good one _feels_ pleasure. That the pleasurable state may be
augmented one _wills_ a listening attitude. For analytical purposes
the psychologists have a way of naming the state of mind from the
predominating manifestation.
=2. LOGIC RELATED TO OTHER SUBJECTS.=
What the mind _is_ may in time be answered satisfactorily by
philosophy; what the mind _does_ is described by psychology; what the
mind _knows_ is treated by logic. Again: the mind as a whole furnishes
the subject matter for psychology, whereas logic is concerned with the
mind knowing, aesthetics with the mind feeling, and ethics with the
mind willing. Ethics attempts to answer the question, “What is right?”
aesthetics, “What is beautiful?” and logic, “What is true?”
Though both psychology and logic treat of the knowing aspect of the
mind, yet the fields are not identical. The former deals with the
_process_ of the knowing mind as a _whole_, while the latter is
concerned mainly with the _product_ of the knowing mind when it
_thinks_. To be specific: The mind knows when it becomes aware of
anything, moreover, this condition of awareness appears in two ways:
first, immediately or by _intuition_; second, after deliberation or by
_thinking_. For example, one may know immediately or by intuition that
the object in the hand is a lead pencil, but when requested to state
the length of the pencil there is deliberation involving a comparison
of the unknown length with a definite measure. It may now finally
be asserted that the pencil is six inches long. When we know without
hesitation the process involved is intuition, whereas when the
knowledge comes after some sort of comparison the mental act is called
thinking. It, therefore, becomes the business of psychology to deal
with both intuition and thinking while logic devotes its attention
to thinking only, and even in this field the work of logic is more or
less indirect. The specific scope of logic is the product of thinking
or thought.[1] What are the forms of thought? What are the laws of
thought? Are the several thoughts true? These are the questions which
logic is supposed to answer.
For the logician thought has two sources, his own mind and the mind
of others. In the latter case thought becomes accessible through the
medium of language. There is in consequence a close connection between
logic, the science of thought, and grammar, the science of language.
Because of this near relation logic is sometimes called the “grammar
of thought.”
To study any science properly one must have thoughts and since logic is
the science of all thought the subject may be regarded as the _science
of sciences_.
=3. LOGIC DEFINED.=
“Logic is the science of thought.” This definition commonly given
is too brief to be helpful. Should not a definition of any subject
represent a working basis upon which one may build with some knowledge
of what the structure is to be? The following, a little out of the
ordinary, seems to supply this condition: _Logic as a science makes
known the laws and forms of thought and as an art suggests conditions
which must be fulfilled to think rightly._
In justification of the latter definition it may be argued that it
covers the topics usually treated by logicians. It is said that a
science teaches us to know while an art teaches us to do. As a science
logic teaches us to know certain laws which underlie right thinking.
For example, the law of identity which makes possible all affirmative
judgments, such as “Some men are wise,” “All metals are elements,” etc.
Likewise as a science logic acquaints us with certain universal _forms_
to which thought shapes itself, such as definitions, classifications,
inductions, deductions. Further, logic lays down definite _rules_ which
lead to right thinking. To wit: Because it is true of a _part_ of a
class it should not be assumed that it is true of the _whole_ of that
class: or, in short, do not distribute an undistributed term.
A possible profit to the student may result from a study of certain
authentic definitions herewith subjoined:
(1) “Logic is the science of the laws of thought.” Jevons.
(2) “Logic is the science which investigates the process of
thinking.” Creighton.
(3) “Logic as a science aims to ascertain what are the laws of
thought; as an art it aims to apply these laws to the detection
of fallacies or for the determination of correct reasoning.”
Hyslop.
(4) “Logic is the art of thinking.” Watts.
(5) “Logic is the science and also the art of thinking.” Whateley.
(6) “Logic is the science of the formal and necessary laws of
thought.” Hamilton.
(7) “Logic is the science of the regulative laws of the human
understanding.” Ueberweg.
(8) “Logic treats of the nature and of the laws of thought.” Hibben.
(9) “Logic may be defined as the science of the conditions on which
correct thoughts depend, and the art of attaining to correct and
avoiding incorrect thoughts.” Fowler.
(10) “Logic is the science of the operations of the understanding
which are subservient to the estimation of evidence.” Mill.
(11) “Logic may be briefly described as a body of doctrines and rules
having reference to truth.” Bain.
It would seem as if there were as many different definitions as there
are books on the subject. This is due partly to the disposition of
the older logicians to ignore the _art_ of logic and partly to the
difficulty of giving in a few words a satisfactory description of a
broad subject. In the fundamentals of logical doctrine present-day
authorities virtually agree.
=4. THE VALUE OF LOGIC TO THE STUDENT.=
Logic is rapidly coming into favor as a major subject in institutions
devoted to educational theory. Some of the reasons for this change of
attitude are herewith subjoined:
(1) _Logic should stimulate the thought powers._ This is the age of
the survival of the thinker. The fact that the man who thinks _best_
is the man who thinks _much_ and _carefully_ will be accepted by those
who believe that practice makes perfect. “One needs only to observe
the average commuter to conclude that a large percent. of our business
men read too much and think too little.” “Much readee and no thinkee”
was the reply of a Chinaman when asked his opinion of the doings of
the average American. “We as a people are newspaper mad, reading for
entertainment, seldom for mental improvement.”
(2) _Logic aims to secure correct thought._ Are not many of the sins
and most of the failures in this world due to incorrect thinking?
(3) _Logic should train to clear thinking._ It would be difficult to
estimate the loss of energy to the brain worker because he has not
the power to think clearly. Maximum efficiency is impossible with a
befogged brain. How discouraging it is to the student to attempt to
get from the paragraph the thought of the author, who in trying to be
profound succeeds in being profoundly abstruse. There is a probable
need for broad, deep thoughts, but these when placed in a text book
should be sharpened to a point.
(4) _Logic should aid one to estimate aright the statements and
arguments of others._ This is of especial value to the teacher who is
constrained to teach largely from text books. Because it is found in a
book is not proof positive that it is true. Why should we assume that
the book is infallible when we know that the man behind the book is
fallible?
(5) _Logic insists on definite, systematic procedure._ To be logical
is to be businesslike. A study of logic would, no doubt, benefit our
churches and parliamentary orders as well as our schools.
(6) _Logic demands lucid, pointed, accurate expression._ How we would
increase our working efficiency could we but express our thoughts in
an attractive and interesting manner. To listen to the speeches of some
of our great and good men who are concerned in directing the “ship of
state” is sufficient argument that the American schools need more logic.
(7) _Logic is especially adapted to a general mental training._ Despite
the swing of the pendulum of public opinion toward the bread-and-butter
side of life, there are many of high repute who claim that for the
sake of that mental acumen which distinguished the Greek from his
contemporaries we cannot afford to sacrifice everything on the altar
of commercialism.
(8) _Logic worships at the shrine of truth and adds to our store of
knowledge._ What has aided the world more in its march onward than this
deep-seated passion for truth and what has impeded it more than that
vain and wanton indifference to truth which brought to the world its
darkest age?
=5. OUTLINE――=
THE SCOPE AND NATURE OF LOGIC.
(1) The Mind.
Three aspects.
Unity of.
(2) Logic Related to Other Subjects.
Mental philosophy, psychology, logic.
Psychology, logic, aesthetics, ethics.
Two ways of knowing.
Special province of logic.
Logic and language.
A science of sciences.
(3) Logic Defined.
A general definition.
A more satisfactory definition.
A list of authentic definitions.
(4) The Value of Logic to the Student.
Eight reasons for its study.
=6. SUMMARY.=
(1) The aspects of the mind are knowing, feeling and willing.
The mind is a living unit and never knows without feeling in some way
and willing to some extent.
(2) What the mind _is_ must be answered by philosophy; what the mind
_does_ by psychology and what the mind _knows_ by logic.
Psychology treats of the mind as a whole, logic of the mind knowing,
aesthetics of the mind feeling and ethics of the mind willing. Ethics
answers the question, What is right? Aesthetics, What is beautiful?
Logic, What is true?
The standpoint of logic is not identical with any particular portion of
psychology.
The mind knows in two ways: (a) by intuition, (b) by thinking. Thinking
is a process――thought a product. Logic deals indirectly with the former
and directly with the latter.
Generally speaking, logic is a systematic study of thought. For the
logician thought has two sources: (a) his own mind and (b) spoken or
written language.
Because of the ambiguity of language logic has much to do with it as a
faulty vehicle of thought.
(3) Logic as a science makes known the laws and forms of thought and
as an art suggests conditions which must be fulfilled to think rightly.
Author.
“Logic may be defined as the science of the conditions on which correct
thoughts depend, and the art of attaining to correct and avoiding
incorrect thoughts.” Fowler.
In the fundamentals of logical doctrine present day logicians virtually
agree.
(4) Logic should stimulate the thought powers; secure correct and clear
thinking; aid in the estimation of arguments; inspire definite,
systematic procedure; demand lucid, pointed, accurate expression and be
especially adapted to general mental discipline.
Logic adds to our store of knowledge and develops a passion for the
truth.
=7. REVIEW QUESTIONS.=
(1) Explain and illustrate the three ways in which the mind may
manifest itself.
(2) Illustrate the fact that the mind acts in unity.
(3) Show briefly how logic is related to mental philosophy,
psychology, aesthetics, ethics and grammar.
(4) Illustrate the two ways of knowing.
(5) Distinguish between thinking and thought.
(6) Give a general definition of logic. Why is this definition
unsatisfactory?
(7) What are the two sources of thought?
(8) Why are logic and language so closely related?
(9) Give that definition of logic which best satisfies you.
(10) Summarize the benefits which you hope to derive from your study
of logic.
(11) Why should teachers be clear thinkers?
(12) Why should teachers be especially on guard against incorrect
statements of all kinds?
(13) Show how logic might be of assistance to the business man.
=8. QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL THOUGHT AND INVESTIGATION.=
(1) Prove that there is nothing real in the world save the mind
itself.
(2) “Logic is concerned primarily with how we _ought_ to think and
only in a secondary way with how we actually think.” Explain this
quotation.
(3) Prove that there is no such thing as intuitive knowing.
(4) Is there any difference between knowledge and thoughts?
Illustrate.
(5) Show by illustrations that the English language is ambiguous.
(6) Prove by concrete illustration that this is the age of the
survival of the thinker.
(7) Which is the more harmful: falsehood mixed with truth or
unadulterated falsehood? Give reasons.
(8) Give a concrete example of incorrect thinking.
(9) Show that wrong thinking leads to wrong doing.
(10) To be worth while must every subject have a practical value?
(11) “The 20th century virtue is a passion for truth.” Prove the truth
of this.