The present Condition of Mohammedanism.--In Turkey.--The Doctrines
believed there.--Their Forms of
Devotion.--Lustrations.--Prayer.--Mohammedan Sabbath.--Fast of
Ramadan.--Meccan Pilgrimage.--Proselytism.--Mohammedan
Hierarchy.--Islamism in Tartary.--In Hindustan.--In China.--In
Persia.--In Africa.--In the Indian Archipelago.--The Sooffees.--The
Wahabees.
The present condition of the Mohammedan faith, with some account of the
standing it maintains in the world, will not be deemed an inappropriate
subject for the closing pages of this volume. Its votaries have long
ceased to spread alarm through the nations by their victorious and
devastating progress; the fire of its fanaticism is almost extinct;
nevertheless, its doctrines prevail over a larger number of mankind
than any other system of false religion: they are professed in nations
and countries remote from each other, and having no other mutual
resemblance than that involved in their common superstition. In Spain,
indeed, Christianity has triumphed over Islamism; and in the
inhospitable regions of Siberia, a part of the ancient Tartary, its
advance has been somewhat checked; but in middle and lower Asia, and in
Africa, the {267} number of Mohammed's followers has increased. We
cannot state with accuracy the number either of Mohammedan or of
nominal Christians; but, looking at religion geographically, while
Christianity has almost entire dominion in Europe, in Asia Islamism is
the dominant faith: in America the cross is rapidly becoming the symbol
of faith throughout both its vast continents; but in Africa the
crescent waves to the almost entire exclusion of every other emblem.
It is in Turkey that Mohammedanism exists at the present day in its
most perfect form. To this country, therefore, our attention shall be
first directed.
Constantinople, anciently called Byzantium, and the countries over
which the Greek emperors residing in that city reigned, were subdued by
the powerful caliphs of Bagdad, while those of Spain and the West were
endeavouring to push their conquests over the fairest portions of
Europe. The situation of Constantinople and the surrounding empire lay
especially open to the Eastern Mohammedans, whose warlike incursions
were incessant. Tartars from Asia overran the empire. Othman, in the
early part of the thirteenth century, laid the foundation of Turkish
greatness. Orchan, Amurathi and Bajazet, his successors, amid both
foreign and domestic wars, greatly contributed to its {268}
establishment and increase. The children of the last of these
conquerors threw the empire into a frightful state of distraction by
their unnatural quarrels, till, at last, the youngest of them, named
after the Prophet, restored its integrity, and established something
like domestic tranquillity. Under a grandson of his, Mohammed II.,
whom Bayle describes as one of the greatest men recorded in history,
the Morea was subjugated, and the Greek empire, so long shaken by
internal dissensions, and tottering to dissolution by its luxury, was
trampled in the dust by the Moslem conquerors. Constantinople at last
yielded to their power, and a palace for the victor was erected on the
very spot which Constantine had chosen for his magnificent abode.
From this time to that of Solyman the Magnificent, to whom the Turks
owe their laws and police, the empire continued to prosper, but
immediately afterward its decline commenced. Letters and science have
made but little progress among that people, and their sultans have
possessed none of the martial enterprise and energy of their early
predecessors; still the faith of Mohammed has maintained, and down to
this day continues to maintain, a hold which it enjoys in almost no
other country.
The Turks generally repose the most implicit faith in the two leading
articles of the Mohammedan {269} creed, that there is but one God, and
that Mohammed is his Prophet; and since, in the opinion of the Moslems,
a simple assent to these doctrines comprises all that is valuable in
religion, and will be surely followed by the possession of heaven,
either immediately or remotely, it is readily conceivable that
infidelity will be exceedingly rare. In religious matters, the heart
opposes not so much what is to be believed as what is to be done.
Minor points of their theology have been from time to time disputed,
but these may be regarded as generally settled. Predestination is one
of the chief dogmas on which the faith of the Turk is as firmly fixed
as on the most momentous article in his creed. Fatalism was the great
engine employed by Mohammed in establishing his religion; and among the
Turks this doctrine is received as regulating their destiny,
controlling all events, and determining the results of every
individual's actions; thus unnerving the soul for generous and manly
enterprise, and casting a lethargy on the whole nation. In everything
the operations of reason are checked, and even made to wait for the
imagined manifestations of Deity. According to the creed of the Turks,
not only is everything foreknown to God, but everything is
predetermined, and brought about by his direct and immediate agency.
{270}
The Turk is keen and wise in his ordinary transactions: in promoting
his own interests, he knows how to exercise the powers of his mind,
but, when difficulty or doubt overtakes him, he makes no effort. The
thick cloud of his misfortunes is suffered to remain; his troubles are
yielded to with sullen indifference; he considers it impious to oppose
the determinations of the Most High. To all improvement, such a
doctrine is a decided and invincible foe; in some circumstances,
however, it appears to have its advantages. Does a Mohammedan suffer
by calamity? Is he plundered or ruined? He does not fruitlessly
bewail his lot. His answer to all murmuring suggestions is, "It was
written;" and to the most unexpected transition from opulence to
poverty, he submits without a sigh. The approach of death does not
disturb his tranquillity; he makes his ablution, repeats his prayers,
professes his belief in God and his Prophet, and in a last appeal to
the aid of affection, he says to his child, "turn my head towards
Mecca," and calmly expires.
A people's religion is traced in their established and common forms of
devotion, and none are more attentive to these than the Turks. To
neglect any ceremony which their religion prescribes, is deemed a mark
either of inferior understanding or of depraved character. Public
decorum is {271} everywhere observed; and though both moral and
religious precepts are violated with impunity and without remorse, they
are always spoken of with great respect. A Mohammedan is never ashamed
to defend his faith; and of his sincerity and firmness, the earnestness
of his vindication may be taken as sufficient proof: he not
unfrequently interrupts the progress of conversation by repeating his
religious formula. In the Turkish towns, travellers are incessantly
met with the cry of Allah Ackbar; and by Mussulmans, who would be
esteemed pious, the divine name is as frequently repeated as if
reverent and devout thoughts were habitually uppermost in their minds.
Purifications are constantly, and with great strictness, performed by
the Mussulmans of every country, but especially by those of Turkey.
Their professed object is to render the body fit for the decorous
performance of religious duties; no act being praiseworthy or
acceptable, in their estimation, unless the person of the performer be
in a condition of purity. Some have thought, but without sufficient
grounds, that these external purifications are believed to supersede an
inward cleansing of the heart. Fountains placed round their mosques,
and numerous baths in every city, enable the devout to perform their
five prayers daily, during which, if they chance to receive pollution
{272} from anything accidentally coming in contact with them, their
devotions are suspended till the offensive inconvenience is removed by
water or other means.
At the appointed hour, the Maazeens or criers, with their faces towards
Mecca, their eyes closed, and their hands upraised, pace the little
galleries of the minarets or towers of the mosques, and proclaim in
Arabic, the Moslem language of devotion, that the season of prayer has
arrived. Instantly, every one, whatever may be his rank or employment,
gives himself up to it. Ministers of state suspend the most important
affairs, and prostrate themselves on the floor; the tradesman forgets
his dealings, and transforms his shop into a place of devotion; and the
student lays aside his books, to go through his accustomed
supplications. "Never to fail in his prayers" is the highest
commendation a Turk can receive; and so prejudicial is the suspicion of
irreligion, that even libertines dare not disregard the notices of the
Maazeen. The mosques, like chapels in Catholic countries, are always
open, and two or three times every day prayers are offered within their
walls. It has often been remarked, that the devotions of Christians
might acquire something valuable from the gravity, the decorum, and the
apparently intense occupation of mind in Turkish worship. The Jews
trod {273} their holy place barefoot: the Turks, on the contrary, keep
on their boots and shoes. Christians uncover their heads in prayer;
the Moslems seldom lay aside their turbans; but for hours they will
remain prostrate, or standing in one position, as if absorbed in the
most intense abstraction. They have neither altars, pictures, nor
statues in their places of worship. Verses of the Koran, the names and
personal descriptions of their Prophet, of Ali and his two sons, Hassan
and Hosein, with other Moslem saints, are sometimes inscribed in
letters of gold on their walls. All distinctions of rank and
profession are forgotten when they pray. Persons of every class, on
the first sound of the accustomed cry, cast themselves on the ground,
and thus declare their belief in the equality of mankind, in the sight
of the great Father of all.
The Mohammedans of Turkey have a Sabbath, for which the Jewish or
Christian may be supposed to have furnished the model. Friday is their
day of rest, which commences on the preceding evening, when the
illuminated minarets and colonnades of the mosques give to their cities
the appearance of a festival. At noon, on Friday, all business is
suspended, the mosques are filled, and prayers are read by the
appointed officers, accompanied by the prostrations of the people.
Discourses are likewise frequently delivered on {274} practical points
in their theology; and sometimes, in the ardour of excitement,
political corruption and courtly depravity are fiercely assailed. A
voluptuous sultan has been known, under the effect of these discourses,
to tear himself from the soft indulgences of his harem and court, to
lead his martial subjects to war and victory on the plains of their
enemies. As soon as the public religious services are concluded, all
return to their ordinary pursuits; the day, however, is strictly
observed by all classes in the manner prescribed by law, it being a
received maxim that he who, without legitimate cause, absents himself
from public devotion on three successive Fridays, abjures his religion.
It is worthy of observation, that the prayers of the Turks consist
chiefly of adoration, of confessions of the Divine attributes and the
nothingness of man, and of homage and gratitude to the Supreme Being.
A Turk must not pray for the frail and perishable blessings of this
life; the health of the sultan, the prosperity of his country, and
divisions and wars among the Christians alone excepted. The legitimate
object of prayer they hold to be spiritual gifts, and happiness in a
future state of being.
No one of their religious institutions is more strictly observed by the
Turks than the fast of Ramadan. He who violates it is reckoned either
{275} an infidel or an apostate; and if two witnesses establish his
offence, he is deemed to have incurred the severest penalty of the law.
Abstinence from food, and even from the use of perfumes, from sunrise
to sunset, is enjoined. The rich pass the hours in meditation and
prayer, the grandees sleep away their time, but the labouring man,
pursuing his daily toil, most heavily feels its rigour. "When the
month of Ramadan happens in the extremities of the seasons, the
prescribed abstinence is almost intolerable, and is more severe than
the practice of any moral duty, even to the most vicious and depraved
of mankind." During the day all traffic is suspended; but in the
evening, and till late at night, it is actively carried on in the
streets, shops, and bazars, most splendidly illuminated. From sunset
to sunrise, revelry and excess are indulged in. Every night there is a
feast among the great officers of the court: the reserve of the Turkish
character is laid aside, and friends and relations cement their union
by mutual intercourse. Sumptuous banquets and convivial hilarity are
universal; and, were not women everywhere excluded from the tables of
the men, the pleasure of the festivals would amply compensate the
rigorous self-denial of their fasts.
The pilgrimage to Mecca is with the Turks more a matter of form than of
reality. Its {276} importance as a part of the Moslem ritual is
admitted, and apparently felt, but the number of pilgrims annually
decreases. The sultan, having dominion over the country through which
the pilgrims must pass, preserves the public ways leading to the
venerated city; the best soldiers of his empire are charged with the
protection of the caravans, which are sometimes numerous; but of his
own subjects, properly so called, few comparatively accompany them;
they are made up of devotees from a greater distance. The sultan, no
doubt, encourages the pilgrimage as much on commercial as on religious
grounds. The Koran has determined it to be very proper to intermingle
commerce and religion: "It shall be no crime in you," it says, "if ye
seek an increase from your Lord by trading during the pilgrimage."
Accordingly, articles of easy carriage and ready sale are brought by
the pilgrims from every country. The productions and manufactures of
India thus find their way into other parts of Asia and throughout
Africa. The muslins and chintses of Bengal and the Deccan, the shawls
of Cashmere, the pepper of Malabar, the diamonds of Golconda, the
pearls of Kilkau, the cinnamon of Ceylon, and the spices of the
Moluccas, are made to yield advantage to the Ottoman empire, and the
luxury of its subjects is sustained by contributions from the most
distant nations.
{277}
Mohammedans of the present day, at least those of Turkey, are less
anxious to make proselytes than were those of a former age. Those of
India and Africa may, to some extent, still retain the sentiment, that
to convert infidels is an ordinance of God, and must be observed by the
faithful in all ages; but in Turkey little desire of this kind is felt,
chiefly because, by a refinement of uncharitableness, the conversion of
the world is deemed unworthy of their endeavours. Now and then a
devout Moslem, instigated by zeal or personal attachment, may offer up
this prayer for a Jew or a Christian: "Great God, enlighten this
infidel, and graciously dispose his heart to embrace thy holy
religion;" and perhaps to a youth, esteemed for his talents or
knowledge, the language of persuasion may occasionally be addressed
with an air of gentleness and urbanity; but the zeal of the missionary
is in such cases commonly subject to what are conceived to be the rules
of good breeding, and a vague reply or silence is regarded as an
indication that the subject is disagreeable, and should not be
continued. A Mussulman may pray for the conversion of infidels, but,
till they are converted, no blessing may be supplicated in their
behalf. "Their death is eternal, why pray for them?" is the language
of the Mohammedan creed: do not {278} "defile your feet by passing over
the graves of men who are enemies of God and of his Prophet."
Of the Mohammedan hierarchy, some idea may be obtained from the form it
assumes in Turkey. The Koran is considered the treasure of all laws,
divine and human, and the caliphs as the depositaries of this treasure;
so that they are at once the pontiffs, legislators, and judges of the
people, and their office combines all authority, whether sacerdotal,
regal, or judicial. To the grand sultan titles are given, styling him
the vicar, or the shadow of God. The several powers which pertain to
him in this august capacity are delegated to a body of learned men,
called the Oulema. In this body three descriptions of officers are
included: the ministers of religion, called the Imams; the expounders
of the law, called the Muftis; and the ministers of justice, called the
Cadis. The ministers of religion are divided into chief and inferior,
the former of whom only belong to the Oulema. Both classes are made up
of Sheiks, or ordinary preachers; the Khatibs, readers or deacons; the
Imams, a title comprising those who perform the service of the mosque
on ordinary days, and those to whom pertain the ceremonies of
circumcision, marriage, and burial; the Maazeens, or criers, who
announce the hours of prayer; and the Cayuns, or common attendants of
the mosque. The {279} idea of this classification was, perhaps, taken
from the Mosaic priesthood; the Khatib being the Aaron, and the next
four the several orders of the Levites, with their servants or helpers.
The imperial temples have one Sheik, one Khatib, from two to four
Imams, twelve Maazeens, and twenty Cayuns, among whom, except in a few
of the chief mosques of Constantinople, the Khatibs have the
pre-eminence. All these ministers are subject to the civil magistrate,
who is looked upon as a sort of diocesan, and who may perform at any
time all the sacerdotal functions. The ministers of religion are not
distinguishable from other people; they mix in the same society, engage
in similar pursuits, and affect no greater austerity than marks the
behaviour of Mussulmans generally. Their influence depends entirely on
their reputation for learning and talents, for gravity and correct
moral conduct; their employment is, for the most part, very simple, as
chanting aloud the public service, and performing such offices as every
master of a family may discharge. As Mohammedanism acknowledges no
sacrifices, it appoints no priests; the duties performed by the
ministers of religion being seemingly devolved on them more as a matter
of convenience than on account of any sacredness attaching to their
order.
The vast country to which the general name of {280} Tartary has been
given, is that from whence Mohammedanism has gone forth to the East,
the West, and the South. In Thibet, the Grand Lama and various
national idols hold divided empire with the Prophet; and in the
inhospitable regions of Siberia, the churches of Greece and Russia have
successfully promulgated the Christian doctrines; while the
Circassians, with some other Tartar races, are almost without religion.
In the Crimea, the people are Mussulmans, as rigid and devoted as the
Turks; and over the vast tract called by modern geographers Independent
Tartary, the crescent triumphantly waves. From these regions sprung,
in the earlier ages of Mohammedan conquest, those vast empires which,
in the East, comprise so large a number of the professors of the faith
of Islam. The first sovereign of this country, to whom the title of
sultan was awarded early in the tenth century, conducted several
expeditions into Hindustan, and secured the homage of many of the
cities. The ancient Indian superstition was in a great measure
overturned by his victorious arms. Long and fierce contests ensued:
the princes of the subdued provinces, often throwing off their forced
allegiance, endeavoured to regain their independence and re-establish
their ancient faith, till, at length, the great Timurlane, having
overrun the country with his legions, received at Agra the title {281}
of Emperor of Hindustan. Scarcely, however, had two centuries and a
half rolled away, when his successors fell in their turn under the
Persian power; and the empire he established was weakened, and
ultimately destroyed. As the result of these conquests, Mohammedanism
prevailed to a great extent, but rather nominally than really, among
the millions of India: it was the religion of the court and government;
but, either from indifference or timidity in the Moslem conquerors, the
ancient idols still held extensive influence, and were at length
gradually restored. In the twelfth century, Benares, the ancient seat
of Brahminical learning and of Hindu idolatry, fell into the hands of
the conqueror, who destroyed its numerous objects of popular adoration.
Yet, soon afterward, the religious character of the place was restored,
and the demolished idols were replaced by others, that were as eagerly
resorted to as had been their predecessors. To this consecrated
metropolis, a pilgrimage was regarded by the millions of India as
imperatively commanded, and as necessary as was a visit to Mecca by the
Mohammedans; and the weakness or the policy of its Moslem conquerors
did not long withhold from them this valued privilege; the government
of the city was committed to the Hindus, and their conquerors, in the
plenitude of their bigotry, pride, and power, never {282} thought of
suffering their own magistrates to exercise authority within its walls.
Thus Mohammedanism is the religion, not of the ancient inhabitants of
India, but of the descendants of the millions of Tartars, Persians, and
Arabians who, at various periods, have left their native seats to
participate in the riches of these far-famed plains. The north and
northwestern parts are filled with them, and from thence they have
wandered over the whole of that vast country. Perhaps their numbers
may now amount to nearly twenty millions, among whom, however, though
they are mostly of foreign extraction, are many converts from Hinduism.
They form separate communities, amalgamating in some parts of the
country, and living as sociably with Hindus as the differences in their
respective faiths will permit. Hindu princes have at times paid their
devotions at Mohammedan shrines, and observed their feasts; while
Mohammedans have relaxed somewhat the strictness of their observances,
and manifested an inclination to conform, as far as possible, to their
Hindu neighbours. Some five centuries ago, the Borahs, a people who
once occupied the kingdom of Guzerat, were converted _en masse_ to
Islamism. The Arab traders to the coasts of Malabar have always been
exceedingly earnest in their endeavours to convert the natives, in
which they have {283} been greatly aided by the facility with which
they have been allowed to purchase the children of the poorer classes,
to educate them in the principles of their faith, and also by the
frequency with which the inhabitants of those districts lose caste.
This badge of the Hindu faith is often forfeited by the people mixing
with those of other countries, and when it is lost they easily become
Moslems.
It has been maintained that the native inhabitants of India are
absolutely unchangeable in their sacred, domestic, and political
institutions, and, at first sight, there would appear to be much to
warrant such an opinion; but the history of many of them, and
especially of the Sikhs, who inhabit the provinces of the Panjab,
between the rivers Jumna and Indus, may be alleged as proofs to the
contrary. Still, in the religion of the Sikhs, Mohammedan fable and
Hindu absurdity are mixed; its founder wishing to unite both these
prevalent systems in one. He had been educated in a part of the
country where these two religions appeared to touch each other, if not
commingle, and he was no stranger to the violent animosity existing
between their respective professors; he sought, therefore, to blend the
jarring elements of both in peaceful union. The Hindu was required to
abandon his idols, and to worship the one Supreme Deity whom his
religion acknowledged; while the Mohammedan {284} was to abstain from
such practices (especially the killing of cows) as were offensive to
the superstition of the Hindus. This plan so far prevailed, that,
without acknowledging the Prophet, the Sikhs became more Mohammedans
than Hindus; and though the institutions of Brahma are not admitted
among them, they insult and persecute true Moslems more fiercely and
cruelly than any other people. They compel them to eat that which is
forbidden by their law; animals which they account unclean are
frequently thrown into their places of public assembly, and they are
prohibited from proclaiming the hour of prayer to the faithful.
China is one of those countries to which Mohammedanism was carried by
the hordes of Tartary. From the scrupulous jealousy with which this
vast empire is guarded from observation, it is difficult to say to what
extent the Mohammedan faith, or, indeed, any other, prevails among its
numberless inhabitants; but, beyond question, it is tolerated.
The irruption of the Saracens into China under Walid can scarcely be
termed a conquest. Subsequently, the successors of Zenghis Khan seated
themselves on the throne of Pekin, and opened the country to an
intercourse with all nations. The commercial Arabs had visited the
ports and cities in the south of China; and, now that access to the
{285} capital was unrestrained, multitudes of them repaired thither.
They acquired the language, and adopted the dress and manners of the
people, to whom also they rendered valuable aid in adjusting their
chronology, and making the necessary calculations for their calendar.
Intercourse with the Chinese made the Mohammedans desirous of effecting
their conversion, the means adopted for which were both wise and
humane. Deserted children were taken under their protection, and
educated in Islamism; while in other ways they sought to commend
themselves to confidence, and their religion to respect, by alleviating
the wretchedness induced by a cruel superstition. The Mohammedans of
China seem to partake of the mild and quiet character of the
inhabitants generally, and are therefore tolerated; though there have
been some exceptions to this encomium. About sixty years ago they were
instrumental in promoting an unsuccessful rebellion, and the Emperor
Kien Long, after suppressing it, ordered one hundred thousand of them
to be put to death.
Persia, from an early period, has been almost entirely a Mohammedan
country. On its conquest by the Saracens, the religion of Zoroaster,
which had till then prevailed, was nearly abolished. Those who
persevered in retaining it were obliged to flee to the mountains or to
the western parts {286} of India, where their old forms of worship
still linger. In the disputes which ensued on the death of Mohammed
concerning the caliphate, the Persians espoused the cause of Ali, the
Prophet's son-in-law, and to his memory they are still attached. "May
this arrow go to the heart of Omar," is a frequent expression among
them in drawing a bow; and not long since, when Mr. Malcolm, during his
travels in Persia, was praising Omar, the antagonist of Ali, as the
greatest of the caliphs, a Persian, overcome by the justice of his
observations, yet still adhering to his rooted prejudices, replied,
"This is all very true, but he was a dog after all."
Here Mohammedanism exists in a less rigorous form than in Turkey. Its
ceremonies are observed by those who are little disposed to practice
its moral code: they say their prayers at the appointed season, and
make a show of devotion to prevent their being suspected of irreligion;
but the people generally are little concerned about the pilgrimage to
Mecca, and other matters on which, in the Koran, much stress is laid.
They choose rather to resort to the tomb of Ali, and to that of his son
Hosein, whose name is reverenced among them with a feeling approaching
to adoration.
In Africa, Mohammedanism has very widely prevailed. Algiers, Tunis,
Tripoli, all the northern parts of this continent, acknowledge its
sway. {287} From Arabia and Egypt it spread west and south nearly to
the great rivers. It is the established religion of Morocco; and in
Western Barbary and several kingdoms of the interior the Arabic
language is spoken, the Koran believed, and the Prophet almost
worshipped. The Senegal, up to the small Moorish state of Gedumah, is
the line of division between the Mohammedans and the Negroes: from
thence the line passes eastward of north, through Nigritia and Nubia to
the Nile. As yet, however, it is but indistinctly marked, it being
doubtful whether Timbuctoo is a Mohammedan or Negro town. The courts
of Bornou and Cassina are Mohammedan, but a majority of their subjects
are pagans. Islamism in these vast territories is in an exceedingly
degenerate state when compared with either its first development in the
Arabian desert, or with what now obtains in Turkey. It is said that
but little more than its exclusive persecuting spirit remains: the
Oriental lustrations are almost unknown, Mohammedan temperance is
neglected, and the great doctrine of the unity of God is confounded
with, or supplanted by, the polytheism of the native inhabitants. The
Mussulman is more depraved than the pagan; so that, while travellers
frequently mention the hospitality they received from the latter, by
the former they were constantly insulted and annoyed on account of
{288} their religion. In no quarter of the world does the faith of the
Prophet wear so frightful an aspect as in Africa.
The region from which Mohammedanism first sprung has not remained in
all respects faithful to the precepts of the Prophet. In Mecca and
Medina, indeed, his name and system are held in the profoundest
veneration; and no wonder, since both these cities are mainly supported
by the superstitious observances enjoined in the Koran; but the
Bedouins are as licentious in their religion as in their policy and
habits. On the Turkish frontiers they keep up an appearance of respect
for the name of the Prophet and his doctrines; but, in answer to all
reproaches for their unfaithfulness, they say in words worthy a better
taught and more civilized race, "The religion of Mohammed could never
have been intended for us. We have no water in the desert. How, then,
can we make the prescribed ablutions? We have no money. How, then,
can we give alms? The fast of Ramadan is a useless command to persons
who fast all the year round; and, if God be everywhere, why should we
go to Mecca to adore him?"
From the southernmost part of Hindustan, Mohammedanism made its way to
the Malayan peninsula; to Sumatra, Java, Borneo, the Manillas, and the
Celebes: Goram, one of the Spice Islands, is {289} its eastern
boundary. In the interior of these islands it prevails less than on
the shores. To these remote regions Islamism has been carried more by
the commercial than the military enterprise of its votaries. What is
its present condition there, it is difficult, perhaps impossible,
accurately to ascertain. In Java it was the established religion; but,
when the Dutch settled that island early in the seventeenth century,
many of the natives were converted. Little respect is paid by the
Javans of the present day either to their ancient paganism, or to
Mohammedanism which took its place; though some of the forms of the
latter are still in force, and its institutions are said to be gaining
ground.
The reader of Mohammedan history will meet with the terms Sooffee and
Wahabee, as designating certain divisions of the disciples of the
religion of the Prophet. It will not, therefore, be inappropriate to
close with a brief account of these respective sects.
Sooffee is a term originating in Persia, meaning enthusiasts or
mystics, or persons distinguished by extraordinary sanctity. The
object of the Sooffee is to attain a divine beatitude, which he
describes as consisting in absorption into the essence of Deity. The
soul, according to his doctrine, is an emanation from God, partaking of
his nature; just {290} as the rays of light are emanations from the
sun, and of the same nature with the source, from whence they are
derived. The creature and the Creator are of one substance. No one
can become a Sooffee without strictly conforming to the established
religion, and practising every social virtue; and when, by this means,
he has gained a habit of devotion, he may exchange what they style
practical for spiritual worship, and abandon the observance of all
religious forms and ceremonies. He at length becomes inspired, arrives
at truth, drops his corporeal veil, and mixes again with that glorious
essence from which he has been partially and for a time separated. The
life of the Sooffees of Persia, though generally austere, is not
rendered miserable, like that of the visionary devotees of Hinduism, by
the practice of dreadful severities, their most celebrated teachers
have been famed for knowledge and devotion. The Persians are a poetic
people, and the very genius of Sooffeeism is poetry. Its raptures are
the raptures of inspiration; its hopes are those of a highly sensitive
and excited imagination; its writers in the sweetest strains celebrate
the Divine love, which pervades all nature: everything, from the very
highest to the lowest, seeking and tending towards union with Deity as
its object of supreme desire. They inculcate forbearance,
abstemiousness, and {291} universal benevolence. They are unqualified
predestinarians. The emanating principle, or the soul, proceeding from
God, can do nothing, they say, without his will, nor refuse to do
anything which he instigates. Some of them, consequently, deny the
existence of evil; and the doctrine of rewards and punishments is
superseded by their idea of re-absorption into the Divine essence. The
free opinions of this class of enthusiasts subvert the doctrines of
Islamism, yet they pay an outward respect to them; they unsettle the
existing belief, without providing an intelligible substitute; they
admit the divine mission of the Prophet, but explain away the dogmas he
uttered; and while they affect to yield him honour as a person raised
up by God, to induce moral order in the world, they boast their own
direct and familiar intercourse with Deity, and claim, on that account,
unqualified obedience in all that relates to spiritual interests.
The similarity of Sooffeeism to the ancient Pythagorean and Platonic
doctrines will occur to every one at all acquainted with the religion
and philosophy of antiquity. It as closely resembles some of the
distinguishing tenets of the Brahminical faith. In fact, it seems as
if designed, in conjunction with the refined theology of ancient, and
the sublime visions of modern idolaters, to teach us that, without
Divine guidance, the loftiest human {292} conceptions on subjects
connected with God and religion invariably err; the ignorant and the
instructed are equally wrong; "the world by wisdom knows not God."
The Wahabees are a modern sect of Mohammedan reformers, whose efforts
have considerably changed the aspect of the religion of the Prophet.
Perhaps to them may be owing much of that rigid adherence to Mohammedan
doctrine and practice which prevails in those parts where their
influence has been felt. They are the followers of Abdol Wahab, who
commenced his career in the region where, during the lifetime of the
Prophet, Moseilama had threatened a considerable division among his
followers. Wahab was an ambitious fanatic, who aimed, nevertheless, at
reforming the national religion. He was aided by powerful princes of
the province of Nejed; and, within a short time, the tenets he
maintained spread throughout the peninsula. His fundamental principle,
like that of Mohammed, was the unity of God. The Koran he regarded as
divine, rejecting all the glosses which ignorance and infatuation had
put upon it, and holding in utter contempt all the traditions and tales
concerning its author, which the devout of every generation had eagerly
received. The reverence, approaching to adoration, which the Arabs
were wont to pay to the name of Mohammed, all visits to his tomb, and
all {293} regard to the tombs and relics of Arab saints, he denounced;
and the costly ornaments with which a mistaken piety had enriched these
sacred spots, he thought might be appropriated to ordinary purposes.
Wahab would not suffer the common oath of, by Mohammed, or by Ali, to
be used among his followers, on the very rational ground that an oath
is an appeal to a witness of our secret thoughts, and who can know
these but God? The title of Lord, generally given to the Prophet by
his followers, Wahab rejected as impious. He was commonly mentioned by
this zealous reformer and his adherents by his simple name, without the
addition of "our Lord, the Prophet of God." All who deviated in any
degree from the plain sense of the Koran, either in belief or practice,
were infidels in their esteem; upon whom, therefore, according to its
directions, war might be made. Thus was the martial spirit of the
early Saracens again called into exercise; and with the ardour that
characterized the days of the immediate successors of the Prophet, they
were prepared at once to assail the consciences and the property of men
not exactly of their own faith.
At the call of their leader, they assembled first in the plain of
Draaiya, some 400 miles east of Medina, armed and provided at their own
expense for war. Bagdad and Mecca in vain attempted to {294} suppress
them; the seraglio itself was filled with their formidable war-cry; the
sultan trembled on his throne; and the caravans from Syria suspended
their usual journeys. The imperial city suffered from their ravages in
its usual supplies of coffee; and the terror of their name was widely
spreading among devout Mohammedans of every country, for they had
violated the shrines of saints, and levelled to the ground the chapels
at Mecca, which devotion had consecrated to the memory of the Prophet
and his family. At the commencement of the present century, however,
Mecca was recovered from them by the Turkish arms, and the plague, with
the smallpox, breaking out just at this time among the followers of
Wahab, probably saved the mighty fabric of Islamism. These reverses
did not quench, however, the ardour of the Wahabees. Their leader had
been assassinated, but his son, already distinguished for his prudence
and valour, succeeded him in the command. Medina fell beneath his
power, and from thence to the Persian Gulf he seemed likely to reign
lord paramount. In 1805 he was able to impose a heavy tax on the
caravan of pilgrims from Damascus to the Holy City, and declared that
thenceforth it should consist of pilgrims alone, without the pride and
pomp of a religious procession. Soon afterward they again entered
Mecca, and immediately threatened with destruction every {295} sacred
relic; but they did not put their threats into execution. Various
conflicts between them and the orthodox Mohammedans have since ensued,
the general result of which has been to break the martial and fanatical
spirit of the Wahabees, and to re-establish the power of the grand
sultan in cities and districts where it had been placed in jeopardy.
They are still, indeed, dreaded as plunderers, but no great national
convulsion has resulted from their efforts.
Some writers regret the suppression of this once powerful sect of
Mohammedans, believing that, if continued, they would have been
instrumental in overthrowing the Moslem faith, and making way for a
purer religion; but for ourselves, we see little occasion for these
regrets. The Wahabees must not be supposed more favourable to a pure
faith than are those by whom they have been overthrown. If they must
be regarded as reformers, they only attempted to correct a few absurd
and scandalous practices: the impious and abominable dogmas of the
Koran they left untouched; or, if they touched them, it was only to
enforce their observance with greater rigour. Their creed was even
more sanguinary and intolerant than that of the ancient Mohammedans,
and probably the continuance of their power would have been nothing
more than the continuance of injustice, cruelty, and {296} persecution.
We do not look for the overthrow of Mohammedanism by such means. One
system of error may sometimes destroy another, but the pure faith,
which blesses a miserable world by directing men in the path of safety,
knowledge, and happiness, will extend only as the sacred volume is
diffused, and as that holy influence from God accompanies it by which
the understanding is illuminated and the heart renewed. Fanaticism is
no auxiliary of the religion of the Bible; it neither prepares its way
nor accelerates its progress. Violence and war are utterly rejected by
this divine system, as alien from its spirit and character. "My
kingdom," says its founder, "is not of this world: if my kingdom were
of this world, then would my servants fight; but now is my kingdom not
from hence."
THE END.
End of Project Gutenberg's History of the Moors of Spain, by M. Florian