Anglo-Saxon Period--Buckets--Drinking-cups of wood--Bronze
Bowls--Bronze Boxes--Combs--Tweezers--Châtelaines--Girdle
Ornaments--Keys--Hair-pins--Counters, or Draughtmen, and
Dice--Querns--Triturating Stones, etc.--Conclusion.
Buckets, so called, and very appropriately, from their close
resemblance in form to our modern vessels bearing that name, are
occasionally found in Anglo-Saxon graves. They are small wooden vessels
bound round with hoops or rims of bronze, more or less ornamented,
and have a handle of the same metal arched over their tops. Of course
in every case the wooden staves of which they were composed, and
which were of ash, are decomposed, the hoops, handle, and mountings
alone remaining. They vary very much in size; one from Bourne Park
had the lower hoop twelve inches in diameter, and the upper one ten
inches, and the whole height appears to have been about a foot; the
handle was hooked at its ends exactly the same as in our present
buckets, and fitted into loops on the sides; it had three looped
bronze feet to stand upon. Other examples only measure four or five
inches in diameter. The example here engraved (fig. 460) was found in
Northamptonshire, along with other remains. It is composed of three
encircling hoops of bronze, and has its handle and attachments also of
the same metal.
[Illustration: Fig. 460.]
[Illustration: Fig. 461.]
The next example (fig. 461) is from Fairford, in Gloucestershire, and
is three inches in height, and four inches in diameter. The hoops
and mountings are of bronze. Another example, which I give for the
purpose of comparison, is from Envermeu, in Normandy (fig. 462). Of the
use of these utensils nothing certain, of course, is known, but it is
conjectured they were used for bringing in mead, ale, or wine, to fill
the drinking-cups--the objection to this as a general rule being their
very small size. “The Anglo-Saxon translation of the Book of Judges
(vii. 20) rendered _hydrias confregissent_, by ‘ꞇo-bꞃœcon pa bucaꞅ,’
_i.e._ ‘they broke the buckets.’ A common name for this vessel, which
was properly called _buc_, was _œscen_, signifying literally a vessel
made of ash, the favourite wood of the Anglo-Saxons.”
[Illustration: Fig. 462.]
Drinking-cups were sometimes of wood. Of these, two examples are here
given. The first of these has a rim of brass, the second a like rim
attached by overlapping bands. It has also a number of small bands of
the same metal riveted on to mend cracks in the wood. They were found
in a barrow on Sibertswold Down, in Kent.
[Illustration: Fig. 463.]
[Illustration: Fig. 464.]
Bowls of bronze are occasionally also found. Some of these are plain,
others enamelled or otherwise ornamented, and others, again, gilt.
Many of them appear from their form to have been of Roman origin.
Some remarkably fine examples have been yielded by the graves of Kent
and other districts. The one here engraved (fig. 465) was found at
Over-Haddon, in Derbyshire, along with the remains of a circular
enamelled disc of the kind described on a previous page, and other
relics. The bowl was seven inches in diameter, and had originally two
handles. They are supposed to have been used for placing hot meats
in, on the table. They range in size from four or five to twelve or
fourteen inches in diameter.
[Illustration: Fig. 465.]
Small boxes of bronze are occasionally found, and are of different
forms. Some are plain upright boxes with lids, just intended to hold
sewing materials--in fact, the work-boxes of the Saxon ladies--and
others are rather large, and have been intended to contain the
comb, etc.: they are, therefore, a kind of dressing-cases. The box
engraved on fig. 466 was found along with other Saxon remains near
Church Sterndale. The grave, which was cut in the rock, contained a
skeleton of a woman; the lower bones were fairly preserved, but of
the upper parts there were but few remains, the enamel crowns of the
teeth being in the best condition. “At the left hip was a small iron
knife four inches long, and where the right shoulder had been was
an assemblage of curious articles, the most important of which was
a small bronze box or canister, with a lid to slide on, measuring
altogether two inches high, and the same in diameter. When found, it
was much crushed, but still retained, inside, remains of thread, and
bore on the outside impressions of linen cloth. Close to it were two
bronze pins or broken needles, and a mass of corroded iron, some of
which has been wire chainwork connected with a small bronze ornament
with five perforations, plated with silver, and engraved with a cable
pattern, near which were two iron implements of larger size, the whole
comprising the girdle and châtelaine, with appendages, of a Saxon lady.
Many pieces of hazel stick were found in contact with these relics,
which were probably the remains of a basket in which they were placed
at the funeral. All the iron shows impressions of woven fabrics, three
varieties being distinguishable; namely, coarse and fine linen, and
coarse flannel or woollen cloth. The box is very faintly ornamented by
lozenges, produced by the intersection of oblique lines scratched in
the metal.”
[Illustration: Fig. 466.]
[Illustration: Fig. 467.]
The next engraving shows a bronze box of quite a different character,
found with Anglo-Saxon remains at Newhaven. It is two inches in
diameter, but very thick. It has six vertical ribs and two bars for
attachment of the lid.
[Illustration: Fig. 468.]
Needles and pins are frequently met with. The two shown on fig. 466
will, however, be sufficient to call attention to these minute objects.
Combs of the Anglo-Saxon period differ but little from those of the
Romans, or indeed from those of the present day. They were, both Roman
and Saxon, sometimes toothed on one side and sometimes on both sides,
and were made alike of wood, of metal, of bone, and of ivory. Boxwood
appears to have been so much used for the manufacture of combs as to
have occasionally given its own name to them. Thus Martial says:--
“Quid faciet nullos hic inventura capillos,
Multifido buxus quæ tibi dente datur?”
Wooden combs have naturally for the most part perished, but fragments
have occasionally been found. Combs, both of bronze and iron, of the
Roman period, have also been discovered. The greater part, however,
both of that and of the Saxon period, which have been exhumed, are of
bone and ivory. A good example of the single-edged or “backed” comb is
given on fig. 469; they varied much in ornamentation. The next (fig.
470) is toothed on both its edges, and has guards or covers to fit on
the teeth, in the same manner as common pocket-combs of the present
day. The next is a comb with a handle, which was dredged up out of the
river Thames. The period is somewhat uncertain, but I give it for the
purpose of comparison, as I do also the three next figures, the first
of which is from the mummy graves at Arica, the second a modern wooden
comb from the same district, and the third an Indian scalp-comb. Combs
from Rangoon, in the Burmese empire, and from China, are also very
curiously illustrative of those of early races found in our own country.
[Illustration: Fig. 469.]
[Illustration: Fig. 470.]
[Illustration: Fig. 471.]
[Illustration: Fig. 472.]
[Illustration: Fig. 473.]
[Illustration: Fig. 474.]
Mirrors such as are found in Roman graves are occasionally, but very
rarely, met with; they were, of course, articles for the toilet. Shears
or scissors of iron, some of which are of precisely the same form as
our modern sheep-shears, and others of the shape of scissors of the
present day, are of not unfrequent occurrence. Tweezers, too, are
occasionally met with. The usual form is shown on fig. 475. They are of
bronze, and were, it is said, used for pulling out superfluous hairs
from the body. They with the scissors were frequently worn attached to
the girdle, along with other instruments, of which I shall now say a
few words.
[Illustration: Fig. 475.]
Châtelaines, or girdle-hangers, are among the most interesting of
discoveries in the graves of Saxon females. They consist of a bunch
of small implements of various kinds--keys, tweezers, scissors,
tooth-picks, ear-picks, nail-cleaners, etc., and ornaments of one kind
or other--hung on a chain, which being attached to the girdle hung down
by the side to the thigh, or, in some instances, evidently as low as
the knee. The various instruments are of silver, bronze, or iron, and
are generally, the iron especially, corroded into an almost shapeless
mass. The silver and bronze being more endurable, the instruments of
these metals are better preserved. The example here given (fig. 476)
is from one of the Kentish graves. Of some of the articles found the
use is unknown, but most can be easily identified. A bunch of what is
supposed to be three latch-keys is given on fig. 477, and on the next
figure, 478, two curious objects, the use of which has probably been to
hang small instruments on, to attach them to the girdle. For the same
use, probably, are the curious and somewhat puzzling objects which are
occasionally met with, and are here shown on fig. 479. They are found
in pairs, attached at the top, and vary much in the pattern of the
lower extremities. Probably the girdle passed through the upper part,
and keys and other objects would be hung on the lower ends. Each side
of the one here engraved is six and a half inches in length. A large
variety of girdle ornaments have been found in different districts.
[Illustration: Fig. 476.]
[Illustration: Fig. 477.]
[Illustration: Fig. 478.]
[Illustration: Fig. 479.]
Hair-pins are of various forms and lengths. They are generally of
bronze, but sometimes of bone. They are sometimes plain, but at
others highly ornamented, occasionally being richly enamelled. Fig.
480 is of unique form, and has three flat pendants of bronze attached
to its head by a ring. Besides hair-pins, numbers of metal pins for
domestic purposes are met with.
[Illustration: Fig. 480.]
[Illustration: Fig. 481.]
[Illustration: Fig. 482.]
[Illustration: Fig. 483.]
Of locks and keys, scales and weights, and many other articles, it will
not be necessary to speak at further length than simply to note that
they are sometimes found in Saxon graves. Bells--small hand-bells--too,
are found in the graves of women. They are of bronze or iron, and of
the rectangular form so characteristic of Saxon bells of larger size.
One of the most curious set of objects which the Saxon graves of
Derbyshire have produced is a set of twenty-eight bone counters, or
draughtmen, some of which are shown on the following engraving (fig.
484) where they are represented of their full size. They were found by
Mr. Bateman in a barrow near Cold Eaton, along with an interment of
burnt bones, some fragments of iron, and portions of two bone combs.
The draughtmen, as they are supposed to be, and the combs, had been
burnt with the body. The following is Mr. Bateman’s account of this
curious discovery:--
“The barrow was about twenty yards across, with a central elevation
of eighteen inches, and was entirely composed of earth. The original
deposit was placed in a circular hole, eighteen inches in diameter,
sunk about six inches in the stony surface of the land on which the
barrow was raised, so that the entire depth from the top of the latter
was two feet. The interment consisted of a quantity of calcined human
bones, which lay upon a thin layer of earth at the bottom of the hole,
as compactly as if they had at first been deposited within a shallow
basket or similar perishable vessel. Upon them lay some fragments of
iron, part of two bone combs, and twenty-eight convex objects of bone,
like button-moulds.
“The pieces of iron have been attached to some article of perishable
material; the largest fragment has a good-sized loop, as if for
suspension. One of the combs has been much like the small-tooth comb
used in our nurseries, and is ornamented by small annulets cut in the
bone; the other is of more elaborate make, having teeth on each side
as the former, but being strengthened by a rib up the middle of both
sides, covered with a finely cut herring-bone pattern, and attached by
iron rivets.
“The twenty-eight bone objects (of which nine are engraved on fig.
484) consist of flattened hemispherical pieces, mostly with dots on
the convex side; in some, dots within annulets. They vary from half an
inch to an inch in diameter, and have generally eight, nine, or ten
dots each; but these are disposed so irregularly that it would be
difficult to count them off-hand, which leads to the conclusion that
these counters would not be employed for playing any game dependent
upon numbers, like dominoes or dice, but that they were more probably
used for a game analogous to draughts. This is most likely to be the
fact, as draughtmen have occasionally been found in Scandinavian
grave-mounds; and we must assign this interment to the Saxons, whose
customs were in many respects identical. All the articles found in this
barrow have undergone the process of combustion, along with the human
remains.”
[Illustration: Fig. 484.]
In Yorkshire, some years ago, a stone, marked in small squares like a
draught-board, was found at Scambridge.[58] In a grave at Gilton, in
Kent, two small dice, here engraved of their full size (fig. 485), were
found. They were formed of ivory or bone.
[Illustration: Fig. 485.]
Querns, or hand-mills, for grinding corn, have on many occasions been
found in or about Anglo-Saxon interments. The one engraved on the next
figure (fig. 486) was found in a Saxon grave in the grounds of Miss
Worsley, at Winster, along with many other interesting relics. One half
of the quern had been burnt along with the body, as had also many of
the stones which formed the mound.
[Illustration: Fig. 486.]
The next (fig. 487) is from Kings Newton, the same locality referred to
under the head of Anglo-Saxon pottery. Portions of stones which have
evidently formed triturating stones, or grinders, are occasionally
found in the grave-mounds of different periods. These have doubtless
been of the same general character with the two here engraved for
comparison (figs. 488 and 489). Similar stones are found in Ireland.
[Illustration: Fig. 487.]
[Illustration: Fig. 488.]
[Illustration: Fig. 489.]
Besides the objects here spoken of, a large variety of interesting
remains of a miscellaneous character are found in the Saxon graves,
but which, however interesting they may be, do not require in my
present work to be specially noted.
* * * * *
I have endeavoured in the foregoing pages to give, in as brief a form
as was consistent with a clear description of the objects, a faithful
picture of the endless stores of treasures which the grave-mounds
of our earliest forefathers open out to us, and to point out, with
the aid of illustrations, the characteristics of each of the three
great divisions, so as to enable my readers correctly to appropriate
any remains which may come under their notice. I have purposely,
and studiously, avoided theory and conjecture as far as was at all
possible; contenting myself rather with bringing forward facts, which
observations, personal or otherwise, into the grave-mounds and their
contents have established, than speculating upon matters which can have
no real bearing upon the subject.
It is said that “there is nothing new under the sun.” The researches
which have been made into the grave-mounds of the three great
periods--the Celtic, the Romano-British, and the Anglo-Saxon--tend
immeasurably to show the approximate truth of this adage, and my
readers, from the foregoing pages, will be able to judge pretty
correctly how many of our so-called _modern_ inventions and appliances
were common to, and in use by, our predecessors of “centuries and tens
of centuries” of years gone by.
INDEX.
Abney Moor, 75
Abury, 71
Adzes, 109, et seq.
Aldborough, 145
Ale Glasses, 229, et seq.
Allemanic Pottery, 221
Amber Beads, 134
Anglo-Saxon Armour, 252, et seq.
Anglo-Saxon Arms, 236 to 264
Anglo-Saxon Banquet, 231
Anglo-Saxon Buckets, 280 to 282
Anglo-Saxon Cellarer, 230
Anglo-Saxon Coins, 235
Anglo-Saxon Cup-bearer, 230
Anglo-Saxon Fibulæ, 267 to 279
Anglo-Saxon Glass, 228 to 235
Anglo-Saxon Horse shoes, 264
Anglo-Saxon Interments, 202 to 213
Anglo-Saxon Interments in Celtic Barrows, 13
Anglo-Saxon MSS., 230, 239, 240, 282
Anglo-Saxon Period, 202 to 298
Anglo-Saxon Personal Ornaments, 233 to 235
Anglo-Saxon Poem of Beowulf, 206, et seq., 241, 255, 256
Anglo-Saxon Population, 202, et seq.
Anglo-Saxon Pottery, 214 to 227
Animal Bones, 23, 39
Arbor-Low, 3, 71, 82, 4, 50, 71, 82, 117
Arica, 287
Armlets, 196, 27
Armour, 248, et seq., 253, 254
Arrow-heads, Bronze, 193
Arrow-heads, Flint, 115, et seq.
Artis, 152, et seq.
Ash, 241
Ashborne, 250
Ashbury, 67
Avisford, 147
Axe-heads, 109, et seq.
Balidon Moor, 87
Ballynageerah, 62
Banquet, 230
Barlaston, 258 to 263
Barrows, distribution of, 1
Barrows, Elliptical, 6
Barrows, Long, 5
Barrows, meaning of, 4
Barrows, (see Grave-mounds)
Barrows, Twin, 5
Bartlow, 142, 147, 185
Basin, Stone, 60
Baslow, 4, 33
Bateman, T., 12, 24, 115, 123, 209, 233, 250, 256, 263, 279, 293
Bath, 149
Battley, 162
Beads, Amber, 234
Beads, Clay, 233
Beads, Glass, 186, 187
Beads, Jet, 123, et seq., 233 to 235
Bells, 292
Benty Grange, 211, 250, et seq., 257, 261
Beowulf, 206, et seq., 230, 240, 241, 255, 256
Berkshire, 67
Berriew, 80
Bishopstoke, 144
Blake-Low, 4
Blind-Low, 4
Boar-Low, 4
Boar, Sacred, 253 to 257
Bone Implements, 42, 48, 124 to 128
Bonsall, 275
Borther-Low, 4
Bottles-Low, 4
Boulders, 33
Bourne Park, 280
Bowls, 283, 284
Boxes, Bronze, 257, 284, 285, 286
Boyne, 57
Brassington Moor, 74
Brennanstown, 63
Brier Low, 3
Briggs, J. J., 225
Bronze Bowls, 283, 284
Bronze Box, 257, 284, 285, 286
Bronze Celts, 25, 128 to 131
Bronze Daggers, 48, 130, 131, 132
Bronze Pins, 35
Brooch (see Fibulæ)
Broseley, 165, 168
Broughton, 35
Brown-Low, 4
Buckets, 280, 281, 282
Buckles, 248, 249, 250
Burnt Bones, 31 to 43
Buxton, 3, 122, 123, 250
Caerleon, 149
Calais Wold, 116, 120, 124
Caldon-Low, 4
Cal-Low, 4
Calver-Low, 4
Cambridgeshire, 35, 289
Carvoran, 148
Casking-Low, 4
Castleford, 196
Castor 164
Castor Potter’s Kiln, 152
Castor Pottery, 152 to 162
Cellarer, 230
Celtic or Ancient British Period, 6 to 133
Celtic Bone Articles, 123 to 126
Celtic Bronze Celts, 128 to 132
Celtic Bronze Daggers, 132, 133
Celtic Chambered Tumuli, 50 to 71
Celtic Coins, 132, 133
Celtic Cromlechs, 27, 50 to 71
Celtic Flint Implements, 114 to 121
Celtic Gold Articles, 132
Celtic Interments, 6 to 49
Celtic Jet Articles, 122 to 125
Celtic Pottery, 83 to 107
Celtic Stone Circles, 10, 71 to 82
Celtic Stone Implements, 108 to 114
Celts, Bronze, 128 to 131
Celts, Flint, 122
Celts, Stone, 109, 110, 111
Cemeteries, Roman, 134, et seq.
Cemeteries, Kingston, 212
Cemeteries, Kings Newton, 212, 222, et seq.
Cemeteries, Saxon, 212, et seq.
Chain-work, 254
Chambers, Sepulchral, 146
Chambered Tumuli, 55 to 71
Chambers of Stone, 27, 50, 55 to 71, 146, et seq.
Channel Islands, 63
Châtelaines, 289
Chatham, 160, 162
Chelmorton-Low, 4
Chester, 147
Chesters, 149
Chestersovers, 219
Chesterton, 262
Chest, Stone, 143, et seq.
Chisels, 109
Chun Cromlech, 53
Church Sterndale, 284
Cinerary Urns, Anglo-Saxon, 214, et seq.
Cinerary Urns, Celtic, 31, 34, 84 to 95
Cinerary Urns, Frankish, 221
Cinerary Urns, Romano-British, 161, et seq.
Circles of Stone, 10, 71 to 82
Circles of (see Stone Circles)
Cist, Stone, 11, et seq., 36
Clay Coffins, 145
Cloth, Burial in, 35
Cloth, Interment in, 35, 45
Cloth, Woollen Garment, 45, 46
Cochét, 221
Cock-Low, 4
Coffins, Clay, 145.
Coffins, Lead, 144
Coffins, Stone, 143
Coffins, Tile, 147
Coffins, Wood, 143
Coins, Ancient British, 133
Coins, Roman, 32, 55, 136, 141, 187, 188
Coins, Saxon, 235
Colchester, 143, 144, 146, 147, 157, 159, 185, 201
Colchester, Vase, 159
Cold Eaton, 293
Combs, 201, 286, 287, 288, 293
Contracted Positions, 11, et seq.
Cop-Low, 4
Cornwall, 2, 51, 75
Counters, 292 to 295
Cow Dale, 123
Cow-Low, 4, 228
Craike Hill, 43
Cremation, Interments by, 11, 31, 134, et seq., 202, et seq.
Cromlech, Ballynageerah, 62
Cromlech, Brennanstown, 63
Cromlech, Chun, 53, 54
Cromlech, De Tus, 27
Cromlech, Drumloghan, 61
Cromlech, Gaulstown, 62
Cromlech, Gib Hill, 43
Cromlech, Glencullen, 63
Cromlech, Howth, 63
Cromlech, Kells, 61
Cromlech, Kilternan, 63
Cromlech, Kits Coty House, 53
Cromlech, Knockeen, 61
Cromlech, Knock Mary, 63
Cromlech, L’Ancresse, 63
Cromlech, Lanyon, 51, 52
Cromlech, Minning-Low, 54, 55
Cromlech, Molfra, 54
Cromlech, Monasterboise, 61
Cromlech, Mount Brown, 63
Cromlech, Mount Venus, 63
Cromlech, Plas Newydd, 54, 55
Cromlech, Rathkenny, 63
Cromlech, Shandanagh, 63
Cromlech, Zennor, 54
Cronkstone-Low, 4
Cross, 253, 269
Cup-bearer, 239
Daggers, Bronze, 130, 131, 132
Daggers, Flint, 117, et seq.
Daggers, Iron, 242, 243
Danish interments, 44 to 50
Darley Dale, 92, 94
Dars-Low, 4
Dartmoor, 75
Darwen, 90
Davis, Dr., 16, 22
Derbyshire Barrows, 2, 3, 4, 16, et seq.
Devonshire, 75
Dewlish, 7
Dice, 294, 295
Discs, enamelled, etc., 260 to 264
Dominoes, 294
Dorsetshire Barrows, 2, 3, 7, 47, 91
Double interments, 25, 29, 30
Dove Dale, 128
Dow-Low, 4
Dowth, 59, 61, 66
Drake-Low, 4
Draughtboard, 294
Draughtmen, 292, 293, 294
Draughts, Game, 292, 293, 294
Drinking Cup, 43, 44, 100 to 104, 251, 282, 283
Druidical Circles, 10, 71 to 82
Durobrivian Pottery, 152 to 162
Earl Stemdale, 3
Ear-picks, 289
East-Low Hill, 146
East-Moor, 75
Elk-Low, 4, 72
Ely, 107
Enamelled Discs, etc., 260 to 264
Enamels, 251, 266, 267, et seq.
Enamels, Chinese, 260
Enamels, Roman, 196
Enamels, Saxon, 260 to 264
End-Low, 4
Envermeu, 282
Extended positions, 11, et seq.
Fairford, 280
Fairholt, F.W., 278
Farlow, 4
Faussett Collection, 217
Fibulæ, Anglo-Saxon, 266 to 279
Fibulæ, Roman, 193 to 196
Fimber, 43, 44, 97, 124
Flax Dale, 33, 71
Fleming, G., 264
“Flint-Jack,” 115
Flint Acutely Angled, 119
Flint Barbed Arrow-heads, 115, 116
Flint Celts, 122, 123
Flint Dagger-blades, 117, 118
Flint Flakes, 121
Flint Implements, 115 to 123
Flint Leaf-shaped, 119
Flint Notched, 118, 120
Flint Thumb, 122
Flint Various, 121, 122
Food Vessels, 44, 95 to 100
Foo Low, 4
Fowse-Low, 4
Fox-Low, 4
Frankish Pottery, 221
Froggatt Edge, 75
Galley-Low, 4
Garment, Woollen, 45
Gaulstown, 62
Germany, 160
Gib-Low, 4
Gilton, 295
Girdle-hangers, 289, 290, 291
Girdle-Ornaments, 290, 291
Glass, Ale, 229, 230, 232
Glass, Beads, 185, 231 to 235
Glass, Bowls, 186, 228, 229
Glass, Decanters (?) 231
Glass, Lachrymatories, 186
Glass, Roman, 145, 185 to 188
Glass, Saxon, 228 to 235
Glass, Sepulchral Vessels, 185
Glass, Tumblers, 229
Glencullen, 63
Gloucester, 201
Gloucestershire, 70
Gold Articles, 132, 133, 266 to 279
Gold Drops, 279
Gold Torques, 133, 196 to 199
Gospel Hillock, 104, 121, 123, 124
Grave-mounds, Anglo-Saxon, 202 to 298
Grave-mounds, Celtic, 6 to 132
Grave-mounds, Construction of, 6, et seq., 33, 38, 134 to 143, 202
to 213
Grave-mounds, Danish (?) 44 to 50
Grave-mounds, Distribution of, 2
Grave-mounds, Romano-British, 134 to 201
Great-Low, 4
Green-Low, 4, 114, 115
Grimthorpe, 238, 245, 246, 263
Grinders (see Querns)
Grind-Low, 4, 100
Gris-Low, 4
Gristhorpe, 44
Grub-Low, 4
Gruter, 135
Guernsey, 27
Gunthorpe, 116, 120
Haddon, 141
Hair-pins, 290, 292
Hammer-head, 42, 109, et seq.
Hampshire, 143, 149
Hand-mills, 295, 296
Hard-Low, 4
Har-Low, 4
Hartington, 3
Hartle Moor, 74
Hatchet, 109, 113
Hathersage Moor, 75
Hawks-Low, 4
Hay Top, 100
Helmets, 248, et seq.
Herns-Low, 4
High-Low, 4
High-Needham, 3
Hitter Hill, 6, et seq., 16, 98
Hob Hurst’s House, 33
Hog’s Bones, 23
Horning-Low, 4
Horse-shoes, 201, 264, 265
Horsley, 114
Houe, meaning of, 4
Howth, 63
Huck-Low, 4
Immolation of Infants, 106
Immolation of Slaves, 106
Immolation of Wives, 91, 106
Incense Cups, 84, 104 to 107
Inscriptions, Sepulchral, 135, 148, 149, 150
Interment by Cremation, 11, 31, 134, et seq., 202, et seq.
Interment by Inhumation, 11 to 49, 134, et seq.
Interment in Cloth, 35, 45, 46
Interment in Skin, 35
Interment in Tree-Coffins, 44 to 50
Interment in Pit, 43
Inverted Urns, 33, 34
Ireland, 28, 63, 113
Javelins, 243, 244
Jet, 25, 44, 123 to 126
Jet, Necklaces, 44, 123, 124, 125
Jet, Pendants, 124, 126
Jet, Ring, 126
Jet, Studs, 123, 124, 126
Jutland, 46
Kells, 28
Kens-Low, 4
Kent, 53
Keys, 201, 289, 292
Kilkenny, 63
Kilternan, 63
Kingsholme, 144
Kingston, 212, 215, 266, 267
Kings Newton, 212, 214 to 227, 295
Kirk Michael, 274
Kit’s Coty House, 53
Kneeling position, 11, et seq.
Knives, 193, 242, 243
Knock-Low, 4
Knok Mary, 63
Knot-Low, 4
Lady-Low, 4
Laidman’s-Low, 4
Lake Dwellings, 45
Lamp, 201
Lancashire, 90
Lapwing Hill, 209
Lark’s-Low, 4
Lead Coffins, 144, 145
Lead Ore, 31
Lead Pigs of, 32
Lead Smelting, 32
Lean-Low, 4
Leckhampton, 258
Lewes, 257
Liffs-Low, 4, 42
Lillebonne, 177
Lincoln, 257
Lincolnshire, 35
Lindenschmidt, 219, 265
Little Chester, 142, 168, 169, 190
Locks, 201, 292
Lollius, 135
Lomber-Low, 4
Londinières, 221
London, 135, 142, 143, 144, 148, 171, 175, et seq.
Long Low, 36
Lord’s Down, 7
Low, meaning of, 4
Low, (see Grave-mounds)
Lowsey-Low, 4
Lukis, Capt. 123
Lukis, F. C., 27
Mail, Coat of, 255, 256
Mauls, 109, et seq.
Mayence, 219
May-Low, 4
Medway, 160
Mick-Low, 4
Mickleover, 114
Middleton, 3, 33, 41, 123, 261
Minning-Low, 54, 141
Mirrors, 199, 290
Modelling Tools, 124
Money-Low, 4
Monsal Dale, 28, 86, 98
Mortimer, 43, 44, 97, 124
Moot-Low, 4, 127, 128
Mount Brown, 63
Mount Venus, 63
Musden-Low, 4
Mutti-Low Hill, 35
Nail-cleaners, 289
Necklace, Glass, 187, 232, et seq.
Necklace, Jet, 44, 123 to 126
Necklace, Jet, and Bone, 124
Needham-Low, 4
Needwood, 198
Nen, 152
Nether-Low, 4
New Forest, 149, 165
New Grange, 61, 66
Newhaven, 3, 256
Normandy, 174
North Elmham, 217
Northumberland, 46, 148
Nowth, 59
Ochre, 43
Off-Low, 4
Oghams, 61, 277
Otterham Creek, 162
Over Haddon, 284
Oxfordshire, 164
Ox-Low, 4
Ozengall, 144, 211
Painstor-Low, 4
Palstaves, 128
Paradis, 27
Parcelly Hay, 3, 25, 26
Pars-Low, 4
Parwich, 141
Peg-Low, 4
Pendants, Bone, 125, 126
Pendants, Enamelled, etc., 260 to 264
Pendants, Gold, 279
Pendants, Jet, 124 to 126
Penannular Brooch (see Fibulæ)
Phœnix Park, 63
Pigtor-Low, 4
Pike-Low, 4
Pinch-Low, 4
Pins, Hair, 290, 292
Pit Interments, 43, 44
Plymouth, 192, 193, 199
Pottery, Amphoræ, 171, 172
Pottery, Anglo-Saxon, 214 to 227
Pottery, Celtic, 83 to 108
Pottery, Domestic Vessels, etc., 170 to 174
Pottery, Drinking Cups, Celtic, 100 to 104
Pottery, Durobrivian or Castor, 151, 152 to 162
Pottery, Food Vessels, Celtic, 95 to 100
Pottery, Frankish, 214 to 227
Pottery, Hampshire, 151, 165, 166
Pottery, Handled Cups, Celtic, 107
Pottery, “Incense Cups,” Celtic, 104 to 107
Potters’ Kilns, 152, 154, 183
Potters’ Marks, 176, 177, 178
Potters’ Mortaria, 172, 173
Potters’ Punches, 227
Potters’ Sepulchral Urns, Celtic, 31, 34, 84 to 95
Potters’ Sepulchral Urns, Roman, 156 et seq.
Potters’ Sepulchral Urns, Saxon, 215 to 227
Potters’ Stamps, 177, 227
Potters’ Unguentaria, 171 to 174
Potters, Manufacture of, 84, 152 to 184, 227
Potters, Romano-British, 151 to 184
Potters, Salopian, 151, 164, 165
Potters, Samian, 151, 157 to 184
Potters, Upchurch, 151, 162, 163, 164
Potters, Yorkshire, 151, 166
Queen-Low, 4
Querns, 295, 296 (see also Grinders and Triturating Stones)
Rains-Low, 4
Rangoon, 287
Rats’ Bones, 16, 87, 90
Ravens-Low, 4
Red Ochre, 43
Repton, 213
Ribden-Low, 4
Rick-Low, 4
Rigollot, 220
Ringham-Low, 4, 116, 119, 120
Rings, 235
Rings, Jet, 124, 126
Rochester, 147
Rocky-Low, 4
Rollrich, 71
Rolly-Low, 4, 34
Roman Arms, etc., 190, et seq.
Roman Cemeteries, 134, et seq.
Roman Coins, 55, 141, 187, 188
Roman Coins, as payment for passage over Styx, 136, 141
Roman Glass 184 to 188
Roman Personal Ornaments, 193, et seq.
Roman Population, 134, et seq.
Roman Pottery, 151 to 184
Romano-British Period, 134 to 201
Rouge, 43
Round-Low, 4, 32
Roundway Hill, 16, 100
Rusden-Low, 4
Runes, 241
Sacrifice of Infants, 106
Sacrifice of Slaves, 106
Sacrifice of Wives, 91, 106
Saint-Low, 4
Salona, 147
Salopian Pottery, 164, 165
Samian Ware, 175 to 184
Sancreed, 76
Sarcophagus, 143, et seq.
Scales and Weights, 292
Scambridge, 294, 295
Scarborough, 47
Scissors, 289
Scrapers of Flint, 121
Seax, 240, et seq.
Selzen, 219
Selzen, 265
Sepulchral remains, Anglo-Saxon, 202 to 298
Sepulchral remains, Celtic, 1 to 133
Sepulchral remains, Frankish, 221
Sepulchral remains, Danish, 44 to 50
Sepulchral remains, Romano-British, 134 to 201
Sepulchral Chambers, 146
Sepulchral Glass, 185
Sepulchral Inscriptions, 135, 148, et seq., 217
Sepulchral Urns (see Cinerary Urns)
Shandanagh, 63
Shears, 289
Shields, 243 to 248
Shields, Umbones of, 246, 247, 261
Shields, from MSS., 248
Shuttlestone-Low, 24, 130
Sibertswold, 247, 282
Sitting-Low, 4
Sitting position, 11, et seq.
Skeleton, positions of, 11, et seq.
Skins, interment in, 24, 35
Skull, Hitter Hill, 21
Skull, distributions of, 22
Skull, Long-Low, 39
Skull, Gristhorpe, 47
Sliper-Low, 5
Smerrill Moor, 12
Smith, C. R., 160, 164, 204, 216, 255
Southfleet, 144
Spear-heads, 190, 192, 243, 244
Spindle-whorls, 114
Staden-Low, 4
Staffordshire Barrows, 4, 86, 89, 92, 96
Stan-Low, 4
Stanshope, 132
Stanton Moor, 73
Sterndale, 33, 284
Stone Chambers, 27, 50, 55 to 71, 146, et seq.
Stone Circles, 10, 27, 34, 71 to 82
Stone Circles, Abney Moor, 75
Stone Circles, Abury, 71
Stone Circles, Arbor-Low, 3, 71, 82
Stone Circles, Berriew, 80
Stone Circles, Boscawen-Un, 80
Stone Circles, Brassington Moor, 74
Stone Circles, Channel Islands, 78
Stone Circles, Cornish, 75
Stone Circles, Dartmoor, 75
Stone Circles, East Moor, 75
Stone Circles, Elk-Low, 72
Stone Circles, Eyam Moor, 74
Stone Circles, Flax Dale, 71
Stone Circles, formation of, 71
Stone Circles, Froggatt Edge, 75
Stone Circles, Haitle Moor, 74
Stone Circles, Hathersage Moor, 75
Stone Circles, Isle of Man, 76, 78
Stone Circles, Mule Hill, 78
Stone Circles, “Nine Ladies,” 73, 74
Stone Circles, Penmeanmaur, 80, 81
Stone Circles, Rollrich, 71
Stone Circles, Sancreed, 76
Stone Circles, Stanton Moor, 73, 74
Stone Circles, Stonehenge, 71
Stone Circles, Trewavas, Head, 76
Stone Cists, 11, 17, et seq., 33, 36, et seq., 143, et seq.
Stone Coffins, 143, 144, et seq.
Stone Implements of, 109, et seq.
Stone, 92
Stoney Littleton, 67
Stonehenge, 71
Stowborough, 47
Strigils, 201
Studs, Bone, 122,126
Studs, Jet, 124, 126
Sussex, 146
Suttee, 91
Sutton Brow, 92
Swinscoe, 22
Swiss Lake Villages, 45
Swords, Roman, 190, 191
Swords Saxon, 236 to 242
Swords from MSS., 239, 240
Swordsman, 240
Taddington, 67, 69
Tara Brooch, 278
Thirkel-Low, 4
Thirsk, 92
Thoo-Low, 4, 5
Three-Lows, 5
Thumb Flints, 121
Tile Tombs, 147, 148
Tissington, 13, 211, 236, 247
Toothpicks, 289
Torques, 133, 196 to 199
Totmans-Low, 4
Tree-Coffins, 44, 45, 50
Trentham, 89, 96
Triturating Stones, 114, 295, 296
(see also “Querns”)
Tump, meaning of, 4
Tumuli, Chambered, 55 to 71
(see Grave-mounds)
Tumulus, Etruscan, 55
Twin-Barrows, 37, 78, 79
Tweezers, 201, 289
Uley, 70
Umbones of Shields, 246, 247, 261
Upchurch, 162, et seq.
Upchurch, Pottery, 162 to 164
Upright position, 11, et seq.
Uriconium, 137, (see also Wroxeter)
Vale, 27
Vole, Water, 16, 89, 90
Ward-Low, 5, 34
Warry-Low, 5
Water Rat, 16, 89, 90
Water Vole, 16, 89, 90
Wath, 47
Wedgwood, F., 258
Weights, 292
Wellbeloved, 163
Wellow, 67
West Lodge, 157
Westwood, 253
Wetton, 193
Whetstones, 114
White-Low, 5
Willoughby, 113
Wilson, C. C., 278
Wiltshire Barrows, 2, 16, 100
Winster, 3, 111, 211, 268, 269, 295, 296
Withery-Low, 5
Woolaton, 109
Woollen Cloth, 45
Wool-Low, 5
Worsaae, 255
Worsley, Miss, 295
Wright, T., 135, 151, et seq., 176, et seq., 216
Wroxeter, 137, 141, 147, 162 to 165
Wyaston, 210, 233
Wye, 28
Wykeham, 98
Yarns-Low, 5
York, 142, 143, 144, et seq.
Yorkshire Barrows, 2, 5, 7, 25, 35, 44, 47, 97, 164
Yorkshire Pottery, 151
Youlgreave, 33
Watson & Hazell, Printers, London and Aylesbury.
Dedicated to the Right Hon. LORD LYTTON.
_In One handsome Volume, Foolscap 4to., cloth gilt, price 25s_.
WOMANKIND
IN WESTERN EUROPE,
from the Earliest Ages to the Seventeenth Century.
=By THOMAS WRIGHT, M.A., F.S.A.=
Illustrated with numerous Coloured Plates and Wood Engravings.
* * * * *
“It is something more than a drawing-room ornament. It is an elaborate
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“We should be at a loss to find words of excessive praise for the
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The letterpress enhances the value of the work itself a hundredfold,
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belong, would not be unacceptable to the general reader.’ Such a
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“Never has history been made more charming than in this excellent
volume. Whatever page is opened, some pleasant little narrative,
historic or romantic; some sketch of the womankind of Chaucer’s days,
or of the heroines of the Romaunt of the Rose; some striking pictures
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Daily Post._
“To the general public, the appearance of such a work is a surprise,
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day.”--_New York Morning Herald._
GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] Of this stone circle, one of the next in importance to Stonehenge,
an account will be given in a future chapter.
[2] This remarkable barrow was excavated by Mr. Warne, and a fully
detailed account given by him in his valuable work, the “Celtic
Antiquities of Dorset,” from which the illustration is taken.
[3] See Crania Britannica, one of the most valuable ethnological works
ever issued.
[4] It will be well to bear in mind that when “rats’ bones” are
mentioned, it must be understood that they are the bones, not of the
common rat, but of the water-vole or water-rat. They are very abundant
in Derbyshire barrows, and, indeed, are so frequently found in them,
that their presence in a mound is considered to be a certain indication
of the presence of human remains. “The barrows of Derbyshire, a hilly,
almost mountainous, county, abounding with beautiful brooks and rills,
inhabited by the water-vole, were made use of for its _hybernacula_,
or winter retreats, into which it stored its provisions, and where it
passed its time during the cold and frosty season. It is a rodent,
or gnawer, or vegetable eater, and, as I have described elsewhere,
has a set of grinding-teeth of the utmost beauty, and fitted most
admirably for the food on which it lives. The part of the matter which
is curious to the antiquary is, that the bones in Derbyshire barrows
are frequently perceived to have been gnawed by the scalpri-form
incisors of these animals. I have endeavoured to explain, in the
note referred to, that all the rodents amuse themselves, or possibly
preserve their teeth in a naturally useful state, and themselves in
health, by gnawing any object that comes in their way. This is well
known to every boy who keeps rabbits. I remember, some years ago,
seeing a very fine black squirrel in the house of a workman in this
town, which had been sent him by his son from Canada. It was found that
it was impossible to keep this animal in any wooden house. He would
gnaw a road out of the strongest wooden cage that could be made for
him, in a few hours. In consequence, his owner made him a _tin cage_,
in which he was kept securely. In confirmation of what I have said
respecting the water-voles, vegetable feeders, gnawing the bones of the
ancient Britons in barrows, I may refer to Linnæus’s most interesting
_Tour in Lapland_. When in Lycksele, Lapland, June 1, he describes the
_Kodda_, or hut of the Laplander, and incidentally remarks, “Everywhere
around the huts I observed horns of the reindeer lying neglected, and
it is remarkable that they were gnawed, and sometimes half devoured,
by squirrels.”--I. 127. That is, if anything were truly devoured, it
was the antlers, not the bodies. “The bones of the _Arvicola_, or
water-vole, were found in the exploration of the colossal tumulus of
Fontenay de Marmion, which was one of the galleried tumuli, opened in
1829, near Caen in Normandy. It belonged to the primeval period of the
ancient Gauls.--Mem. de la Soc. des Antiq. de Normandie, 1831-3, p.
282.”--_Dr. Davis._
[5] See Note on the Distortions which present themselves in the crania
of the Ancient Britons, by J. Barnard Davis, M.D., in the “Natural
History Review” for July, 1862, page 290.
[6] The elliptical form was evidently, in this case, the result of
accident. The original mound had been circular, but the elongated form
had been the consequence of successive interments.
[7] Plate II., Decade 1.
[8] Journal of the British Archæological Association, vol. i, p. 25.
[9] “Ten Years’ Diggings,” p. 78.
[10] There are in Derbyshire lead mines worked at the present day which
were worked, at all events, in the Romano-British period. Roman coins,
fibulæ, and other remains are occasionally found in them.
[11] “Ten Years’ Diggings.”
[12] Although I am describing the position in which the urns have been
placed, it must not for a moment be supposed that they are often found
in a perfect state, or in the position in which they have originally
been placed. On the contrary, the urns are usually very much crushed,
and not unfrequently, from pressure of the superincumbent mass of
stones and earth, are found on their sides, and crushed flat.
[13] This skull has been most skilfully figured in “Crania Britannica,”
where it is carefully described and compared with other examples by Dr.
Davis, who gives an admirable account of the discoveries at Long-Low,
and of the characteristics of the different crania found there. Of the
skull here shown Dr. Davis says it is “remarkably regular, narrow,
and long; of good shape, medium thickness, and presenting few of the
harsh peculiarities of the ancient British race; on the contrary, there
is about it an air of slenderness and refinement. In some features
it assimilates to the modern English cranium, although decidedly
narrow, whilst its genuine and remote antiquity is determined by
unquestioned evidence. It belongs, in an eminent degree, to the class
of dolichocephalic skulls, and is the cranium of a man of about forty
years of age.”
[14] Described in the “Reliquary,” vol. ix.
[15] For a full account of this discovery see the “Reliquary,” vol. vi.
page 1.
[16] This woollen cloth must be regarded as a _woven_ texture, but
whether it were woven in so artificial a machine as a loom may be
questioned. A great variety of contrivances have been used for weaving,
_i.e._, crossing alternately threads passed in opposite directions,
the warp and the woof, by what are called _savage_ races. Still it is
not at all improbable that a people so advanced in pastoral habits,
possessed some machine for weaving, bearing a relation to a primitive
loom. Both warp and woof are composed, as might be expected, of a
simply spun thread of one strand. Perforated stones are found in
British and Danish barrows, and perforated pieces of earthenware in the
Swiss Lake villages, even of the stone period, which are regarded as
spindle-whorls.
[17] It is worthy of remark, that this noble mound, with its very early
interments, has been made a place of sepulture in more recent times,
many Roman coins and remains of that period having been found there.
[18] These immense monoliths have originally, it is estimated, been
upwards of thirty in number, and to have been placed probably ten
yards apart. The largest remaining stone stands between eight and nine
feet above the ground, and is seventeen feet in circumference. It is
estimated to weigh upwards of seven tons. Several of the stones have
entirely disappeared, of others fragments remain scattered about.
[19] For an excellent notice of this and other remains, the reader is
referred to Mr. W. F. Wakeman’s “Handbook of Irish Antiquities,”--the
best and most compact little work on the subject which has been issued,
and one which will be found extremely useful to the archæological
student--to which I am indebted for some of the accompanying engravings.
[20] For the loan of these seven engravings I am indebted to the
Council of the “Historical and Archæological Association of Ireland,”
(formerly the “Kilkenny and South-east of Ireland Archæological
Society,”) in whose journal--one of the most valuable of antiquarian
publications--they have appeared. This Association is one of the most
useful that has ever been established, and deserves the best support,
not only of Irish, but of English antiquaries.
[21] F. C. Lukis.
[22] Vol. i. p. 142.
[23] T. Wright.
[24] “Archæological Journal,” vol xi., p. 315.
[25] For articles upon this subject see the “Reliquary, Quarterly
Archæological Journal and Review,” vol. ii., pages 61 to 70; and Mr.
Bateman’s “Ten Years’ Diggings,” page 279.
[26] This barrow has been admirably described in that magnificent work,
“CRANIA BRITANNICA,”--a work which every ethnologist and antiquary
ought to possess, and which contains far more information than any
other book extant. The following extract from the work explains the
section:--
“Above this cist a cairn of fragments of sandstone had been raised
most likely before interments by cremation were practised on the spot.
The dark horizontal line of our woodcut indicates the situation of a
stratum of burnt earth traversing the barrow at this height. Funereal
rites, by incineration, had evidently been celebrated on this surface;
which was scattered over with a thin layer of wood-charcoal. In the
centre of the barrow, and resting upon this carbonaceous deposit,
stood a fine urn of dark British pottery, 11 inches high, and 9 at its
greatest diameter at the top; not in the more commonly inverted, but
in an upright position. It is ornamented in the usual style of lineal
impressions, most probably made by a twisted thong of untanned leather,
with rows of lines, alternately upright and horizontal, around the
upper division; and in the middle the lines are varied into the zigzag,
having distinct _crosses_ and other impressions in the intervals. It
contained calcined bones in a clean state, and mingled with them a
portion of the jaw of some animal; bones of the water-vole (_Arvicola
amphibius_, Desmar.), so common in the Derbyshire barrows; a bone
pin, 4 inches in length, and finely pointed; and a flint arrow-head;
all calcined. The urn was closed by a large flat stone, the two ends
of which rested upon side walls, so as to protect the deposit, and
secure it from superincumbent pressure. Did this urn contain the
inconsiderable yet sacred remains of one whose devotion in life the
distinguished dead below had oft experienced--one who held life itself
subordinate to his fate? The fearful conjecture seems not by any means
improbable.
“Interred in the soil above this portion of the barrow, and lying
amongst loose stones, the remains of four other skeletons occurred,
placed in the primitive flexed position. One of these had apparently
been disturbed at no long period subsequent to interment, and the bones
laid in order before they had become decayed--a practice adopted by
some uncivilized people in more modern times.
“This barrow of the British period presents unquestionable evidences
of very primeval times, and contained the relics of a true aboriginal
inhabitant of these islands, piously laid in his last resting-place
with great care, but in all rude simplicity. It is rich in instruction,
and marked by precise phases of information. It shows almost certainly
the contemporaneous adoption of inhumation and cremation--the latter,
perhaps, yielding to the first a short precedency; or possibly, in this
instance, a rite of the nature of a “Suttee,” and subordinate to the
former.”
[27] Warne’s “Celtic Tumuli of Dorsetshire.”
[28] _Celt_, from _Celtis_, a chisel.
[29] This is one of the largest examples which have been found. It is
in my own collection, having been most kindly presented to me by the
Hon. and Rev. C. Willoughby.
[30] For a lengthened description and classification of the various
forms of stone implements, the reader is referred to a new work, “The
Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain,” by that able antiquary,
Mr. John Evans, the author of the admirable volume on “Ancient British
Coins,” by which his name is so well known.
[31] For a memoir, with portrait, of this remarkable character, and an
account of his doings, see the _Reliquary_, vol, viii., p. 65, _et seq._
[32] “Ten Years’ Diggings.”
[33] _Reliquary_ for October, 1861.
[34] “Nec habet quem porrigat ore trientem.”--JUVENAL.
[35] The skull of one of these, an excellent typical example of a Roman
in the very prime of life, is engraved in “Crania Britannica,” pl. 30.
[36] See example in the York museum.
[37] “Collectanea Antiqua,” vol. iii., p. 45.
[38] “Proceedings of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society;”
Wellbeloved’s “Eburacum;” “Crania Britannica,” etc.
[39] Now in the Bateman Museum.
[40] See the _Reliquary_, vol. iv., p. 185.
[41] In the _Intellectual Observer_.
[42] See Mr. Roach Smith’s interesting account of this vase in the
“Collectanea Antiqua,” vol. iv., pp. 82-89.
[43] Wright.
[44] Thomas Wright.
[45] Wright.
[46] For an interesting account of these potteries, see Wise’s “New
Forest.”
[47] For a detailed account of all the different pot-works and their
productions, see my “Ceramic Art in England.”
[48] C. R. Smith.
[49] Shields.
[50] Armour.
[51] A detailed account of this discovery will be found, from the pens
of Mr. Briggs, the Editor, and others, in the “Reliquary,” vol. ix.
[52] Coat of mail.
[53] C. R. Smith.
[54] See the “Reliquary Quarterly Archæological Journal and Review,”
vol. ix. p. 180.
[55] “Ten Years’ Diggings,” p. 28.
[56] “Vestiges,” p. 24.
[57] For a more extended and fully illustrated account of penannular
brooches, the reader is referred to the “Reliquary,” vol. iii.
[58] “Ten Years’ Diggings,” p. 231.
* * * * * *
Transcriber's note:
Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation are as in the original.
One instance of unpaired double quotation marks in the original
was not corrrected.