Ancient British or Celtic Period--Sepulchral Chambers
of stone--Cromlechs--Chambered Tumuli--New Grange and
Dowth--The Channel Islands--Wieland Smith’s Cave, and
others--Stone Circles--For what purpose formed--Formation of
Grave-mounds--Varieties of Stone Circles--Examples of different
kinds--Arbor Low, etc.
One of the most important classes of barrows is that which contains
sepulchral chambers of stone; not the simple cists which have been
spoken of in the preceding chapter, but of a larger, more complicated,
or colossal character. Mounds of this description exist, to more or
less extent, in different districts. In most instances the mound
itself, _i.e._, the earth or loose stones of which the superincumbent
mound was composed, has been removed, and the gigantic sepulchral
chamber alone left standing. In many instances the mounds have been
removed for the sake of the soil of which they were formed, or for
the purpose of levelling the ground in the destructive march of
agricultural progress. In many cases, however, they have doubtless been
removed in the hope of finding treasure beneath; it being a common
belief that immense stores of gold--in one instance the popular belief
was that a “coach of gold” was buried beneath--were there for digging
for. Where the mounds have been removed, and the colossal megalithic
structures allowed to remain, they have an imposing and solemn
appearance, and seem almost to excuse the play of imagination indulged
in by our early antiquaries in naming them Cromlechs, and in giving to
them a false interest by making them out to be “Druids’ altars”--altars
on which the Druids made their sacrifices. These same authorities
have, indeed, gone so far in their inventions as to affirm, that when
the capstone was lower on one side than another, as must necessarily
frequently be the case, it was so constructed that the blood of the
victims might run off in that direction, and be caught by the priests;
that some of the naturally formed hollows in the stones were scooped
out by hand to receive the heart and hold its blood for the highest
purposes; and that when the cromlech was a double one, the larger was
used for the sacrifice, and the smaller for the Arch-Druid himself
whilst sacrificing.
Researches which have been made in recent times show the absurdity
of all this, and prove beyond doubt that the cromlechs are neither
more nor less than sepulchral chambers denuded of their mounds. In
several instances they have been found intact, and, these mounds
being excavated, have been brought to light in a perfect state. These
instances have occurred in Cornwall, in Derbyshire, and in other
districts of England, as well as in the Channel Islands and elsewhere.
One instance is that of the Lanyon cromlech in Cornwall. It seems that
some seventy years ago “the farmer” to whom the ground belonged cast a
longing eye on what appeared to be an immense heap of rich mould, and
he resolved to cart it away and spread it over his fields. Accordingly
he commenced operations, his men day after day digging away at the
mound, and carting the soil off to the fields. By the time some hundred
cart loads or so had been removed the men came to a large stone,
which defied their efforts at removal, and, not knowing what it might
be, or what it might lead to, they went on removing the surrounding
earth, and gradually cleared, on all its sides, the majestic cromlech
which is now one of the prides of Cornwall. This highly interesting
chamber contained a heap of broken urns and human bones. This “Lanyon
cromlech,” a view of which is given on fig. 37, consists now of
three immense upright stones, on which rests an enormous capstone,
measuring about eighteen and a half feet in length and about nine
feet in width, and is computed to weigh above fifteen tons. How such
stones were raised and placed on the rough upright stone supports which
had been prepared for them is almost beyond comprehension, when it
is recollected that they were raised by a people who were devoid of
machinery.
[Illustration: Fig. 37.]
[Illustration: Fig. 38.]
“The heart,
Aching with thoughts of human littleness,
Asks, without hope of knowing, whose the strength
That poised thee here.”
This cromlech when first uncovered consisted of _four_ upright stones,
on which rested the capstone. In 1815, during a tremendous storm,
the capstone and one of the supports were thrown down. In 1824 the
capstone was replaced, under the superintendence of Lieut. Goldsmith,
R.N., and at this time a piece was broken off at A. The fourth upright
stone was not replaced, having been broken when thrown down. Fig. 37
shows the cromlech as replaced. Fig. 38 is a plan of it, showing the
uprights and the capstone. The large outline is the capstone, the part
marked A being the part broken off; the shaded parts are the present
three uprights; and B the fourth upright, broken.
[Illustration: Fig. 39.]
[Illustration: Fig. 40.]
Kits Cotty House, in Kent; the Chun cromlech, in Cornwall (figs. 39 and
40)--the covering stone of which is calculated to weigh twenty tons;
the Molfra cromlech, in the same county, which consists of a compact
cist closed on three sides and open on the fourth; the Zenor cromlech;
the Plas Newydd cromlech, and many others which it is not necessary to
enumerate, are all of the same class. The Plas Newydd (fig. 41) is a
double cromlech, the two chambers being close together, end to end. The
capstone of the largest, which is about twelve feet in length by ten
feet in breadth, originally rested on seven stones, two of which have
disappeared. The two erections undoubtedly were originally covered with
a single mound.
[Illustration: Fig. 41.]
At Minninglow, in Derbyshire, erections of this kind occur, but, not
being denuded of their mounds, are still partially buried. The mound
is of large size. Under the centre and in four places in the area of
the circle are large cists, which if cleared from the earth would be
fine cromlechs of precisely the same form as those just described.
They are formed of large slabs of the limestone of the district,
placed upright on the ground, and are covered with immense capstones
of the same material. All these chambers had contained interments.
The accompanying plan (fig. 42) of some of these cists gives the
situation of the stones forming the sides of the large chamber; of the
passage leading to it; of the slabs which closed its entrance; and of
the covers or capstones. The chamber is rather more than five feet in
height, and the largest capstone about seven feet square, and of great
thickness. A kind of wall similar to those which have been found to
encircle some of the Etruscan tumuli, forms the circle of this mound,
which rises to a height of more than fifteen feet from the surface of
the ground.[17]
[Illustration: Fig. 42.]
The general arrangement of this example will be seen to bear an analogy
to the Plas Newydd and others spoken of, and shows by what an easy
transition the building of galleries, or a series of chambers for
family tombs, in these large mounds, would be arrived at. Of this kind
some very large examples exist in Ireland, and in the Channel Islands,
as well as in various parts of England.
[Illustration: Fig. 43.]
One of the most important in size, as well as in general interest; is
the one at New Grange, county Meath. “The cairn, which even in its
present ruinous condition measures about seventy feet in height, and is
nearly three hundred feet in diameter, from a little distance presents
the appearance of a grassy hill, partly wooded; but upon examination
the coating of earth is found to be altogether superficial, and in
several places the stones, of which the hill is entirely composed, are
laid bare. A circle of enormous stones, of which eleven remain above
ground,[18] originally encircled its base. The opening (of which an
engraving is shown on fig. 44) was accidentally discovered about the
year 1699, by labouring men employed in the removal of stones for the
repair of a road. The gallery, of which it is the external entrance,
extends in a direction nearly north and south, and communicates with
a chamber, or cave, nearly in the centre of the mound. This gallery,
which measures in length about fifty feet, is at its entrance from the
exterior about four feet in height, in breadth at the top three feet
two inches, and at the base three feet five inches. These dimensions it
retains, except in one or two places, where the stones appear to have
been forced from their original position, for a distance of twenty-one
feet from the external entrance. Thence towards the interior its sides
gradually increase, and its height where it forms the chamber is
eighteen feet. Enormous blocks of stone, apparently water-worn, and
supposed to have been brought from the mouth of the Boyne, form the
sides of the passage; and it is roofed with similar stones. The ground
plan of the chamber is cruciform; the head and arms of the cross being
formed by three recesses, one placed directly fronting the entrance,
the others east and west, and each containing a basin of granite.
The sides of these recesses are composed of immense blocks of stone,
several of which bear a great variety of carvings.[19] In front of the
entrance (fig. 44) will be seen one of these carved stones.”
[Illustration: Fig. 44.]
[Illustration: Fig. 45.]
[Illustration: Fig. 46.]
[Illustration: Fig. 47.]
[Illustration: Fig. 48.]
[Illustration: Fig. 49.]
[Illustration: Fig. 50.]
At Dowth and Nowth (Dubhath and Cnobh), very similar chambered tumuli
exist, the former of which is also remarkable for its sculptural
stones, which bear a strong resemblance to those at New Grange. The
Cairn of Dowth here engraved (fig. 45), is of immense size, and
contains a cruciform chamber similar to that at New Grange, with a
passage twenty-seven feet in length, composed--as was the chamber--of
enormous stones. On some of the stones were carvings and Oghams. The
mouth of the passage leading to the cruciform chamber is shown on fig.
46.
[Illustration: Fig. 51.]
[Illustration: Fig. 52.]
[Illustration: Fig. 53.]
Other excellent examples of Irish cromlechs and chambers are those at
Monasterboise (“Calliagh Dirras House”); Drumloghan (full of Oghams);
Kells; Knockeen (figs. 47 and 48); where the right supporting stones
are six in number, and arranged rectangularly, so as to form a distinct
chamber at the S.E. end, the large covering stone being 12 feet by 8
feet, and weighing about four tons, and the smaller one about half that
size; Gaulstown (figs. 49 and 50), the inner chamber of which measures
7 feet by 6 feet 4 inches, and is seven feet in height; Ballynageerah
(figs. 51, 52, and 53), the capstone of which is cleverly and
curiously poised on two only of the upright stones, as will be seen
by the engravings;[20] Howth, Shandanagh, Brennanstown, Glencullen,
Kilternan, Mount Brown, Rathkenny, Mount Venus, and Knock Mary, Phœnix
Park, as well as at many other places.
[Illustration: Fig. 54.]
In the Channel Islands the indefatigable and laudable researches of
Mr. Lukis show that the galleried stone chambers of the tumuli in
that district had been used by successive generations for many ages.
One of the most important of these is the gigantic chambered burial
place, surrounded by a stone circle, at L’Ancresse, in Guernsey. In
this, “five large capstones are seen rising above the sandy embankment
which surrounds the place; these rest on the props beneath, and the
whole catacomb is surrounded by a circle of upright stones of different
dimensions.” The length of the cromlech is 41 feet from west to east,
and about 17 feet from north to south, on the exterior of the stones.
At the eastern entrance the remains of a smaller chamber is still seen;
it consisted of three or four capstones, and was about seven feet in
length, but evidently within the outer circle of stones.[21] In a
careful examination made by Mr. Lukis, many highly interesting features
were brought to light, of which he has given an excellent account in
the “Archæological Journal,”[22] to which the reader cannot do better
than refer. The engravings there given, show the interiors of some of
the chambers, with their deposits _in situ_, and exhibit some of the
highly interesting relics found during the excavations. The pottery was
of a totally distinct character from that of the Celtic period found
in England, some of the forms being of what are usually considered the
Anglo-Saxon type, and are the result of the use of these chambers by
successive generations, as already named.
[Illustration: Fig. 55.]
Another of the more remarkable structures of the Channel Islands is
that of Gavr Innis, in the Morbihan, Brittany. The tumulus is about
thirty feet high, and its circumference at the base about 300 feet.
The cromlech is entered from the south end (fig. 55), fig. 56 being
the opening on the north, and consists of 14 upright stones on the
east side, 13 on the west, and 2 on the north, supporting, in all, 10
capstones. In general features it bears a strong resemblance to those
at New Grange, Dowth, and other places. The remarkable feature of this
chambered tumulus is that the stones composing the passage are for the
most part sculptured in lines and patterns, which have been described
as very similar to the patterns tattooed on their faces and bodies by
the New Zealanders. Examples of these will be seen on the accompanying
engravings, which exhibit some of the more marked and distinct of
the patterns noticed and copied by Mr. Lukis, in his examination
of this mound, and described by him in the journal of the British
Archæological Association, to the Council of which I am indebted for
these illustrations.
[Illustration: Fig. 56.]
[Illustration: Fig. 57.]
[Illustration: Fig. 58.]
[Illustration: Fig. 59.]
[Illustration: Fig. 60.]
[Illustration: Fig. 61.]
In England, besides those already named, and others, “Wayland,” or
“Wieland Smith’s Cave,” at Ashbury, in Berkshire; one at Stoney
Littleton, near Wellow, in Somersetshire; the “Five Wells,” at
Taddington, in Derbyshire; and one or two others in the same county,
as well as in other places, are the most important. The annexed
woodcut, fig. 62, exhibits a section of the chambered tumulus at
Stoney Littleton, and fig. 63 is a ground plan of the same. “The
entrance was on the north-west side, where a stone upwards of seven
feet long and three and a half feet wide, supported by two others,
left a square aperture of about four feet high, which had been closed
by another large stone. This entrance led to a long passage or avenue,
extending in the direction from north-west to south-east forty-seven
feet six inches, and varying in breadth. There were three transepts, or
recesses, on each side. The side walls were formed of thin laminæ of
stone piled closely together without cement, and a rude kind of arched
roof made of stones so placed as to overlap each other. When the large
stones in the side walls did not join, the interstices were filled up
with layers of small ones.”[23] Interments had evidently been made in
each of these chambers, some by cremation, and others by inhumation,
but the bones were scattered about, the result of previous rifling of
its contents. One urn was found.
[Illustration: Fig. 62.]
[Illustration: Fig. 63.]
[Illustration: Fig. 64.]
[Illustration: Fig. 65.]
The chambered tumulus, called the “Five Wells,” near Taddington, of
which an engraving is here given (fig. 64), has been a mound of large
size, and the chambers and passages, or gallery, have been extensive.
A plan of this tumulus is given in fig. 65. The “Five Wells” tumulus
consists of two vaults or chambers, situated near the centre of a
cairn (which is about thirty yards in diameter), each approached by
a separate gallery or avenue, formed by large limestones standing
edgeways, extending through the tumulus, respectively in a south-east
and north-west direction. These chambers are marked B and G on the
plan, G being the cist engraved on fig. 64. E E E are stones supposed
to be the capstones thrown down. Another five-chambered tumulus in the
same county is called Ringham-Low, which has many interesting remains.
Another extremely important mound of this description is the one at
Uley, in Gloucestershire, of which an able account has been written by
Dr. Thurnham.[24] The mound is about 120 feet in length, 85 feet in
its greatest breadth, and about 10 feet in height. It is higher and
broader at its east end than elsewhere. The entrance at the east end
is a trilithon, formed by a large flat stone upwards of eight feet in
length, and four and a half in depth, and supported by two upright
stones which face each other, so as to leave a space of about two and
a half feet between the lower edge of the large stone and the natural
ground. Entering this, a gallery appears, running from east to west,
about twenty-two feet in length, four and a half in average width,
and five in height; the sides formed of large slabs of stone, set
edgeways, the spaces between being filled in with smaller stones. The
roof is formed, as usual, of flat slabs, laid across and resting on
the side-slabs. There are two smaller chambers on one side, and there
is evidence of two others having existed on the other side. Several
skeletons were found in this fine tumulus when it was opened, many
years ago.
It will have been noticed that circles of stones surrounding
grave-mounds have frequently been named in this and the preceding
chapter. It will, therefore, be well to devote a few lines to these
interesting remains.
Circles of stone of one kind or other are not unfrequently to be
noticed in various parts of the kingdom, and they vary as much in their
size and in their character as they do in their other features. The
bases of grave-mounds were frequently defined by these circles, and
sometimes by a shallow fosse, and occasionally by a combination of
both. To this circumstance the origin of many of the circles of stones
remaining to this day are to be traced; while others of a far larger
construction, and of a totally different character, such as those of
Stonehenge, Abury, Rollrich, and, probably, Arbor-Low, have been formed
for totally different purposes. With these larger ones, except in so
far as they are connected with sepulchral tumuli, I have in my present
work but little to do. Of the smaller ones, those which have surrounded
grave-mounds, I will now proceed to give some particulars.
Excavations into various grave-mounds have proved beyond doubt the fact
that, in many instances, when an interment was made, the size of the
proposed cairn to be raised over the remains was marked by a circle
of stones laid on the surface of the ground, or inclining inwards, or
set upright in the earth. The stones were then piled up within this
enclosure, till the whole size and altitude of the mound was reached.
In the case of the Flax Dale barrow, this mode of construction is shown
in the next engraving (fig. 66). A circle of large flat stones was
placed upon the surface of the earth, around the interment (which in
this case consisted of calcined bones, in urns and without), and upon
these a second course of stones was placed. The mound was then raised
in the manner indicated in fig. 4, and over this a thick layer of earth
was laid, which increased both the circumference and the altitude of
the barrow. To render this crust more compact, fires were evidently
lit on the circumference of the circle, which had the effect, by
burning the soil, of hardening it, and making it in some cases almost
of the consistency of brick.
[Illustration: Fig. 66.]
An example of the second mode of construction I have indicated is at
Elk-Low, a section of which is given on fig. 67. The barrow has a
depression running around its upper surface, something like an elevated
fosse, as will be seen in the section. The interments were made on the
natural surface of the ground, where, in the centre, lay a skeleton,
on its right side, in a contracted position, with its head resting on a
piece of limestone which was placed as a pillow. Other skeletons were
also found, as was likewise an interment of burnt bones, and some flint
and stone instruments. The outer circle was constructed of very large
stones inclining inwards, and covered with small stones and earth, and
thus forming an extremely durable mound.
[Illustration: Fig. 67.]
Both of these examples, if denuded of their mounds, would form striking
and very perfect stone circles, and would be among the best remaining
examples of small “Druidical circles,” as they are commonly called.
[Illustration: Fig. 68.]
Where the circles have been formed of upright stones, they have not,
certainly, always been covered with the mound, but have formed a kind
of ring fence, a sort of sacred enclosure, around the barrow. A great
number of examples of this kind exist in different districts, and will
easily be recognised by the zealous archæologist. The circle next
shown, on figs. 68 and 69, is that on Stanton Moor, known by the name
of the “Nine Ladies.” This circle, of which a plan is here given, is
formed of a circular mound of earth, on which the upright stones are
placed. It is about thirty-six feet in diameter. It has formerly
consisted of a larger number of stones; those that are now remaining
being at irregular distances, varying from eight to nineteen feet
apart. In the centre are the remains of a rifled sepulchral mound.
[Illustration: Fig. 69.]
Another circle, bearing the same name, “The Nine Ladies,” is on
Hartle Moor, but of this only four stones are now remaining. It has
undoubtedly been a sepulchral mound, encircled by upright stones. On
other parts of these moors other circles have existed, or still exist,
which have, by excavations, been proved to have enclosed sepulchral
deposits.
On Brassington Moor, near a fine chambered tumulus, now unfortunately
destroyed, existed two similar circles, the one thirty-nine, and the
other twenty-two, feet in diameter. On Leam Moor, too, circles are
known to have existed, surrounding interments. On Eyam Moor circles of
this kind, encircling sepulchral mounds, exist. One of these is about
a hundred feet in diameter, and is, like the “Nine Ladies” on Stanton
Moor, formed of a circular mound of earth, on which the stones are
placed. Only ten of the stones remain _in situ_. In the centre a cist
was discovered many years ago. Other circles occur in the same county,
on Abney Moor, on Froggat Edge, on the East Moor, on Hathersage Moor,
and in other localities.
[Illustration: Fig. 70.]
On Dartmoor, in Devonshire, many circles yet remain, as they do also
in Cornwall and in other counties. Mr. Blight, who has paid a vast
deal of attention to the antiquities of his native county, Cornwall,
has collected together many data concerning these structures, which
tend to throw much light upon their modes of construction, as well
as uses. To his researches I am indebted for much of the following
information regarding the Cornish circles, and also for the diagrams
which illustrate it. Upright stones were, as in the case of the ring
fences already named, placed at tolerably regular intervals around the
barrow, either on the natural surface of the ground or on a circular
embankment thrown up for the purpose. The intervening spaces were
then, in many instances, filled in with small stones, so as to form
a compact kind of wall, as shown in the next engraving. This mode
of construction was adopted for encircling grave-mounds, and in the
forming of hut dwellings, etc. It will easily be seen that in course
of time the loose walled parts would be thrown down and disappear,
while the uprights, being firmly fixed in the ground, would remain, and
would thus form the stone circles as now seen, and as commonly called
“Druidical circles.” In some instances, as in the case of the circle
enclosing a perfect stone cist, covered by a mound, at Sancreed,
shown on fig. 71, the upright stones touched each other, and thus
formed a remarkably fine enclosure. This circle is about fifteen feet
in diameter. Another variety is shown in fig. 72. This is a double
circle, or rather two circles, one within the other, and about two feet
apart, surrounding a stone cist. The stones in this example nearly
touch each other. A somewhat similar one, but with the circles farther
apart from each other, exists in the Isle of Man, and is shown on the
ground plan (fig. 73). The mound in this instance, probably, rose
from the inner circle only, and covered the central cist. In several
instances the interment was not in the centre of the circle, but was
made in different situations within its area. For instance, in the
next example (fig. 74), from Trewavas Head, the cist is near to the
circle of stones. The outer diameter of the mound is thirty-five feet,
the diameter of the circle of stones being nineteen feet six inches.
Other examples, similar in arrangement, might be adduced. Fig. 75
shows a totally different construction. In this instance the circle is
composed of a number of stone cists, or sepulchral chambers, pretty
close together, end to end. This curious example, of which a somewhat
analogous one exists in the Channel Islands (see fig. 76), is on Mule
Hill, in the Isle of Man. Fig. 77 shows the remains of a stone circle
surrounding the larger of a pair of “twin-barrows,” of which some of
the stones have now disappeared. The circle is about seventy feet in
diameter, and the stones vary from six to eight feet in height. Fig.
78 is the plan of another “twin-barrow,” so called, the circle in the
larger being about thirty-five, and the smaller twenty-four, feet in
diameter. In the centre, at A B, are the remains of a stone cist, or
chamber. “The mounds were both cairns of loose stones. Remains of other
barrows, similarly formed, occur in the vicinity. There were two within
a few hundred yards of the ‘twin-barrow’ last described, the greater
portions of which have recently been taken away to build a neighbouring
hedge, but of which I found enough to show how they were built.
First, there was an enclosing circle of stones, some placed upright,
some longitudinally (fig. 79), the intention being simply to make an
enclosing fence; within this the grave was constructed; then small
stones heaped over the whole, the cairn extending, by about six feet,
outside the built circle.” The more perfect of the “twin-barrows” also
had the cairn extending beyond the circle.
[Illustration: Fig. 71.]
[Illustration: Fig. 72.]
[Illustration: Fig. 73.]
[Illustration: Fig. 74.]
[Illustration: Fig. 75.]
[Illustration: Fig. 76.]
[Illustration: Fig. 77.]
[Illustration: Fig. 78.]
[Illustration: Fig. 79.]
Some larger circles, such, for instance, as the Bosawen-ûn circle,
eighty feet in diameter (fig. 80), the Aber circle (fig. 81), and
others, it is supposed, may have been formed around a group of
interments, instead of single interments, as in many of the others.
In some instances a single stone was placed to mark the place of
interment. Three such exist in the barrow at Berriew (fig. 82). A large
circle (fig. 83), twenty-seven yards, in diameter, on Penmaenmaur, was
constructed of several uprights, connected by smaller masonry. Here the
interments were apparently made beside the pillars. Against the inner
side of the tallest pillar A, on the eastern part, were the remains
of a small stone cist; while against the pillar B, facing it on the
opposite side, was heaped up a small cairn. The whole is surrounded by
a ditch, within which, at C, is another small cairn.
[Illustration: Fig. 80.]
[Illustration: Fig. 81.]
[Illustration: Fig. 82.]
[Illustration: Fig. 83.]
Arbor-Low, in the High Peak of Derbyshire, to which allusion has been
made, is represented in fig. 84. No sepulchral remains have been
discovered within the circle, but barrows of great extent, which have
yielded important remains on being excavated, are closely connected
with it. It is, however, probable, that interments have existed, and
been removed in past ages.
[Illustration: Fig. 84.]