The Southern Philippines.
Important Facts About the Lesser Islands of the Philippine
Archipelago--Location, Size and Population--Capitals and
Principal Cities--Rivers and Harbors--Surface and Soil--People and
Products--Leading Industries--Their Commerce and Business Affairs--The
Monsoons and Typhoons--The Terrors of the Tempests and How to Avoid
Them.
The island and province of Mindoro lies in the strait of its name
and south of Luzon. It has in the center an elevated plain, we quote
from the military notes issued by the War Department, from which
many sierras extend in different directions to the coast, making the
latter rugged and dangerous. The island is of an oval form, with
a prolongation of the northern portion toward the west. Though an
easy day's sail from Manila, it is one of the least populous islands
of the archipelago, being extremely mountainous, covered with dense
forests, and in the more level parts near the coast full of marshes,
and very unhealthful. The inhabitants of the coast are Tagals, but in
the interior there is a low tribe of the Malayan race, probably the
indigenes of the island, and called Manguianos, speaking a peculiar
language and living in a very miserable manner on the products of
a rude agriculture. There are also said to be some Negritos, but of
these very little is known. There are many short streams. The island is
110 miles long and has an area of 3,087 square miles. The population
is 106,170. There is little known of the mountains of the interior,
as the inhabitants dwell mainly on the coasts. Mindoro constitutes
one of the provinces of the Philippines under an alcalde.
The capital is Calapan, with a population of 5,585. It is situated to
the north, on the harbor of its name, defended by a fort of regular
construction; it has about 500 houses, among the notable stone ones
being the parish, court house and jail, and casa real. It is the
residence of the alcalde mayor and several public functionaries. The
city is situated 96 miles from Manila.
Mount Kalavite is a long-backed promontory, the western slope of
which forms Cape Kalavite, and the northern slope Point del Monte;
the summit, about 2,000 feet high, appears dome-shaped when seen from
the west, but from the north or south it shows a long ridge fairly
level; the western end of this ridge is the highest part.
The capital of the province, Calapan, is a coast town. The inhabitants
are occupied in hunting, fishing, and ordinary weaving. The commerce
is insignificant. Sand banks extend in front of the town to a distance
of one-half mile. To clear these, the northern Silonai islet should
not be shut out by Point Calapan. On this line, near the north edge
of the banks, the soundings are 36 to 46 fathoms.
The Semirara Islands form a group of eight islands, all surrounded
by reefs.
Semirara, the largest of the group, is hilly, about 512 feet high
at the highest part. The west coast includes several little bays
almost entirely obstructed by reefs, on the edge of which are depths
of 4 3/4 to 13 fathoms; and off the town of Semirara, which stands
on the top of the hill facing the largest bay, the anchorage is
very bad, even for coasters. The east coast is bordered by a reef,
which extends about a mile from the northeast part of the island; on
coming from the north this coast of the island must not be approached
within three miles until the town of Semirara bears full west. There
is anchorage at the south of the island in 5 to 8 fathoms, sand,
during the northeast monsoon. Good coal for steaming purposes was
found on the island by Captain Villavicencio, of the Spanish navy.
Tablas Island is, mountainous, and on its northern extremity is
the peak Cabezo de Tablas, 2,405 feet high; generally the coasts
are clear and steep-to. Off the north end are two rocky islets,
distant one cable from the coast; the larger one is clear and steep,
the smaller one has rocks around it.
The west coast of Mindoro Island has no soundings off it excepting in
the bays, or within one or two miles of the shore in some places. In
the interior double and treble chains of mountains extend through
the island, and some low points of land project from them into the sea.
Paluan Bay affords excellent shelter in the northeast monsoon, and is
also a convenient place for vessels to obtain supplies when passing
through Mindoro Strait. The bay is five miles wide at the entrance,
of a semi-circular form, running back three miles in a northerly
direction. There are no dangers in it.
A small river disembogues where good water can be obtained with
facility; and on the beach there is plenty of driftwood. The coral
projects one-half mile from the entrance of the river, and has 10
and 12 fathoms close to its edge.
Care must be taken when working into Paluan Bay, for the squalls
come violently off the high land, and very sudden, and at night do
not give the least warning.
The Calamianes are a group of high islands lying between the northeast
end of Palawan and Mindoro, and extending between the parallels of
11 degrees 39 minutes and 12 degrees 20 minutes N., and the meridians
of 119 degrees 47 minutes and 120 degrees 23 minutes E. Busuanga, the
largest island of the group, is about 34 miles in extent NW. by W. and
SE. by E., and 18 miles broad. It is very irregular in form, being
indented with numerous deep bays. The islands and reefs which front
its northeast side form the western side of Northumberland Strait.
These islands form, with the northern part of Palawan and the
Cuyos Islands, a province, the capital of which is at Port
Tai Tai. The climate of these islands is in general hot and
unhealthful. Intermittent fevers and cutaneous diseases prevail,
attributable, in all probability, to the great moisture and the
insalubrious quality of the drinking water. All these islands are,
generally speaking, hilly and broken. The industry of the locality
is in collecting Salanganes (edible birds' nests), honey, and wax;
but cultivation is not practiced to any great extent. The forests
produce good timber for building or cabinet work.
Tara Island, when seen from the northward, shows a triple summit
to its northwest end; while its southern part looks like a separate
island, saddle-shaped. The island does not appear to be permanently
inhabited; in March, 1885, it was occupied by parties from Busuanga,
burning the grass and digging cassava.
Lagat is a small island 334 feet high, surrounded by a reef with a
narrow passage between it and the reef off the south of Tara.
Botak Island, 800 feet high, is fairly well cultivated. Off its
northern end there is a queer pin-shaped rock, and off its southern
end are same sharp-pointed rocks. The vicinity has not been sounded.
The space included between the Sulu Archipelago to the south and
Mindoro to the north, and having the Philippine Islands on the
east and Palawan on the west, is distinguished by the name of the
Sulu Sea. Although of great depth, 2,550 fathoms, this sea, which
is in connection with the China and Celebes seas, and also with the
Pacific by San Bernardino and Surigao straits, has a minimum deep-sea
temperature of 50.5 degrees, reached invariably at 400 fathoms. As this
temperature in the China Sea is at the depth of 200 fathoms, and in the
Celebes Sea at 180 fathoms, and in the Pacific at 230 fathoms, it may
be inferred that the Sulu Sea is prevented from freely interchanging
its waters with those seas by ridges which do not exceed those depths.
In the Sulu Sea easterly winds with fine weather prevail in October,
and the northeast monsoon is not established until November. In
January and February it blows hardest, but not with the force of
the China seas, and it is felt strongest before the openings between
Panay and Negros, and Negros and Mindanao. At the end of May southwest
winds begin to blow, and in a month become established, to terminate
in October, bringing with them a season made up of rain squalls
and tempests, which take place principally in July and August. In
September a heavy mist hangs about the coast of Mindanao.
The island and province of Paragua is the most western of the
Philippine Archipelago, and is situated to the north of Borneo. It is
long and narrow, following a northeast direction, and nearly closes
on the southwest the Sea of Mindanao, which enters from the China
Sea by Balabac Strait on the south and between Mindoro and Paragua
on the north. A chain of high mountains, some 6,560 feet high, runs
lengthwise of the narrow belt formed by the island, whose length is
266 miles. The northwest and northeast slopes are narrow. The island
has extensive and well protected harbors and bays. The area is 2,315
square miles and the population 45,000.
The capital is Puerto Princesa, with a population of 1,589.
Panay is divided into three provinces, viz: Capiz to the north,
Iloilo to the southeast, and Antique to the southwest. In general
it is wild, with very high coasts, except in the northeastern part,
where the latter are somewhat marshy. A mountain chain crosses the
island from Point Juraojurao on the south as far as Point Potol
on the north, following a direction almost parallel to the western
coast. Large groups of sierras branch out to the right and left of
the central chain; on the eastern slope begins another chain, running
northeast to the extreme northeasterly point of the island. Owing to
its cragginess, it has a great number of streams running in different
directions. The area is 4,540 square miles.
The town of Iloilo stands on a low sandy flat on the right bank of a
river; at the end of this flat is a spit on which a fort is built,
and close to which there is deep water. Vessels of moderate draft
(15 feet) can ascend the river a short distance and lie alongside
wharves which communicate with the merchant houses, but large vessels
must anchor outside near the spit. It is a town of great commercial
importance, and a brisk coasting trade is carried on from it. The
better class of houses in Iloilo are built on strong wooden posts,
2 or 3 feet in diameter, that reach to the roof; stone walls to the
first floor, with wooden windows above, and an iron roof. The poorer
class of dwellings are flimsy erections of nipa, built on four strong
posts. The roads and bridges are in a deplorable condition and almost
impassable in the rainy season.
The chief imports are Australian coal, and general merchandise from
Europe, but most sailing ships arrive in ballast.
The exports are sugar, tobacco, rice, coffee, hides, and hemp; it is
also the principal place of manufacture of pina, juse, and sinamoya,
a tissue greatly in use among the Philippines. In 1883, 93,750 tons
of sugar were exported, principally to America.
Typhoons do not occur regularly, but in most years the tail of
one passes over the place, which suffers also from the visitations
of locusts.
Provisions of all kinds can be obtained, but the prices are higher than
at Manila. In 1886 beef was 12 1/2 cents per pound, bread 11 cents,
vegetables 11 cents, fowls $2 per dozen. Water is scarce and is brought
across from Guimaras in tank boats; it is supplied to the shipping
at the rate of $1 per ton; the Europeans depend mainly upon rain water.
There are generally about 500 tons of coal in store, chiefly
Australian; it is kept for the supply of local steamers that take
in what they require alongside the wharves. Vessels in the roads can
have it brought off in bulk in lighters or schooners at a cost of 50
cents a ton. Coolies can be hired at 75 cents per ton, but they will
not coal vessels if they can get other work. Notice is required the
day before coaling, as men are not kept in readiness. The price of
coal in 1886 was $11.00 per ton.
There is regular weekly communication with Manila, which is 250
miles distant.
The Province of Capiz is bounded on the north by the Archipelago Sea,
on the east by the District of Concepcion, on the south by the ridge
separating it from Iloilo, and on the southwest by the mountains,
separating it from the Province of Antique. Its very high mountains are
covered with luxuriant vegetation, and give rise to many rivers which
water the valleys of the province. There are gold and copper mines, and
much tobacco, sugar, rice, and abaca is raised. During the year three
fairs are held, in which articles of the country are bartered. The
province is divided into two parts, called Ilaya and Aclan, which
are irrigated by the rivers Panay and Adan, respectively. The area
is 1,543 square miles and the population 189,171, distributed among
36 pueblos and 287 barrios.
The capital is Capiz, with a population of 13,676. It is situated 290
miles from Manila. It has a harbor for vessels of ordinary draft, and
highroads to Iloilo, Antique, and the District of Concepcion. There
is a steamer kept by the state, stopping at the harbor every 28 days
and keeping up communication with Manila, Romblon, Iloilo, and Cebu.
The Province of Iloilo is to the southeast of the Province of Capiz and
west of Antique. The ground is generally level, and, being irrigated
by numerous rivers, is fertile, so that tobacco, cacao, sugar cane,
abaca, rice, and maize are grown; besides, there is good pasturage
for raising herds of cattle and horses, and gold and other mines are
known. The principal industry is the manufacture of fabrics of sinamay,
pina, jusi, etc., requiring over 30,000 looms. The dimensions are 99
miles in length by 27 miles in width, and the population is 472,728.
The capital is Iloilo, with a population of 10,380. It is situated
355 miles from Manila, and is the residence of the governor, captain
of port, and a number of treasury, justice, and fomento officials. It
has a pretty cathedral, a seminary, casa real, and court house. It is
one of the most mercantile towns of the Visaya group, and has some
industries, among which are a machine shop and foundry, a carriage
factory, and a hat factory.
The Province of Bohol is bounded on the north by the sea between
Cebu and Leyte, on the east by the Surigao Sea, on the south by
the Sea of Mindanao, and on the west by the channel separating it
from Cebu. The province is composed of the islands of Bohol and
Dauis. They are somewhat mountainous and well wooded, and coffee,
abaca, sugar cane, and tobacco are raised. In the mountains of
Bohol game is plenty, and many coal and phosphate of iron mines are
supposed to exist. Manufactures consist in fabrics of sinamay and other
materials. The area is 1,617 square miles and the population 247,745.
The capital is Tagbilaran, with a population of 8,638. It is situated
365 miles from Manila.
The island and province of Cebu are the most important of the Visayas,
on account of the central position, nature of the soil, and the
industry of its numerous inhabitants. It is bounded on the north by
the sea separating it from Masbate and Leyte, on the east by the sea
separating it from Leyte and Bohol, on the south by the Mindanao Sea,
and on the west by the Tanon Channel and the island of Negros. The
area is 2,092 square miles and the population 504,076. Great mountain
chains cross the island; the chief of these starts at the extreme
north between Point Marab on the west and Baluarte on the east, and,
continuing south between the two coasts, ends almost in the center
of the island. Two other chains run along the coast, and one starts
near Carcas, to the southwest of the city of Cebu, terminating on
the south in Tanon Point. The coasts are high and the rivers of
little importance.
The capital is Cebu, with a population of 35,243. It is the mercantile
center of the islands, and is situated 460 miles from Manila. It
is an Episcopal see, and has a good cathedral, Episcopal palace,
casa real, court house, and private edifices, simple but tasty;
there is also a post office and telegraph station. On the south,
and at the entrance of the channel, is the castle of Point Cauit,
and north of this the tower of Mandaui; both these fortifications
communicate with the capital by means of a wagon road, the city being
midway between them. At the capital reside the politico-military
governor, a secretary, judge and attorney-general, a number of public
functionaries, a captain of engineers, and the captain of the port.
Maktan Island consists of an old coral reef, raised a few feet (8
or 10 at most) above the present sea level. At the northern part of
the island, where a convent stands, a low cliff fringes the shore,
being an upper stratum of the upheaved reef. The raised reef is here
preserved, but over the portion of the island immediately fronting
Cebu it has been removed by denudation, with the exception of a few
pillar-like blocks which remain, and which are conspicuous from the
anchorage. The surface is scooped out into irregular basins and sharp
projecting pinnacles and covered in all directions with mud, resulting
from the denudation. Nearly all the island is covered by mangroves,
but on the part left dry there are plantations of cocoanuts.
The only town on the island is Opon, on the west coast, SW. of Mandaui
Point in Cebu. It was here that Magellan was killed in 1521, after
making the first passage across the Pacific.
The town of Cebu is the most ancient in the Philippines; it is the
seat of government of the Visayan Islands, which include Cebu, Bohol,
Panay, Negros, and Leyte, and it is the residence of a bishop. It
is built on a large plain at the foot of the chain of hills that
traverse the island throughout its length, and is a well-constructed,
thriving place; the merchants' quarter is situated along the port,
and includes some well-built stone houses, though many are of old
construction. The huts of the Malays, for the most part fishermen,
are on the beach, and form the west part of the city. The fort is a
triangular edifice of stone, painted red, with an open square in front.
The island of Leyte is bounded on the north by the canal separating
it from Samar, on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on the west by the
sea separating it from Bohol and Cebu, and on the south by the one
separating it from Mindanao. It is extensive and irregular, having
an area of 3,087 square miles and a population of 270,491. A high
and abrupt mountain chain crosses the island nearly parallel to the
west coast; the coasts are high, with good natural harbors. In the
northern part and on the western slopes of the great sierras, streams
of potable water and also many lagoons abound. This is different from
the eastern part, where the latter are scarce. The principal product
of the island is abaca, but rice is also raised and cocoanut oil is
extracted. There are unworked mines of gold, magnetite, and sulphur.
The capital is Tacloban, with a population of 5,226. It is situated
338 miles from Manila. Among the important towns are Baru, population
12,222; Borauen, 21,290; Cauyaia, 13,732; Dagami, 25,000; Hilongos,
13,713; Jaio, 12,475; Massiu, 18,499; Palo, 17,736; Tauauau, 18,509.
The island of Negros is mountainous and wild; its coasts are difficult
of access, and the breakers strong, except on the west coast from Point
Bulucabo on the north of Palompon on the west, where it is marshy. A
high mountain chain crosses it from Point Doong on the north to the
harbor and point Bombonon on the south; from the last third extend
several ramifications of high mountains, terminating on the coast at
the extreme south and in the Sierra Dumaguete. Its streams are not
important, being short and of little value. The ground is uneven but
fertile. The natives irrigate their estates, and produce tobacco,
coffee, sugar cane, and wheat. Manufactures consist in fabrics of
abaca and canonegro, of which boat cables are made. The interior of
the island, covered with thick forests, is almost unexplored, being
inhabited by a few savages.
The Province of Western Negros is situated on Negros Island, it is
bounded on the north by the Visayas Sea, on the west by the Paragua
Sea, and on the south and east by the Province of Eastern Negros. The
area is 1,929 square miles, and the population 226,995.
The capital is Bacolod, with a population of 6,268. It is the
residence of the politico-military governor, the secretary, judge,
attorney-general, and several public functionaries.
It is situated 379 miles from Manila.
The Province of Negros has a population of 94,782--the capital,
Dumaguete, 13,613.
The Province of Romblon consists of the following six islands: Romblon
(the principal one), Tablas, Sibuyan, Banton, Simara, and Maestre
Campo. It is bounded on the north by the Tayabas Sea, on the south by
the Visayas Sea, on the east by the Sea of Masbate, and on the west by
the Sea of Mindoro. The area is 813 square miles, and the population
38,633, distributed among 13 barrios and 3 rancherias of infieles.
The capital is Romblon, with a population of 6,764. It is situated
on the harbor of the same name at the north of the island, 204 miles
from Manila, and is the residence of the politico-military commander.
The Island and Province of Samar is situated to the southeast of
Luzon, it is bounded en the north by the Strait of San Bernardino,
on the south by the Jahanetes Canal, separating it from Leyte Island,
on the east by the Pacific Ocean, and on the west by the Visayas
Sea. It is very mountainous, with high, steep coasts. A number of
sierras and mountains extend in various directions, forming valleys
and glens fertilized by numerous rivers, which, however, have little
current and volume. The length of the island is 155 miles. The chief
products are abaca, rice, and cocoanuts, oil being extracted from
the latter. Among the medicinal plants the most highly valued is the
catbalonga seed. Commerce is quite active in spite of the few means
of communication and the dangerous coasts. The island is visited
yearly by tornadoes which devastate crops and cause much damage to
agriculture. The high mountains and thick forests of the interior are
inhabited by a great number of savages who have sought refuge here. The
area is 4,699 square miles, and the population 200,753, distributed
among 43 pueblos, 208 visitas, and 3 rancherias of subdued infieles.
The capital is Catbalogan, population of 6,459, situated on the harbor
and bay of like name on the west of the island 338 miles from Manila,
and is the residence of the politico-military governor.
The Jolo Archipelago, formed of some 160 islands, is situated southwest
of Mindanao and south of Basilan. It is bounded on the south by the
Jolo Sea, on the northeast by Mindanao and on the west and southwest
by Borneo. The small islands are covered with mangroves, while the
large ones have thick forests of good timber, and the natives raise
rice, maize, and various alimentary roots, ambergris being found
on the coasts. The principal island, called Sulu, or Jolo (ch. 47,
48, 49, 50, p. 285), is occupied in a military way by the Spanish
forces, whose chief, or governor, resides in the old capital,
which has well-constructed and armed forts, a pier, etc. By royal
decree of November 13, 1877, the sultanship was transformed into a
civico-military government. The population consists of 500 aborigines,
612 Chinese traders, and 16,000 negroes.
Next to Luzon, the island of Mindanao is the most extensive and
important of the Philippines.
By decree of July 30, 1860, the territorial division of this island
was definitely established, and a civico-military government, under
the denomination of Mindanao and adjacent islands, was created. It is
divided into eight districts. The island is situated between Visayas
on the north and Borneo on the south; it is bounded on the east by
the Pacific Ocean, and on the west by the island of Paragua, the
Strait of Balabac, and Borneo. The area is 16,595 square miles, and
the population 611,300, of which 211,000 are Christians and the rest
Mohammedans and Pagans. It is very extensive and irregular in form,
possessing high and extended mountain chains, which have not been
entirely explored, and which are grown over with very rich woods. It
is inhabited almost throughout the interior by savages. Its rivers,
some of great volume, are as follows: On the north coast and Butuan
Bay, the Jabonga and Butuan: on the Macajalar coast, the Cagayan;
in Eligan Bay, the Malanao and others of minor importance; in the
cove of Dapitan, the Palaven.
In Port Kakule the greatest rise of tide is seven feet. In
Surigao Strait the flood tide sets to the west, and the ebb to the
east. The velocity of the stream in the strait reaches six knots at
springs. There is a difference of about two hours between the time
of high water at Surigao and in Surigao Strait. Fishermen roughly
estimate that when the moon rises the ebb tide commences to run in
Surigao Strait. From January to June there is but one high water
during the twenty-four hours, in Surigao Strait, which occurs during
the night. From July to December the same phenomenon takes place,
but the time of high water is by day.
From observations made by the Spanish surveyors, it appears that the
highest tide on the west coasts of the islands of the strait takes
place at the same hour as the lowest tide on the east coasts.
The Mindanao river disembogues five miles to the south of Palak
Harbor by two wide arms, on the northernmost of which is the town of
Kota-batu, about 5 1/2 miles from the mouth. The river is navigable
for 60 miles by vessels of 3 1/2 feet draught; it flows through a
beautiful valley 30 miles in width, which scarcely shows any change
of level; the valley is capable of producing tobacco, cacao, sugar,
maize, and cotton; but this is only known at present by specimens
produced. The course of the river lies SE. for 45 miles from its
mouth to the lake Ligauasan, out of which it is seen to flow; from
the other side of the lake the direction of the river is NNE. to its
source in the Sugut Mountains. At 21 miles from the northern mouth
the river divides into two arms, which enter the sea 4 1/2 miles apart.
In the northern part of Mindanao is the province of Surigao, bordered
on the north by the Surigao Sea, on the east by the Pacific, on the
south by the District of Davao, and on the west by the territory
of the infieles. It is mountainous, but the Christian population
resides on the coasts and in the northern point of the territory. The
population is 95,775, distributed among 45 pueblos, 10 barrios,
and 30 rancherias of subdued infieles. Abaca and palay are raised,
and in the gold washings considerable gold of good quality is found.
Military notes on the Philippines affirm that the islands are, in many
respects, Spain's best possessions, due to the abundance and variety
of products, numerous and good ports, character of inhabitants, and on
account of the vicinity of certain countries of eastern Asia, which are
now entering upon a stage of civilization and commerce. The group is
composed of some 2,000 islands. In 1762 Manila was taken and held by
the English for a ransom of 1,000,000 pounds sterling. This, however,
was never paid, and the islands were finally returned to Spain.
The archipelago extends from 5 degrees 32 minutes to 19 degrees 38
minutes, north latitude, and from 117 degrees to 126 degrees, east
longitude. It thus covers about 1,000 miles north and south and 600
east and west.
The whole surface of the Philippines is essentially mountainous, the
only plains that occur being alluvial districts at the river mouths
and the spaces left by the intersection of the ranges. The principal
ranges have a tendency to run north and south, with a certain amount of
deflection east and west, as the case may be, so that the orographic
diagram of the archipelago, as a whole, has a similarity to a fan,
with northern Luzon as its center of radiation.
While none of the mountain peaks greatly exceed 8,000 feet in height,
Apo, in Mindanao, is over 9,000 feet; Halson, in Mindoro, is over
8,900 feet; and Mayon, in Luzon, over 8,200. The latter is an active
volcano, which has been the scene of several eruptions during the
present century. Extinct or active craters are relatively as numerous
in the Philippines as in the eastern archipelago, and as a consequence
of these subterranean forces earthquakes are frequent and violent.
In 1627 one of the most elevated mountains of Cagayan disappeared,
and on the island of Mindanao, in 1675, a passage was opened to the
sea and a vast plain emerged. The more recent of the convulsions
occurred in 1863 and in 1880. The destruction of property was great,
especially in Manila.
The general belief is that the Philippines once formed a part of an
enormous continent from which it was separated by some cataclysm. This
continent probably extended from Celebes to the farthest Polinesian
islands on the east, to New Zealand on the south, and the Mariana
and Sandwich islands on the north.
These islands, according to Ramon Jordana, are divided into two
volcanic regions, the eastern and the western. The principal point is
the volcano Taal, located in the northeastern portion of the province
of Batangas. It is situated on a small island in the center of the
Bombon laguna, and has an altitude of 550 feet above sea level. Its
form is conical, and the rock is composed of basalt feldspar with
a small quantity of augite. The crater is supposed to be 232 feet
deep. Its sides are almost vertical, and there are two steaming
lagunas at its bottom.
In the regions embracing the provinces of Manila, Bulacan, Pampanga,
Tarlac, and Pangasinan the soil is mostly composed of clay containing
remnants of sea shells, a circumstance which gives rise to the belief
that the coast of Manila has risen from the sea in not so remote
an epoch. Smooth, dark gray tophus predominates; it forms the bed
of the Rio Pasig, and rising forms hillocks in the vicinity of the
city of Binangonan. Farther on, trachyte and banks of conchiferous
sand predominate.
The vast plain of Panpanga extends to the north of Manila Bay, to
the south of which is situated Mount Arayat, of doleritic nature.
The disposition of the mountain ranges in parallel chains affords space
for the development of streams both in Luzon and Mindanao. The larger
islands contain inland seas, into which pour countless small streams
from the inland hills. Many of them open out into broad estuaries,
and in numerous instances coasting vessels of light draft can sail to
the very foot of the mountains. Rivers and inland lakes swarm with
varieties of fish and shellfish. By reason of Spanish restrictions,
but little can be said as to the character of the stream banks
and beds. Four of the rivers are navigable, and, by the statements
of those who have spent some little time on the islands, most are
fordable. Drinking water is obtained by many of the towns from the
rivers at points just above tide limits, and the water is said to be
good. Bridges are few and crude, but are generally built to withstand
heavy strain.
The island of Luzon abounds in rivers and streams. The following are
the principal water courses:
Rio Grande de Cagayan, the source of which is in the northern slope
of the Caraballo Norte. It has numerous affluents, among others the
Magat and Bangag, and, after a course of about 200 miles, falls into
the China Sea in the vicinity of Aparri.
Agro Grande starts in the north, in the neighborhood of the ranch
of Loo, receives the affluents Tarlag and Camiling, as well as many
others, has a course of about 112 miles, and falls into the Gulf
of Lingayen.
Abra has its origin on the opposite slope to that where Agno Grande
takes its rise; runs for about 87 miles, and, after receiving the
affluent Suyoc, divides into three arms and falls into the China Sea
over the sand bars of Butao, Nioig, and Dile.
Rio Grande de la Pampanga is called Rio Chico up to the lake of
Canasen, near Arayat, where it changes its name after its junction
with Rio Gapan. Its course is a little over 38 miles; it receives the
Rio de San Jose and divides into a multitude of arms as it falls into
the sea to the north of Manila Bay.
Rio Pasig has its source in the Bay Lagoon, and falls after a course
of 19 miles into Manila Bay.
The military notes on the climate of the Philippines, the official
record of the temperature and the gales and typhoons, and directions
regarding the handling of ships in the peculiar tempests that prevail
at certain seasons around the islands, are of absorbing popular
interest, and of striking special usefulness.
Climate.--In the region of Manila, the hottest season is from March
to June, the greatest heat being felt in May before the rains set in,
when the maximum temperature ranges from 80 degrees to 100 degrees
in the shade. The coolest weather occurs in December and January,
when the temperature falls at night to 60 or 65 degrees, and seldom
rises in the day above 75 degrees. From November to February the sky
is bright, the atmosphere cool and dry, and the weather in every way
delightful. Observations made at the Observatortio Meteorologico
de Manila have been compiled by the United States Weather Bureau,
covering a record of from seventeen to thirty-two years, from which
the following is an extract:
Temperature, degrees F.:
Mean annual 80 degrees
Warmest month 82 degrees
Coolest month 79 degrees
Highest 100 degrees
Lowest 60 degrees
Humidity:
Relative per cent 78
Absolute grains per cubic foot 8.75
Wind movements in miles:
Daily mean 134
Greatest daily 204
Least daily 95
Prevailing wind direction--N.E., November to April; SW., May to
October.
Cloudiness, annual per cent 53
Days with rain 135
Rainfall in inches:
Mean annual 75.43
Greatest monthly 120.98
Least monthly 55.65
The following is the mean temperature for the three seasons, at
points specified:
Cold. Hot. Wet.
Manila 72 degrees 87 degrees 84 degrees
Cebu 75 degrees 86 degrees 75 degrees
Davao 86 degrees 88 degrees 87 degrees
Sulu 81 degrees 82 degrees 83 degrees
Seasons vary with the prevailing winds (monsoons or trade winds) and
are classed as "wet" and "dry." There is no abrupt change from one to
the other, and between periods there are intervals of variable weather.
The Spanish description of seasons is as follows:
Seis meses de lodo--six months of mud.
Seis meses de polvo--six months of dust.
Seis meses de todo--six months of everything.
The northern islands lie in the track of the typhoons which, developing
in the Pacific, sweep over the China Sea from NE. to SW. during the
southwest monsoon. They may be looked for at any time between May and
November, but it is during the months of July, August, and September
that they are most frequent. Early in the season the northern region
feels the greatest force, but as the season advances the typhoon
gradually works southward and the dangerous time at Manila is about
the end of October and the beginning of November. Typhoons rarely,
if ever, pass south of 9 degrees N. latitude. Sometimes the typhoon is
of large diameter and travels slowly, so far as progressive movement is
concerned; at others it is of smaller dimensions, and both the circular
and progressive motions are more rapid. However they are always storms
of terrific energy and frequently cause terrible destruction of crops
and property on shore and of shipping at sea. Thunderstorms, often of
great violence, are frequent in May and June, before the commencement
of the rainy season. During July, August, September, and October the
rains are very heavy. The rivers and lakes are swollen and frequently
overflow, flooding large tracts of low country.
At Manila the average rainfall is stated to be from 75 to 120 inches
per annum, and there the difference between the longest and shortest
day is only 1 hour 47 minutes and 12 seconds. This rainfall, immense
though it be, is small as compared with that of other parts of the
archipelago; e.g., in Liano, NE. of Mindanao, the average yearly
downpour is 142 inches.
Gales.--The gales of the Philippines may be divided into three
classes, known by the local names of Colla, Nortada, and Baguio. The
Colla is a gale in which the wind blows constantly from one quarter,
but with varying force and with alternations of violent squalls,
calms, and heavy rains, usually lasting at least three days; these
gales occur during the southwest monsoon and their direction is from
the southwest quarter. The Nortada is distinguished from the Colla,
in that the direction is constant and the force steady, without the
alternations of passing squalls and calms. The Nortada is generally
indicative that a typhoon is passing not very far off. These gales
occur chiefly in the northern islands, and their direction, as the
name implies, is from the northward. Baguio is the local name for the
revolving storm known as the typhoon, which, being the more familiar
term, will be used in these notes.
Typhoons.--These storms have their origin to the east or to the
southeast of the Philippines, whence their course is westward, with
a slight divergence to the north or south, the average direction
appearing to be west by north. They occur in all months of the year,
but the greater number take place about the time of the equinoxes. The
most violent ones occur at the autumnal equinox, and on an average, two
or three occur every year, and sometimes one follows another at a very
short interval. It is believed that when one of these typhoons passes
a high latitude in September there will be another in October of that
year, and one may be looked for in November in a lower latitude. These
tempests are not encountered in latitudes below 9 degrees N. The rate
of progress of these storms is about 13 miles an hour; in none of
those observed has it exceeded 14 miles nor fallen below 11 miles. The
diameter of the exterior revolving circle of the storm varies from 40
to 130 miles, and the diameter of the inner circle or calm region, may
be estimated at from 8 to 15 miles. The duration of the true typhoon
at any one place is never longer than ten hours and generally much
less. These storms are always accompanied by abundant rain, with low,
dense clouds, which at times limit the horizon to a few yards distance,
and are generally accompanied by electrical discharges. The barometer
falls slowly for some days before the typhoon, then falls rapidly
on its near approach, and reaches its lowest when the vortex is but
a little way off. It then rises rapidly as the vortex passes away,
and then slowly when it has gained some distance. Near the vortex
there are usually marked oscillations. The typhoon generally begins
with a northerly wind, light drizzling rain, weather squally and
threatening, a falling barometer and the wind veering to the eastward,
when the observer is to the northward of the path of the storm, and
backing to the westward when he is to the southward of it; the wind
and rain increase as the wind shifts, and the storm generally ends
with a southerly wind after abating gradually.
The following warnings of the approach of a typhoon, and directions
for avoiding the most dangerous part of it, are taken from the China
Sea Directory: The earlier signs of a typhoon are clouds of a cirrus
type, looking like fine hair, feathers or small white tufts of wool,
traveling from east or north, a slight rise in the barometer, clear
and dry weather, and light winds. These signs are followed by the
usual ugly and threatening appearance of the weather which forbodes
most storms, and the increasing number and severity of the gusts with
the rising of the wind. In some cases one of the earliest signs is
a long heavy swell and confused sea, which comes from the direction
in which the storm is approaching and travels more rapidly than the
storm's center. The best and surest of all warnings, however, will
be found in the barometer. In every case there is great barometric
disturbance. Accordingly, if the barometer falls rapidly, or even if
the regularity of its diurnal variation be interrupted, danger may
be apprehended. No positive rule can be given as to the amount of
depression to be expected, but at the center of some of the storms
the barometer is said to stand fully 2 inches lower than outside the
storm field. The average barometric gradient, near the vortex of the
most violent of these storms, is said to be rather more than 1 inch
in 50 nautical miles. As the center of the storm is approached the
more rapid become the changes of wind, until at length, instead of
its direction altering gradually, as is the case on first entering the
storm field, the wind flies around at once to the opposite point, the
sea meanwhile breaking into mountainous and confused heaps. There are
many instances on record of the wind suddenly falling in the vortex
and the clouds dispersing for a short interval, though the wind soon
blows again with renewed fury.
In the northern hemisphere when the falling barometer and other signs
create suspicion that a typhoon is approaching, facing the wind and
taking 10 or 12 points to the right of it, will give the approximate
bearing of its center. Thus, with the wind NE., the center will
probably be from S. to SSE. of the observer's position. However,
it is difficult to estimate the center of the vortex from any given
point. This partly arises from the uncertainty as to the relation
between the bearing of the center and the direction of the wind,
and greatly from there being no means of knowing whether the storm be
of large or small dimensions. If the barometer falls slowly, and the
weather grows worse only gradually, it is reasonable to suppose that
the storm center is distant; and conversely, with a rapidly falling
barometer and increasing bad weather the center may be supposed to
be approaching dangerously near.
Practical Rules.--When in the region and in the season of revolving
storms, be on the watch for premonitory signs. Constantly observe
and carefully record the barometer.
When on sea and there are indications of a typhoon being near, heave to
and carefully observe and record the changes of the barometer and wind,
so as to find the bearing of the center, and ascertain by the shift of
the wind in which semicircle the vessel is situated. Much will often
depend upon heaving to in time. When, after careful observation, there
is reason to believe that the center of the typhoon is approaching,
the following rules should be followed in determining whether to
remain hove to or not, and the tack on which to remain hove to:
In the northern hemisphere, if the right-hand semicircle, heave to on
the starboard tack. If in the left-hand semicircle, run, keeping the
wind if possible, on the starboard quarter, and when the barometer
rises, if necessary to keep the ship from going too far from the
proper course, heave to on the port tack. When the vessel lies in the
direct line of advance of the storm--which position is, as previously
observed, the most dangerous of all--run with the wind on the starboard
quarter. In all cases increase as soon as possible the distance from
the center, bearing in mind that the whole storm field is advancing.
In receding from the center of a typhoon the barometer will rise
and the wind and sea subside. It should be remarked that in some
cases a vessel may, if the storm be traveling slowly, sail from the
dangerous semicircle across the front of the storm, and thus out of
its influence. But as the rate at which the storm is traveling is
quite uncertain, this is a hazardous proceeding, and before attempting
to cross the seaman should hesitate and carefully consider all the
circumstances of the case, observing particularly the rate at which
the barometer is falling.
Northward of the Equator the current is divided into north and south
equatorial currents by the equatorial counter-current, a stream
flowing from west to east throughout the Pacific Ocean. The currents
in the western part of the Pacific, to the northward of the Equator,
are affected by the monsoons, and to the southward of the Equator
they are deflected by the coast of Australia.
The trade drift, which flows to the westward between the parallels
of 9 degrees and 20 degrees N., on reaching the eastern shores of
the Philippine Islands again turns to the northward, forming near the
northern limit of that group the commencement of the Japan stream. The
main body of the current then flows along the east coast of Formosa,
and from that island pursues a northeasterly course through the
chain of islands lying between Formosa and Japan; and sweeping along
the southeastern coast of Japan in the same general direction, it is
known to reach the parallel of 50 degrees N. The limits and velocity
of the Japan stream are considerably influenced by the monsoons in
the China. Sea, and by the prevailing winds in the corresponding
seasons in the Yellow and Japan seas; also by the various drift
currents which these periodic winds produce.
Admiral Dewey has forwarded to the navy department a memorandum
on mineral resources of the Philippines prepared at the admiral's
request by Professor George W. Becker of the United States geological
survey. Only about a score of the several hundred islands, he says,
are known to contain deposits of valuable minerals. He includes a
table showing the mineral bearing islands and their resources. This
table follows:
"Luzon, coal, gold, copper, lead, iron, sulphur, marble, kaolin;
Sataanduanes, Sibuyan, Bohol and Panaoan, gold only; Marimduque,
lead and silver; Mindoro, coal, gold and copper; Carraray, Batan, Rapu
Rapu, Semarara, Negros, coal only; Masbete, coal and copper; Romblon,
marble; Samar, coal and gold; Panay, coal, oil, gas, gold, copper,
iron and perhaps mercury; Biliram, sulphur only; Leyte, coal, oil and
perhaps mercury; Cebu, coal, oil, gas, gold, lead, silver and iron;
Mindanao, coal, gold, copper and platinum; Sulu archipelago, pearls."
The coal, Mr. Becker says, is analogous to the Japanese coal and that
of Washington, but not to that of the Welsh or Pennsylvania coals. It
might better be characterized as a highly carbonized lignite, likely to
contain much sulphur as iron pyrites, rendering them apt to spontaneous
combustion and injurious to boiler plates. Nevertheless, he says,
when pyrites seams are avoided and the lignite is properly handled,
it forms a valuable fuel, especially for local consumption.
Not least among the promising resources of the Philippines is a curious
natural product. Several vegetable growths appear to possess the
faculty of secreting mineral concretions, in all respects resembling
certain familiar precious stones. The famous James Smithson was the
first to give any real attention to these curious plant gems, but,
though there can be no doubt of their authenticity, neither scientist
nor merchant has followed this lead. One of the jewels, the bamboo
opal, rivals the best stones in its delicate tints of red and green,
but it is among the rarest, and 1,000 stems may be cut up before a
single specimen be found.