Produced by James Simmons.
This file was produced from page images at Google Books.
Transcriber’s Note
This book was transcribed from scans of the original found at Google
Books. There was no book cover image, so I made one by enlarging a black
and white picture of the book from an advertisement found in another
Cole & Morgan title and tried to make it look presentable, including
adding color. The author uses a variant spelling of the word "fuselage"
which I have left as is.
Model Flying Machines
HOW TO BUILD AND FLY
THEM
BY
A. P. MORGAN
NEWARK, N. J.
COLE & MORGAN
1913
COPYRIGHT, 1913
By
COLE & MORGAN
INTRODUCTION.
The construction of model aeroplanes is essentially simple and for those
wishing to experiment it is an ideal method of gaining practical
knowledge of the new science of aeronautics.
Aside from the utilitarian standpoint, there is another aspect hardly
second or less important. A well balanced little machine which will
leave the hand and soar away under its own power is a source of
fascination and delight not only to its maker, but to the spectators of
the flight as well.
This little volume has been planned to present the material it contains
in such a manner that it will aid the judgment of the experimenter and
assist him in developing his own ideas. To make it of immediate value to
the novice a number of detailed plans for building various machines have
been included. For the greater part these machines have been designed
rather to fly greater distances than to appear like some man carrying
prototype.
[Illustration: PLATE I. Launching a Model Aeroplane.]
INTRODUCTION. .....................................................
CHAPTER I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING AEROPLANE FLIGHT. ........
CHAPTER II. GENERAL REMARKS REGARDING MODEL AEROPLANE CONSTRUCTION.
THE QUESTION OF RESISTANCE. WEIGHT. STABILITY. ....................
CHAPTER III. PLANES AND RUDDERS. ELEVATORS AND TAILS. .............
CHAPTER IV. THE FUSELLAGE OR FRAMEWORK. ...........................
CHAPTER V. MOTIVE POWER. ..........................................
CHAPTER VI. SCREW PROPELLERS. .....................................
CHAPTER VII. BEARINGS, THRUST BLOCKS AND GEARS. ...................
CHAPTER VIII. BUILDING AND FLYING MODEL AEROPLANES. ...............
The Blerioplane Flyer. (Plate II.) ..............................
The Monoplane Flyer. (Plate III.) ...............................
The Baby Racer. (Plate IV.) .....................................
The Peerless Racer. (Plate V.) ..................................
The Competition Flyer. (Plates VI and VII.) .....................
The Long Distance Racer. (Plates VIII and IX.) ..................
Fleming-Williams Flyer. (Plate X.) ..............................
FLYING THE MODELS. ..............................................
PLATE I. Launching a Model Aeroplane. .............................
FIG. 1. Diagram showing a kite held in the air by the action of a
wind. The dotted lines and arrow heads represent the direction and
force of the wind. ................................................
FIG. 2. Diagram representing a typical monoplane. The only remaining
requisition is that the aeroplane may be guided at will, caused to
rise or fall or be steered to the right and left. The devices used
to accomplish this are two rudders called respectively the
"elevator" and the "steering rudder." The "elevator" takes the form
of a small surface carried either in front or behind the main
supporting surfaces and enables the machine to take an upward, a
horizontal or downward course accordingly as it is adjusted. It acts
as a rudder to steer the aeroplane up or down or to hold it to its
course in exactly the same manner that a ship’s rudder steers it to
the right or left. When it is desired to direct the aeroplane
upwards, the front edge of the elevator is raised so as to set it at
a greater angle with the horizontal. If the aeroplane’s course is
required to be downward, the front edge of the elevator is lowered.
FIG 3. Diagram showing the makeup of a biplane (Wright). ..........
FIG. 4. Two methods of controlling the lateral stability of an
aeroplane. ........................................................
FIG. 5. The disturbance created in the air by a square object. The
arrow points in the direction of motion. The space in the rear of
the object is the scene of violent eddy. ..........................
FIG. 6. The disturbance caused by a triangular body moving through
the atmosphere. ...................................................
Plate II. .........................................................
FIG. 7. Showing the disturbance created by a small spar on the back
of a plane. .......................................................
FIG. 8. Diagram illustrating the ichthyoid shape and how smoothly it
slips through the air without creating an eddy. ...................
FIG. 9. Of the three shapes shown above, the round one will slip
through the air with the least disturbance and resistance. A bar of
wood like (A), 2 inches square, showed a "drift" of 5.16 lbs. when
placed in a breeze blowing 49 miles per hour. Turning it as shown by
(B) changed the "drift" to 5.47 lbs. A round bar, 2 inches in
diameter, like (C) showed 2.97 lbs. "drift" under the same
conditions. .......................................................
FIG. 10. The figures given above each shape show the "drift" in lbs.
of wooden bars of those shapes when placed in a wind blowing 40
miles an hour. The bars experimented with had a depth of 9 inches in
the direction of the arrows and were 2 inches wide. ...............
FIG. 11. Flat and dihedral planes. ................................
FIG. 12. The action of the air upon a curved and a flat plane. We
have seen that by the effects of the resistance of the air, an
aeroplane may be sustained in the atmosphere. We must now see in
what manner we can use these effects to the greatest advantage. ...
FIG. 13. Section of a built-up plane showing how a rib is made. When
made small, they offer greater "drift" or head resistance than a
single curved surface plane and cannot because of the delicate
structure necessary to make them light, withstand hard knocks. They
have the further disadvantage of being from a constructional
standpoint very hard to make smooth and rigid. ....................
PLATE III. ........................................................
FIG. 14. How ribs may be joined to the long members. ..............
FIG. 15. Form for bending the planes. .............................
FIG. 16. A good method of building a wooden plane. ................
FIG. 17. Various shapes a plane may take. .........................
FIG. 18. An edgewise view of several planes showing the different
ways they may be bent to secure stability. ........................
FIG. 19. The various ways two planes may be combined to secure
stability or form a biplane. ......................................
FIG. 20. Fins. ....................................................
FIG. 21. A simple "motor base" or fusellage. ......................
FIG. 22. Paper Tube Fusellage. Part of the tube is cutaway to show
the rubber skein inside. ..........................................
FIG. 23. Two methods of gearing a propeller. ......................
FIG. 24. ..........................................................
FIG. 25. ..........................................................
FIG. 26. Method of laying out a screw propeller, that is,
determining the angle of the blades at different points. ..........
FIG. 27. A propeller of the truly helical type delivers a cylinder
of air in which all parts move at the same speed as at A. A
propeller having blades of the same angle throughout their length
throws the air as in B in which the centre of the cylinder moves
more slowly than the outside. .....................................
FIG. 28. Templets for testing and carving a propeller. ............
FIG. 29. A simple method of forming a propeller from sheet metal. .
FIG. 30. A built-up metal propeller made of aluminum. .............
FIG. 31. Metal Propeller. .........................................
FIG. 32. Method of carving a propeller of the truly helical type. .
FIG. 33. Methods of fastening propellers to shaft. ................
FIG. 34. Method of forming sockets for joining struts, etc., by
cutting from sheet metal. .........................................
FIG. 35. Bent wood propellers and the methods of fastening them to
the shaft. ........................................................
FIG. 36. Propeller blank (top). Carved propeller (bottom). ........
FIG. 37. Langley type propeller (top). Wright type propeller
(bottom). .........................................................
FIG. 38. Quasi-helical propeller. .................................
FIG. 39. Blanks for racing (top) and chauviere (bottom) propellers.
FIG. 40. The first step in carving a propeller. The blank. Hollowing
the first blade. ..................................................
FIG. 41. One blade hollowed. Hollowing the second blade. ..........
FIG. 42 Rounding the back of the first blade. Rounding the back of
the second blade. .................................................
FIG. 43. All carving finished. Sandpapering to secure a smooth
surface. ..........................................................
FIG. 44. Varnishing. The propeller finished. ......................
FIG. 45. Accentricity. The effect of placing the center of gravity
too low. ..........................................................
FIG. 46. Simplest method of fitting two propellers to a model
aeroplane. ........................................................
FIG. 47. A method of arranging two propellers on the same axis. ...
FIG. 48. Simple bearings. .........................................
FIG. 49. Double bearings. .........................................
FIG. 50. Simple thrust bearing. ...................................
FIG. 51. Ball thrust bearing. .....................................
FIG. 52. Hooks. ...................................................
Plate IV. .........................................................
Plate V. ..........................................................
Plate VI. .........................................................
FIG. 53. Method of holding plane to frame with rubber bands. ......
Plate VII. ........................................................
FIG. 54. The Peerless Racer. ......................................
Plate VIII. .......................................................
Plate IX. .........................................................
Plate X. ..........................................................
FIG. 55. Racing blank and propeller. ..............................
Plate XI. Winding a model. ........................................
FIG. 56. A winder made from an egg beater. ........................
CHAPTER I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING AEROPLANE FLIGHT.
To enter deeply into a discussion of the theory of the aeroplane would
not only tire the reader but would waste valuable space in endeavoring
to explain that which has been more adequately dealt with in more
notable works.
In order to gain a clear understanding of the following chapters,
however, it will be necessary to first grasp the elementary principles
underlying the flight of an aeroplane. In setting these forth, I shall
try, as far as possible, not to hamper or confuse with unnecessary terms
or technicalities, except where such might be of worth in rendering a
better conception of that to which they apply.
[Illustration: FIG. 1. Diagram showing a kite held in the air by the
action of a wind. The dotted lines and arrow heads represent the
direction and force of the wind.]
An ordinary kite is one of the best examples of the action of an
aeroplane. It is scarcely necessary to define the kite; it is a rigid
frame of wooden sticks, on which is stretched a surface of cloth or
paper. A string attached to the kite by means of a "bridle" serves to
hold the apparatus to the ground.
In Fig. 1 is represented a kite against which the wind is blowing as
indicated by the dotted lines. The string is so arranged that the kite
is inclined at an angle to the wind and thus is sustained in the air by
the force of the wind, viz., the molecules of air in striking against
the slanting surface exert a pressure upon it which both calculation and
experiment show to be perpendicular to the surface and tending to lift
it. The kite also exerts a strong pull on the string which holds it in
position.
But on days when there is no breeze or when the wind suddenly dies out;
what is to be done then?
Wind is not an absolute thing. It is a _relative_ movement of the
surrounding air in _comparison_ to a body. The effect is the same, and
the relative movement takes place whether the air is still and the body
in motion, or the air is in motion and the body motionless.
It is therefore an easy matter to "create a breeze" and a kite can be
kept in the air providing the person flying the kite and holding the
string commences to run.
Although no wind is blowing, the pressure of the air through which the
kite is moving will cause it to remain in the air. In other words, the
kite would be sustained in the air by virtue of _its own relative motion
to the wind_. In order that the kite may fly, it makes no difference
whether the wind moves against the kite or the kite moves against the
wind.
An aeroplane, in fact, is nothing but a kite which creates its own
breeze. If an aeroplane were attached to a strong wire serving as the
string in the case of the kite, it would fly in the same manner as the
kite, providing of course that the wind were sufficiently powerful. If
the wind were not blowing at all, or not blowing hard enough, the other
end of the wire could be attached to an automobile and by driving the
automobile fast enough the required _relative motion_ of the air would
be produced and the aeroplane would fly.
There could be no direct benefit derived, however, from an aeroplane
which must remain attached to a machine running over the earth and
travel in its wake. Some other means of producing the required relative
motion is necessary so that the aeroplane may be free to fly in any
direction and either with or against the wind. This is accomplished by a
_propeller_ driven by a motor revolving at high speed in the aeroplane
itself.
The action of an aerial propeller is similar to that of its marine
prototype employed for driving ships through the water. Each depends for
its action upon the imparting of a sternward motion to a column of
fluid, in the one case air and in the other water. A propeller screws
itself forward into the surrounding media in identically the same manner
that an ordinary screw forces itself into a block of wood. An aeroplane
therefore essentially consists of the wings or supporting surfaces, also
sometimes called planes, driven through the air in an _oblique_ manner
by the propeller and motor.
[Illustration: FIG. 2. Diagram representing a typical monoplane. The
only remaining requisition is that the aeroplane may be guided at will,
caused to rise or fall or be steered to the right and left. The devices
used to accomplish this are two rudders called respectively the
"elevator" and the "steering rudder." The "elevator" takes the form of a
small surface carried either in front or behind the main supporting
surfaces and enables the machine to take an upward, a horizontal or
downward course accordingly as it is adjusted. It acts as a rudder to
steer the aeroplane up or down or to hold it to its course in exactly
the same manner that a ship’s rudder steers it to the right or left.
When it is desired to direct the aeroplane upwards, the front edge of
the elevator is raised so as to set it at a greater angle with the
horizontal. If the aeroplane’s course is required to be downward, the
front edge of the elevator is lowered.]
Aeroplanes are usually of two general types, _monoplanes_ and
_biplanes_. A monoplane, as its name implies, is a machine having a
single pair of wings or supporting surfaces. The Bleriot, Antoinette and
Santos Dumont machines are the most prominent representatives of this
type of aeroplane.
The "elevator" on a monoplane is usually in the rear of the main
supporting surfaces. When in this position it also acts as a tail to
furnish longitudinal stability to the machine in the same way that a
feather on an arrow steadies its flight.
[Illustration: FIG 3. Diagram showing the makeup of a biplane (Wright).]
The most prominent machines of the biplane group are the Voisin, Wright,
Curtiss and Farman aeroplanes. The old practice of placing the elevator
in the front of a biplane is gradually being abandoned and it is safe to
say that by the time this book has been printed all these machines will
be of the "headless" variety with the elevator in the rear.
The vertical fins shown between the planes of the elevator in the old
type of biplane, counterbalance the effect of gusts of wind striking the
vertical rudder from the sides and also act as a pivot for turning to
the right and left. Together with the steering rudder, they constitute a
sort of keel which keeps the machine straight to its course.
In order for an aeroplane to fly in the accepted sense of the word, it
must possess supporting surfaces, an elevator or tail and a propeller
driven by a motor. These are essentially the sustaining, propelling and
steering members of the machine.
[Illustration: FIG. 4. Two methods of controlling the lateral stability
of an aeroplane.]
The machine must, however, also possess "lateral stability," that is,
the wings of the apparatus must not incline from the right to left or
vice versa during the flight. The machine must be so constructed at it
rights itself by its own effort or is under the immediate control of the
aviator.
This is accomplished by "warping the wings," that is, the extreme tips
of the planes can be moved up and down so as to present a greater or
lesser angle and corresponding increase or decrease the lifting capacity
of those portions.
The same result is also reached by means of small subsidiary moving
planes attached to the rear of the main supporting surfaces called
"aileron." When one aileron is lowered, the other is raised. The action
of the air on the ailerons is to depress the one which is raised and to
raise the one which is lowered as shown by the arrows in the
illustration.