THE ANCIENT INHABITANTS
Abundance of remains of primeval inhabitants--No trace of
Briton or Saxon on Dartmoor--None of Palæolithic man--The
Neolithic man who occupied it--Account of his migrations--His
presence in Ireland, in China, in Algeria--A pastoral
people--The pottery--The arrival of the Celt in Britain in
two waves--The Gael--The Briton--Introduction of iron--Mode
of life of the original occupants of the moor--The
huts--Pounds--Cooking--Tracklines--Enormous numbers who lived on
Dartmoor--A peaceable people.
Probably no other tract of land of the same extent in England contains
such numerous and well-preserved remains of prehistoric antiquity as
Dartmoor.
The curious feature about them is that they all belong to one period,
that of the Early Bronze, when flint was used abundantly, but metal was
known, and bronze was costly and valued as gold is now.
Not a trace has been found so far of the peoples who intervened between
these primitive occupants and the mediæval tin-miners.
If iron was introduced a couple of centuries before the Christian era,
how is it that the British inhabitants who used iron and had it in
abundance have left no mark of their occupancy of Dartmoor? It can be
accounted for only on the supposition that they did not value it. The
woods had been thinned and they preferred the lowlands, whereas in
the earlier period the dense forests that clothed the country were too
close a jungle and too much infested by wolves to be suitable for the
habitation of a pastoral people.
That under the Roman domination the tin was worked on the moor there
is no evidence to show. No Roman coins have been found there except a
couple brought by French prisoners to Princetown.
It may be said that iron would corrode and disappear, whereas flint is
imperishable, and bronze nearly so. But where is Roman pottery? Where
is even the pottery of the Celtic period? An era is distinguished by
its fictile ware. A huge gap in historic continuity is apparent. All
the earthenware found on Dartmoor is either prehistoric or mediæval,
probably even so late as the reign of Elizabeth.
No indication is found that the Saxons worked the tin or even drove
their cattle on to the moor. In Domesday Book Dartmoor is not even
mentioned. It is hard to escape the conclusion that from the close of
the prehistoric period to that of our Plantagenet kings, Dartmoor was
avoided as a waste, inhospitable region.
Of man in the earliest period at which he is known to have existed--the
so-called Palæolithic man--not a trace has been found on Dartmoor.
Probably when he lived in Britain the whole upland was clothed in snow.
He has left his tools in the Brixham and Torquay caves--none in the
bogs of the moor. Indeed, when these bogs have been dug into, there
are not the smallest indications found of man having visited the moor
before the advent of what is called the Neolithic Age.
About the man of this period I must say something, as he in his day
lived in countless swarms on this elevated land. He may have lived
also in the valleys of the lowlands, but his traces there have
been obliterated by the plough. First of all as to his personal
appearance. He was dark-haired, tall, and his head was long, like
that of a new-born child, or boat-shaped, a form that disappears with
civilisation, and resolves itself into the long face instead of the
long head.
At some period, vastly remote, a great migration of a long-headed race
took place from Central Asia. It went forth in many streams. One to the
east entered Japan; probably the Chinese and Anamese represent another.
But we are mainly concerned with the western outpour. It traversed
Syria, and Gilead and Moab are strewn with its remains, hut circles,
dolmens, and menhirs identical with those on Dartmoor. Hence one branch
passed into Arabia, where, to his astonishment, Mr. Palgrave lighted on
replicas of Stonehenge.[5]
Another branch threw itself over the Himalayas, and covered India
with identical monuments. Again another turned west; it traversed the
Caspian and left innumerable traces along the northern slopes of the
Caucasus. The Kuban valley is crowded with their dolmens. They occupied
the Crimea, and then struck for the Baltic. That a branch had passed
through Asia Minor and Greece, and constituted itself as the Etruscan
power in Italy, is probable but not established. The northern stream
strewed Mecklenburg and Hanover with its remains, occupied Denmark and
Lower Sweden, crossed into Britain, and took complete possession of
the British Isles. Other members of the same swarm skirted the Channel
and crowded the plateaux and moors of Western and Central France with
their megalithic remains. The same people occupied Spain and Portugal,
the Balearic Isles, Corsica and Sardinia, and Northern Africa, and
are now represented by the Koumirs and Kabyles. To this race the name
of Iberian, Ivernian, or Silurian has been given. It contributed its
name to Ireland (Erin or _Ierne_), where it maintained itself, but was
known to the conquering Gaels as the Tuatha da Danann and Firbolgs,
two branches of the same stock. The name of Damnonia given to Devon is
probably due to these same Danann, who were also found in the south
of Scotland. When this great people reached Europe, Japan, India,
Africa, before its branches had begun to ramify to east and west, to
south and north, its religious doctrines and its practices had become
stereotyped, and almost ineradicably ingrained into the consciousness
of the entire stock.
If we desire to understand what their peculiar views were, what were
the dominant ideas which directed their conduct, and which led them to
erect the monuments which are marvels to us, even at the present day,
we must go to China.
Let us look for a moment into China at the present day. At first sight,
the Chinese strike us as being not only geographically our antipodes,
but as being our opposites in every particular--mental, moral, social;
in language as in ideas.
The Chinese language is without an alphabet and without a grammar.
It is made up of monosyllables that acquire their significance by
the position in which they are placed in a sentence. In customs the
Chinese differ from us as much. In mourning they wear white; a Chinese
dinner begins with the dessert and ends with the soup; a scholar, to
recite his lessons, turns his back on the teacher. But it is chiefly
in the way in which the living and the dead are regarded as forming
an indissoluble commonwealth, that the difference of ideas is most
pronounced. Regard for the dead is the first obligation to a Chinese. A
man of the people who is ennobled, ennobles, not his descendants, but
his ancestry. The duty of the eldest son of the family is to maintain
the worship of the ancestors. Denial of a sepulchre is the most awful
punishment that can be inflicted; a Chinese will cheerfully commit
suicide to gain a suitable tomb and cult after death. The most sacred
spot on earth is the mausoleum, and that is perpetually inviolable.
Consequently, if this principle could be carried out to the letter,
the earth would be transformed into one vast necropolis, from the
occupation of which the living would be in time entirely excluded. It
is this respect for graves which stands in the way of the execution
of works of public utility, such as canals and railroads; and it is
the imperious obligation of maintaining the worship of ancestors that
blocks conversion to Christianity. It is resentment against lack
of respect shown to the dead, neglect of duty to the dead, which
has provoked the massacres of Christians. A Chinese, under certain
circumstances, is justified in strangling his father, but not in
omitting to worship him after he has throttled him.
On the great Thibet plateau, geographically contiguous to the Chinese,
and under the Empire of China, the Mongol nomads are so absolutely
devoid of a grain of respect for their dead, that, without the
smallest scruple, they leave the corpses of their parents and children
on the face of the desert, to be devoured by dogs and preyed on by
vultures.
If we look at the Nile valley we see that the ancient Egyptians were
dominated by the same ideas as the Chinese. To them the tomb was the
habitation _par excellence_ of the family. Of the dwelling-houses
of the old Egyptians the remains are comparatively mean, but their
mausoleums are palatial. The house for the living was but as a tent, to
be removed; but the mansion of the dead was a dwelling-place for ever.
Not only so, but just as the ancient Egyptian supposed that the _Ka_,
the soul, or one of the souls of the deceased, occupied the monument,
tablet, or obelisk set up in memorial of the dead, so does the Chinese
now hold that a soul, or emanation from the dead, enters into and
dwells in the memorial set up, apart from the tomb, to his honour.
Now if we desire to discover what was the distinguishing motive in life
of the long-headed Neolithic man, we shall find it in his respect for
the dead; and he has stamped his mark everywhere where he has been by
the stupendous tombs he has erected, at vast labour, out of unwrought
stones. He cannot be better described than as the dolmen-builder; that
is to say, the man who erected the family or tribal ossuaries that
remain in such numbers wherever he has planted his foot.
In China, it is true, there are no dolmens, but for this there is a
reason. Before the descendants of the Hundred Families who entered the
Celestial Empire had reached and obtained possession of mountains
whence stone could be quarried, many centuries elapsed, and forced the
Chinese to make shift with other material than stone, and so formed
their habit of entombment without stone; but the frame of mind which,
in a rocky land, would have prompted them to set up dolmens remained
unchanged, and so remains to the present day.
The exploration of dolmens in Europe reveals that they were family or
tribal burial-places, and were used for a long continuance of time.
The dead to be laid in them were occasionally brought from a distance,
as the bones show indication of having been cleaned of the flesh
with flint scrapers, and to have been rearranged in an irregular and
unscientific manner, a left leg being sometimes applied to a right
thigh; or it may be that on the anniversary of an interment the bones
of the deceased were taken out, scraped and cleaned, and then replaced.
In Algeria, and on the edge of the Sahara, are found great trilithons,
that is to say, two huge upright stones, with one laid across at the
top, forming doorways leading to nothing, but similar to those which
are found at Stonehenge.
What was this significance?
We turn to the Chinese for an explanation, and find that to this day
they erect triumphal gates--not now of stone, but of wood--in memory
of and in honour of such widows as commit suicide so as to join their
dear departed husbands in the world of spirits. On the other hand, our
widows forget us and remarry.
[Illustration: FLINT ARROW-HEADS.
(Actual size.)]
The dolmen-builders were people with flocks and herds, and who
cultivated grain and spun yarn. Their characteristic implement is
the so-called celt, in reality an axe, sometimes perforated for the
reception of a handle, most commonly not. The perforation belongs to
the latest stage of Neolithic civilisation. Their weapons, or tools,
were first ground. In about a score of places in France polishing rocks
exist, marked with the furrows made by the axe when worked to and fro
upon them, and others that are smaller have been removed to museums.
At Stoney-Kirk, in Wigtownshire, a grinding-stone of red sandstone,
considerably hollowed by use, was found with a small, unfinished axe
of Silurian schist lying upon it. In the recent exploration of hut
circles at Legis Tor a grindstone was found in one of the habitations,
and on it an incomplete tool that was abandoned there before it was
finished.
After grinding, these implements underwent laborious polishing by
friction with the hand or with leather.
At the same time that these artificially smoothed tools were
fabricated, flint was used, beautifully chipped and flaked, to
form arrow and spear heads and swords. The arrow-heads are either
leaf-shaped or tanged.
The pottery of the dolmen-builders is very rude. It is made of clay
mingled with coarse fragments of stone or shell, is very thick and
badly tempered; it is hand-made, and seems hardly capable of enduring
exposure to a brisk fire. The vessels have usually broad mouths, with
an overhanging rim like a turned-back glove-cuff, and below this the
vessel rapidly slopes away. The ornamentation is constant everywhere.
It consisted of zigzags, chevrons, depressions made by twisted cord,
and finger-nail marks in rings round the bowls or rims. It was not till
late in the Bronze Age that circles and spirals were adopted.
Celtic ornamentation is altogether different.
Whilst the long-headed dolmen-builder crept along the coast of Europe,
there was growing up among the mountains and lakes of Central Europe
a hardy round-headed race--the Aryan, destined to be his master. Was
it through instinct of what was to be, that the Ivernian shrank from
penetrating into the heart of the Continent, and clung to the seaboard?
When the dolmen-builder arrived in Britain, to the best of our
knowledge, he found no one there. On the Continent, on the other hand,
if he went far inland, he not only clashed with the Aryan round-heads,
but also here and there stumbled on the lingering remains of the
primeval Palæolithic people, who have left their remains in England in
the river-drift, and in Devon in the Brixham caves and Kent's Hole.
The dolmen-builder has persisted in asserting himself. Though cranial
modifications have taken place, the dusky skin, and the dark eyes and
hair and somewhat squat build, have remained in the Western Isles, in
Western Ireland, in Wales, and in Cornwall. It is still represented in
Brittany. It is predominant in South-Western France, and is typical in
Portugal.
After a lapse of time, of what duration we know not, a great wave of
Aryans poured from the mountains of Central Europe, and, traversing
Britain, occupied Ireland. This was the Gael. This people subjugated
the Ivernian inhabitants, and rapidly mixed with them, imposing on
them their tongue, except in South Wales, where the Silurian was found
to have retained his individuality when conquered by Agricola in A.D.
78. But if the Gaelic invaders subjugated the Ivernians, they were in
turn conquered by them, though in a different manner. The strongly
marked religious ideas of the long-headed men, and their deeply rooted
habit of worship of ancestors, impressed and captured the imagination
of their masters, and as the races became fused, the mixed race
continued to build dolmens and erect other megalithic monuments once
characteristic of the long-heads, often on a larger scale than before.
Stonehenge and Avebury were erections of the Bronze Period, and late in
it, and of the composite people.
If we look at the physique of the two races, we find a great difference
between them. The Ivernian was short in stature, with a face mild
in expression, oval, without high cheek-bones, and without strongly
characterised supraciliary ridges. The women were all conspicuously
smaller than the men, and of markedly inferior development. The
conquering race was other. The lower jaw was massive and square at
the chin, the molar bones prominent, and the brows heavy. The head
was remarkably short, and the face expressed vigour, was coarse, and
the aspect threatening. Moreover, the women were as fully developed
as the men, so much so that where all the bones are not present it
is not always easy to distinguish the sex of a skeleton of this
race. What Tacitus says of the German women--that they are almost
equal to the men both in strength and in size--applies also to these
round-headed invaders of Britain; and, indeed, what we are assured of
the Britons in the time of Boadicea, that it was _solitum feminarum
ductu bellare_, shows us that the same masculine character belonged
to the women of British origin. The average difference in civilised
races in the stature of men and women at present is about four inches,
but twice this difference is very usually found to exist between the
male and female skeletons of the Polished Stone Period in the long
barrows. The difference is even more strikingly shown by a comparison
of the male and female collar-bones; and we are able to reproduce from
them in picture the Neolithic woman of the Ivernian race, with narrow
chest and drooping shoulders, utterly unlike the muscular and vigorous
Gaelic women who were true consorts to their men when they came over to
conquer the island of Britain.
After a lapse of time the long-head began to reassert itself, and the
infusion of its blood into the veins of the dominant race led to great
modification of its harshness of feature. When iron was introduced into
Britain, whether by peaceable means or whether by the second Aryan
invasion, that of the Cymri or Britons, we do not know, but when Cæsar
landed in Britain, B.C. 55, he found that iron was in general use.
The second Aryan invasion alluded to was that of the true Britons. They
also came from the Alps, where they had lived on platforms constructed
on the lakes. They occupied the whole of Britain proper, but not
Scotland, and made but attempts to effect a landing in Ireland.
They were entirely out of sympathy with the original race and its
ideas, and did not assimilate their religion and adopt their practices
as had the Gaels.
The distinction between the two branches of the great Celtic family
is mainly linguistic. Where the British employed the letter _p_, the
Gael used the hard _c_, pronounced like _k_. For instance, _Pen_, a
head, in British, is _Cen_ in Gaelic; and we can roughly tell where
the population was British by noticing the place names, such as those
beginning with Pen. When these were Gaels, the same headlands would
begin with Cen.
"By Tre, Pol, and Pen
You know the names of Cornishmen,"
and this at once decides that the inhabitants of the western peninsula
were not Gaels.
From the lakes of Switzerland the Britons had brought with them their
great aptitude for wattle-work. They built their houses and halls, not
of stone, but of woven withies. Cæsar says that they were wont to erect
enormous basket-work figures, fill them with human victims, and burn
the whole as sacrifices to their gods. It is a curious coincidence that
on some of the old Celtic crosses are found carved imitations of men
made of wicker-work. These represent saints made of the same material
and in the same manner by the same people, after they had embraced
Christianity and abandoned human sacrifices.[6]
Let us try to imagine what was the mode of life of those people who
raised their monuments on Dartmoor. They were pastoral, but they also
certainly had some knowledge of tillage. In certain lights, hillsides
on the moor show indications of having been cultivated in ridges, and
this not with the plough, but with the spade. We cannot say that
these belong to the early population, but as they are found near
their settlements it is possible that they may be traces of original
cultivation. But we know from the remains of grain found in the
habitations and tombs of the same people in limestone districts that
they were acquainted with cereals, and their grindstones have been
found on Dartmoor in their huts.
Still, grain was not the main element of their diet; they lived chiefly
on milk and flesh. In the huts have been found broad vessels that were
covered with round discs of slate, and it is probable that these were
receptacles for milk or butter, but the milk would mainly be contained
in wooden or leathern vessels. Elsewhere their spindle-whorls have been
found in fair abundance; not so on Dartmoor--as yet only two have been
recovered. This shows that little spinning was done, and no weights
such as are used by weavers have been found. The early occupants were
in the main clothed in skins.
Their huts were circular, of stone, with very frequently a shelter
wall, opposed to the prevailing south-west wind, screening the door,
which opened invariably to the south or south-west. The whole was
roofed over by poles planted on the walls, brought together in the
middle, and thatched over with rushes or heather. The walls were
rarely above four feet six inches high. They are lined within with
large stones, set up on end, their smooth surfaces inwards, and the
stone walls were backed up with turf without, making of the huts green
mounds. This gave occasion to the fairy legends of the Celts, who
represented the earlier population as living in mounds, which the Irish
called _sidi_, and the people occupying them the Tuatha da Danann.
As already said, this same name meets us in Damnonii, the oldest
appellation for the people of Devon. They were a sociable people,
clustering together for mutual protection in _pounds_.
These pounds are large circular inclosures, the walls probably only
about four feet high, but above this was a breastwork of turf or
palisading. Outside the pound were huts, perhaps of guards keeping
watch.
Many of the huts have paddocks connected with them, as though these
latter had been kail gardens, but some of these paddocks are large
enough to have been tilled for corn. Their plough, if they used one,
was no more than a crooked beam, drawn by oxen. It is possible that the
numerous sharp flakes of flint that are found were employed fastened
into a sort of harrow, as teeth. Their cooking was done either in pots
sunk in the soil, or in holes lined with stones.
Rounded pebbles, water-worn, were amassed, and baked hot in the fire,
then rolled to the "cooking-hole," in which was the meat, and layers of
hot stones and meat alternated, till the hollow receptacle was full,
and the whole was then covered with sods till the flesh was cooked.
The following account of the manner in which the Fiana, the Irish
militia, did their cooking in pre-Christian times will illustrate this
custom:--
"When they had success in hunting, it was their custom in the
forenoon to send their huntsman, with what they had killed, to a
proper place, where there was plenty of wood and water; there they
kindled great fires, into which, their way was, to throw a number
of stones, where they continued till they were red hot; then they
applied themselves to dig two great pits in the earth, into one of
which, upon the bottom, they were wont to lay some of these hot
stones as a pavement, upon them they would place the raw flesh,
bound up hard in green sedge or bulrushes; over these bundles was
fixed another layer of hot stones, then a quantity of flesh, and
this method was observed till the pit was full. In this manner
their flesh was sodden or stewed till it was fit to eat, and then
they uncovered it; and, when the hole was emptied, they began their
meal."[7]
[Illustration: FLINT SCRAPERS. (Actual size.)]
Some of the huts are very large, and in these no traces of fires and
no cooking-holes have been found. Adjoining them, however, are smaller
huts that are so full of charcoal and peat ash and fragments of pottery
that no doubt can be entertained that these were the kitchens, and the
large huts were summer habitations.
[Illustration: COOKING-POT.]
Occasionally a small hut has been found with a large hole in the centre
crammed with ashes and round stones, the hole out of all proportion to
the size of the hut if considered as a habitation. No reasonable doubt
can be entertained that these were bath huts. The Lapps still employ
the sweating-houses. They pour water over hot stones, and the steam
makes them perspire profusely, whereupon they shampoo themselves or rub
each other down with birch twigs.
Indeed, men wearing skin dresses are obliged to go through some such a
process to keep their pores in healthy action.
It is very probable that the long tracklines that extend over hill
and vale on Dartmoor indicate tribal boundaries, limits beyond which
the cattle of one clan might not feed. Some of these lines, certainly
of the age of the Neolithic men of the hut circles, may be traced
for miles. There is one that starts apparently from the Plym at
Trowlesworthy Warren, where are clusters of huts and inclosures. It
follows the contour of the hills to Pen Beacon, where it curves around
a collection of huts and strikes for the source of the Yealm by two
pounds containing huts. That it went further is probable, but recent
inclosures have led to its destruction. We cannot be sure of the age
of these tracklines unless associated with habitations, as some very
similar have been erected in recent times as reeves delimiting mining
rights.
That the occupants of the moor at this remote period loved to play
at games is shown by the numbers of little round pebbles, carefully
selected, some for their bright colours, that have been found on the
floors of their huts. That they used divination by the crystal is shown
by clear quartz prisms having been discovered tolerably frequently.
These are still employed among the Australian natives for seeing
spirits and reading the future.
That these early people were monogamists is probable from the small
size of their huts; they really could not have accommodated more than
one wife and her little family.
That they were a gentle, peaceable people is also apparent from the
rarity of weapons of war. Plenty of flint scrapers are found for
cleaning the hides, plenty of rubber-stones for smoothing seams, plenty
of small knives for cutting up meat, but hardly a spear-head, and
arrow-heads are comparatively scarce. Their most formidable camp is at
Whit Tor, the soil of which is littered with flint chips. It did not,
on exploration, yield a single arrow-head. The pounds were inclosed
to protect the sheep and young cattle against wolves, not to save the
scalps of their owners from the tomahawks of their fellow-men.
With regard to the numbers of people who lived on Dartmoor in
prehistoric times, it is simply amazing to reflect upon. Tens of
thousands of their habitations have been destroyed; their largest and
most populous settlements, where are now the "ancient tenements," have
been obliterated, yet tens of thousands remain. At Post Bridge, within
a radius of half a mile, are fifteen pounds. If we give an average of
twenty huts to a pound, and allow for habitations scattered about, not
inclosed in a pound, and give six persons to a hut, we have at once a
population, within a mile, of 2,000 persons.
[Illustration: FLINT SCRAPERS.
(Actual size.)]
Take Whit Tor Camp. To man the wall it would require 500 men. Allow to
each man five noncombatants; that gives a population of 2,500. There
are pounds and clusters of hut circles in and about Whit Tor that still
exist, and would have contained that population. Take the Erme valley,
high up where difficult of access; the number of huts there crowded on
the hill slopes is incredible. On the height is a cairn, surrounded
by a ring of stones, from which leads a line of upright blocks for a
distance of 10,840 feet. Allow two feet apart for the stones, that
gives 5,420 stones. If, as is probable, each stone was set up by a
male member of a tribe, in honour of his chief who was interred in the
cairn, we are given by this calculation a population of over 21,000,
allowing three children and a female to each male.
[Illustration: FRAGMENT OF COOKING-POT.]
But numerous though these occupants of the moor must have been, they
must have been wretchedly poor. The vast majority of their graves yield
nothing but a handful of burnt ash, not a potsherd, not a flint-chip,
and the grave of a chief only a little blade of bronze as small as a
modern silver pocket fruit-knife.
That they were a peaceable people I have no manner of doubt, for there
are absolutely no fortified hilltops on the moor, which there assuredly
would be were the denizens of that upland region in strife one with
another. What camps there are may be found on the fringe, Whit Tor,
Dewerstone, Hembury, Holne, Cranbrook, Halstock, as against invaders.
That they were a happy people I cannot doubt. They were uncivilised:
and the Tree of Knowledge, under high culture, bears bitter fruit for
the many and drips with tears, but it bears nuts--only for the few.
FOOTNOTES:
[5] "Hardly had we descended the narrow path, when we saw before
us several huge stones, like enormous boulders, placed endways
perpendicularly, on the soil, while some of them yet upheld similar
masses, laid transversely over their summit. They were arranged in
a curve once forming part, it would appear, of a large circle, and
many other like fragments lay rolled on the ground at a moderate
distance; the number of those still upright was, to speak by memory,
eight or nine. Two, at about ten or twelve feet apart one from the
other, and resembling huge gateposts, yet bore their horizontal
lintel, a long block laid across them; a few were deprived of their
upper traverse, the rest supported each its headpiece in defiance
of time and the more destructive efforts of man. So nicely balanced
did one of these cross-bars appear, that in hope it might prove a
rocking-stone, I guided my camel right under it, and then, stretching
up my riding-stick at arm's length, could just manage to touch and
push it; but it did not stir. Meanwhile the respective heights of
camel, rider, and stick, taken together, would place the stone in
question full fifteen feet from the ground. These blocks seem, by their
quality, to have been hewed from the neighbouring limestone cliffs
and roughly shaped, but present no further trace of art, no groove or
cavity of sacrificial import, much less anything intended for figure
or ornament. The people of the country attribute their erection to the
Dārim, and by his own hands too, seeing that he was a giant. Pointing
towards Rass, our companions affirmed that a second and similar stone
circle, also of gigantic dimensions, existed there; and, lastly, they
mentioned a third towards the south-west, that is, in the direction of
Henakeeyah."--PALGRAVE, _Narrative of a Year's Journey through Central
Arabia_, 1865, vol. i p. 251.
[6] _Archæologia_, vol. 1. Pl. 2 (1887).
[7] KEETING _History of Ireland_ (ed. O'Connor, Dublin, 1841), i. P.
293.