[1] The market value of silver varied in the years 1870-1885 from
$1.32 to $1.065 an ounce; 1886-1893, $0.995 to $0.782; 1894-1904,
$0.630 to $0.5722.
[2] The mineral yield for 1907, according to _The Mineral Resources
of the United States_, 1907, amounted to $71,105,128.
[3] The special census of manufactures of 1905 was concerned only
with the manufacturing establishments of the state conducted under
the so-called factory system. The capital invested in such
establishments was $107,663,500, and the product was valued at
$100,143,999. The corresponding figures for 1900 reduced to the same
standard for purposes of comparison were $58,172,865 and $89,067,879.
Thus during the five years the capital invested in factories
increased 85.1%, and the factory product 12.4%. The increase in
product would undoubtedly have been much greater but for the labour
disturbances (described later in the article), which occurred during
this interval. Of the total product in 1905 more than four-fifths
were represented by the smelting of lead, copper and zinc ores, the
manufacture of iron and steel, the production of coke, and the
refining of petroleum. The value of the flour and grist-mill product
was $5,783,421.
[4] Census figures before 1890 do not include Indians on
reservations.
[5] Adams was inaugurated on the 10th of January, having been elected
on the return of the vote, which had been notoriously corrupted in
Denver and elsewhere. The Republican legislature, after investigating
the election and upon receiving from Peabody a written promise that
he would resign in twenty-four hours, declared on the 16th of March
that Peabody was elected. His resignation on the 17th of March made
Lieutenant-Governor M'Donald governor of the state.
COLORADO RIVER, a stream in the south of the Argentine Republic. It has
its sources on the eastern slopes of the Andes in the lat. of the
Chilean volcano Tinguiririca (about 34 deg. 48' S.), and pursues a
general E.S.E. course to the Atlantic, where it discharges through
several channels of a delta extending from lat. 39 deg. 30' to 39 deg.
30' S. Its total length is about 620 m., of which about 200 m. from the
coast up to Pichemahuida is navigable for vessels of 7 ft. draft. It has
been usually described as being formed by the confluence of the Grande
and Barrancas, but as the latter is only a small stream compared with
the Grande it is better described as a tributary, and the Grande as a
part of the main river under another name. After leaving the vicinity of
the Andes the Colorado flows through a barren, arid territory and
receives no tributary of note except the Curaco, which has its sources
in the Pampa territory and is considered to be part of the ancient
outlet of the now closed lacustrine basin of southern Mendoza. The
bottom lands of the Colorado in its course across Patagonia are fertile
and wooded, but their area is too limited to support more than a small,
scattered population.
COLORADO RIVER, a stream in the south-west of the United States of
America, draining a part of the high and arid plateau between the Rocky
mountains and the Sierra Nevada in California. The light rainfall
scarcely suffices over much of the river's course to make good the loss
by evaporation from the waters drained from mountain snows at its
source. Its headwaters are known as the Green river, which rises in
north-west Wyoming and after a course of some 700 m. due south unites in
south-east Utah with the Grand river, flowing down from Colorado, to
form the main trunk of the Colorado proper. The Green cuts its way
through the Uinta mountains of Wyoming; then flowing intermittently in
the open, it crosses successive uplifts in a series of deep gorges, and
flows finally at the foot of canyon walls 1500 ft. high near its
junction with the Grand.
The Colorado in its course below the junction has formed a region that
is one of the most wonderful of the world, not only for its unique and
magnificent scenery, but also because it affords the most remarkable
example known of the work of differential weathering and erosion by wind
and water and the exposure of geologic strata on an enormous scale.
Above the Paria the river flows through scenery comparatively tame until
it reaches the plateau of the Marble Canyon, some 60 m. in length. The
walls here are at first only a few score of feet in height, but increase
rapidly to almost 5000 ft. At its southern end is the Little Colorado.
Above this point eleven rivers with steep mountain gradients have joined
either the Green or the Grand or their united system. The Little
Colorado has cut a trench 1800 ft. deep into the plateau in the last 27
m. as it approaches the Colorado, and empties into it 2625 ft. above the
sea. Here the Colorado turns abruptly west directly athwart the folds
and fault line of the plateau, through the Grand Canyon (q.v.) of the
Colorado, which is 217 m. long and from 4 to 20 m. wide between the
upper cliffs. The walls, 4000 to 6000 ft. high, drop in successive
escarpments of 500 to 1600 ft., banded in splendid colours, toward the
gloomy narrow gorge of the present river. Below the confluence of the
Virgin river of Nevada the Colorado abruptly turns again, this time
southward, and flows as the boundary between Arizona and California and
in part between Arizona and Nevada, and then through Mexican territory,
some 450 m. farther to the Gulf of California. Below the Black Canyon
the river lessens in gradient, and in its lower course flows in a broad
sedimentary valley--a distinct estuarine plain extending northward
beyond Yuma--and the channel through much of this region is bedded in a
dyke-like embankment lying above the flood-plain over which the escaping
water spills in time of flood. This dyke cuts off the flow of the river
to the remarkable low area in southern California known as the Salton
Sink, or Coahuila Valley, the descent to which from the river near Yuma
is very much greater than the fall in the actual river-bed from Yuma to
the gulf. In the autumn of 1904, the diversion flow from the river into
a canal heading in Mexican territory a few miles below Yuma, and
intended for irrigation of California south of the Sink, escaped
control, and the river, taking the canal as a new channel, recreated in
California a great inland sea--to the bed of which it had frequently
been turned formerly, for example, in 1884 and 1891--and for a time
practically abandoned its former course through Mexican territory to the
Gulf of California. But it was effectively dammed in the early part of
1907 and returned to its normal course, from which, however, there was
still much leakage to Salton Sea; in July 1907 the permanent dam was
completed. From the Black Canyon to the sea the Colorado normally flows
through a desert-like basin, to the west of which, in Mexico, is Laguna
Maquata (or Salada), lying in the so-called Pattie Basin, which was
formerly a part of the Gulf of California, and which is frequently
partially flooded (like Coahuila Valley) by the delta waters of the
Colorado. Of the total length of the Colorado, about 2200 m., 500 m. or
more from the mouth are navigable by light steamers, but channel
obstacles make all navigation difficult at low water, and impossible
about half the year above Mojave. The whole area drained by the river
and its tributaries is about 225,000 sq. m.; and it has been estimated
by Major J. W. Powell that in its drainage basin there are fully 200,000
sq. m. that have been degraded on an average 6000 ft. It is still a
powerful eroding stream in the canyon portion, and its course below the
canyons has a shifting bed much obstructed by bars built of sediment
carried from the upper course. The desert country toward the mouth is
largely a sandy or gravelly aggradation plain of the river. The regular
floods are in May and June. Others, due to rains, are rare. The rise of
the water at such times is extraordinarily rapid. Enormous drift is left
in the canyons 30 or 40 ft. above the normal level. The valley near Yuma
is many miles wide, frequently inundated, and remarkably fertile; it is
often called the "Nile of America" from its resemblance in climate,
fertility, overflows and crops. These alluvial plains are covered with a
dense growth of mesquite, cottonwood, willow, arrowwood, quelite and
wild hemp. Irrigation is essential to regular agriculture. There is a
fine delta in the gulf. The Colorado is remarkable for exceedingly high
tides at its mouth and for destructive bores.
In 1540, the second year that Spaniards entered Arizona, they discovered
the Colorado. Hernando de Alarcon co-operating with F. V. de Coronado,
explored with ships the Gulf of California and sailed up the lower
river; Melchior Diaz, marching along the shores of the gulf, likewise
reached the river; and Captain Garcia Lopez de Cardenas, marching from
Zuni, reached the Grand Canyon, but could not descend its walls. In 1604
Juan de Onate crossed Arizona from New Mexico and descended the Santa
Maria, Bill Williams and Colorado to the gulf. The name Colorado was
first applied to the present Colorado Chiquito, and probably about 1630
to the Colorado of to-day. But up to 1869 great portions of the river
were still unknown. James White, a miner, in 1867, told a picturesque
story (not generally accepted as true) of making the passage of the
Grand Canyon on the river. In 1869, and in later expeditions, the feat
was accomplished by Major J. W. Powell. There have been since then
repeated explorations and scientific studies.
See C. E. Dutton, "Tertiary History of the Grand Canyon," _U.S.
Geological Survey, Monograph II_. (1882); J. W. Powell, _Exploration
of the Colorado River_ (Washington, 1875), and _Canyons of the
Colorado_ (Meadville, Pa. 1895); F. S. Dellenbaugh, _Romance of the
Colorado River_ (New York, 1902), and _Canyon Voyage_ (1908); G. W.
James, _Wonders of the Colorado Desert_ (2 vols., Boston, 1906).
COLORADO SPRINGS, a city and the county-seat of El Paso county,
Colorado, U.S.A., about 75 m. S. of Denver. Pop. (1890) 11,140; (1900)
21,085, of whom 2300 were foreign-born; (1910) 29,078. The city is
served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Denver & Rio Grande, the
Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific (of which the city is a terminus), the
Colorado & Southern, the Colorado Springs & Cripple Creek District
(controlled by the Colorado & Southern), and the Colorado Midland
railways, of which the first three are continental systems. Continuous
on the west with Colorado Springs is Colorado City (pop. in 1900, 2914),
one of the oldest settlements of Colorado, and the first capital (1861).
Colorado Springs is superbly situated where the Rocky Mountains rise
from the great plains of the prairie states, surrounded on all sides by
foothills save in the south-east, where it is open to the prairie. To
the south of the mesa (tableland) on which it lies is the valley of
Fountain Creek. To the west is the grand background of the canyon-riven
Rampart range, with Pike's Peak (q.v.) dominating a half-dozen other
peaks (among them Cameron Cone, Mt. Rosa, Cheyenne Mt.) 9000 to 12,000
ft. in height. Monument Creek traverses the city. The streets are of
generous width (100-140 ft.), and are well shaded by trees. There are
several fine parks. The city is the seat of a state asylum for the
deaf, dumb and blind, of a printers' home for union men, which was
endowed in 1892 by Anthony J. Drexel and George W. Childs, and of
Colorado College (1874), one of the leading educational institutions of
the Rocky Mountain states, and the oldest institution for higher
education in the state. The college is coeducational and non-sectarian.
In 1908 it had a permanent endowment of about $425,000, a faculty of 46
and 607 students; the library contained 40,000 bound volumes and as many
pamphlets. The departments of the institution are a college of arts;
schools of engineering (1903), music, and (1906) forestry; and the
Cutler Academy, a preparatory school under the control of the college.
In 1905 Gen. W. J. Palmer (1836-1909) and W. A. Bell gave to the college
Manitou Park, a tract of forest land covering about 13,000 acres and
situated about 20 m. from Colorado Springs.
Bright sunshine and a pleasant climate (mean annual temperature about 48
deg. F., rainfall 14 in., falling almost wholly from April to September,
relative humidity 59), combined with beautiful scenery, have made the
city a favourite health resort and place of residence. Land deeds for
city property have always excluded saloons. The municipality owns and
operates the water system, water being drawn from lakes near Pike's
Peak. The scenery about the city is remarkable. Manitou (6100-6300 ft.)
a popular summer resort, lies about 6 m. (by rail) north-west of
Colorado Springs, in a glen at the opening of Ute Pass (so-named because
it was formerly used by the Ute Indians), with the mountains rising from
its edge. Its springs of soda and iron belong to the class of weak
compound carbonated soda waters. In the neighbourhood are the Cave of
the Winds, the Grand Caverns, charming glens, mountain lakes and
picturesque canyons; and the Garden of the Gods (owned by the
city)--approached between two tremendous masses of red rock 330 ft.
high, and strewn (about 500 acres) with great rocks and ridges of
brightly coloured sandstone, whose grotesque shapes and fantastic
arrangement have suggested a playground of superhuman beings. At the
southern end of the Rampart range is Cheyenne Mt. (9407 ft.), on whose
slope was buried Helen Hunt Jackson ("H.H."), who has left many pictures
of this country in her stories. The two Cheyenne Canyons, with walls as
high as 1000 ft. and beautiful falls, and the road over the mountain
side toward Cripple Creek, afford exquisite views. Monument Park (10 m.
N.) is a tract of fantastically eroded sandstone rocks, similar to those
in the Garden of the Gods.
In 1859 a winter mining party coming upon the sunny valley near the
present Manitou, near the old Fontaine-qui-Bouille, settled "El Dorado."
Colorado City is practically on the same site. In 1870, as part of the
town development work of the Denver & Rio Grande railway, of which
General W. J. Palmer was the president, a land company founded Colorado
Springs. In 1872 Manitou (first La Fontaine) was founded. Colorado
Springs was laid out in 1871, was incorporated in 1872, and was first
chartered as a city in 1878. A new charter (May 1909) provided for the
recall of elective officials. A road over the Ute Pass to South Park and
Leadville was built, and at one time about 12,000 horses and mules were
employed in freighting to the Leadville camps. The Chicago, Rock Island
& Pacific railway reached the city in 1888. The greatest part of the
Cripple Creek mining properties is owned in Colorado Springs, where the
exchange is one of the greatest in the world.
COLOSSAE, once the great city of south-west Phrygia, was situated on
rising ground (1150 ft.) on the left bank of the Lycus (_Churuk Su_), a
tributary of the Maeander, at the upper end of a narrow gorge 2-1/2 m.
long, where the river runs between cliffs from 50 to 60 ft. high. It
stood on the great trade route from Sardis to Celaenae and Iconium, and
was a large, prosperous city (Herod, vii. 30; Xenophon, _Anab._ i. 2, S
6), until it was ruined by the foundation of Laodicea in a more
advantageous position. The town was celebrated for its wool, which was
dyed a purple colour called _colossinus_. Colossae was the seat of an
early Christian church, the result of St Paul's activity at Ephesus,
though perhaps actually founded by Epaphras. The church, to which St
Paul wrote a letter, was mainly composed of mingled Greek and Phrygian
elements deeply imbued with fantastic and fanatical mysticism. Colossae
lasted until the 7th and 8th centuries, when it was gradually deserted
under pressure of the Arab invasions. Its place was taken by Khonae
(_Khonas_)--a strong fortress on a rugged spur of Mt. Kadmus, 3 m. to
the south, which became a place of importance during the wars between
the Byzantines and Turks, and was the birthplace of the historian,
Nicetas Khoniates. The worship of angels alluded to by St Paul (Col. ii.
18), and condemned in the 4th century by a council at Laodicea,
reappears in the later worship of St Michael, in whose honour a
celebrated church, destroyed by the Seljuks in the 12th century, was
built on the right bank of the Lycus.
See Sir W. M. Ramsay, _Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia_, vol. i.
COLOSSAL CAVERN, a cave in Kentucky, U.S.A., the main entrance of which
is at the foot of a steep hill beyond Eden Valley, and 1-1/2 m. from
Mammoth Cave. It is connected with what has long been known as the Bed
Quilt Cave. Several entrances found by local explorers were rough and
difficult. They were closed when the property was bought in 1896 by the
Louisville & Nashville railway and a new approach made as indicated on
the accompanying map. From the surface to the floor is 240 ft.; under
Chester Sandstone and in the St Louis Limestone. Fossil corals fix the
geological age of the rock. The temperature is uniformly 54 deg. Fahr.,
and the atmosphere is optically and chemically pure. Lovely
incrustations alternate with queer and grotesque figures. There are
exquisite gypsum rosettes and intricately involved helictites.
[Illustration: map of Colossal Cavern.]
Tremendous forces have been at work, suggesting earthquakes and
eruptions; but really all is due to the chemical and mechanical action
of water. The so-called "Ruins of Carthage" fill a hall 400 ft. long by
100 ft. wide and 30 ft. high, whose flat roof is a vast homogeneous
limestone block. Isolated detached blocks measure from 50 to 100 ft. in
length. Edgar Vaughan and W. L. Marshall, civil engineers, surveyed
every part of the cave. Vaughan's Dome is 40 ft. wide, 300 ft. long, and
79 ft. high. Numerous other domes exist, and many deep pits. The
grandest place of all is the Colossal Dome, which used to be entered
only from the apex by windlass and a rope reaching 135 ft. to the floor.
This is now used only for illumination by raising and lowering a
fire-basket. The present entrance is by a gateway buttressed by
alabaster shafts, one of which, 75 ft. high, is named Henry Clay's
Monument. The dome walls arise in a series of richly tinted rings, each
8 or 10 ft. thick, and each fringed by stalactites. The symmetry is
remarkable, and the reverberations are strangely musical. The Pearly
Pool, in a chamber near a pit 86 ft. deep, glistens with countless cave
pearls. The route beyond is between rows of stately shafts, and ends in
a copious chalybeate spring. Blind flies, spiders, beetles and crickets
abound; and now and then a blind crawfish darts through the waters; but
as compared with many caverns the fauna and flora are not abundant. It
is conjectured, not without some reason, that there is a connexion, as
yet undiscovered, between the Colossal and the Mammoth caves. It seems
certain that Eden Valley, which now lies between them, is a vast
"tumble-down" of an immense cavern that formerly united them into one.
(H. C. H.)
COLOSSIANS, EPISTLE TO THE, the twelfth book of the New Testament, the
authorship of which is ascribed to the Apostle Paul. Colossae, like the
other Phrygian cities of Laodicea and Hierapolis, had not been visited
by Paul, but owed its belief in Jesus Christ to Epaphras, a Colossian,
who had been converted by Paul, perhaps in Ephesus, and had laboured not
only in his native city but also in the adjacent portions of the Lycus
valley,--a Christian in whom Paul reposed the greatest confidence as one
competent to interpret the gospel of whose truth Paul was convinced (i.
7; iv. 12, 13). This Epaphras, like the majority of the Colossians, was
a Gentile. It is probable, however, both from the letter itself and from
the fact that Colossae was a trade centre, that Jews were there with
their synagogues (cf. also Josephus, _Ant._ xii. 149). And it is further
probable that some of the Gentiles, who afterwards became Christians,
were either Jewish proselytes or adherents who paid reverence to the God
of the Jews. At all events, the letter indicates a sensitiveness on the
part of the Christians not only to oriental mysticism and theosophy (cf.
Sir W. M. Ramsay, _Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia_, and _Church in the
Roman Empire_), but also to the Judaism of the Diaspora.
Our first definite knowledge of the Colossian Church dates from the
presence of Epaphras in Rome in A.D. 62-64 (or A.D. 56-58), when Paul
was a prisoner. He arrived with news, perhaps with a letter (J. R.
Harris, _Expositor_, Dec. 1898, pp. 404 ff.), touching the state of
religion in Colossae. Paul learns, to his joy, of their faith, hope and
love; of the order and stability of their faith; and of their reception
of Christ Jesus the Lord (i. 4, 8; ii. 5-7). He sees no sign of an
attack upon him or his gospel. On the contrary, loyalty to him and
sympathy with him in his sufferings are everywhere manifest (i. 9, 24;
ii. 2; iv. 8); and the gospel of Christ is advancing here as elsewhere
(i. 6). At the same time he detects a lack of cheerfulness and a lack of
spiritual understanding in the Church. The joy of the gospel, expressing
itself in songs and thanksgivings, is damped (iii. 15, 16), and, above
all, the message of Christ does not dwell richly enough in them. Though
the believers know the grace of God they are not filled with a knowledge
of his will, so that their conduct is lacking in that strength and joy
and perfection, that richness of the fulness of knowledge expected of
those who had been made full in Christ (i. 6, 9-11, 28; ii. 2, 7, 10).
The reason for this, Paul sees, is the influence of the claim made by
certain teachers in Colossae that the Christians, in order to attain
unto and be assured of _full_ salvation, must supplement Paul's message
with their own fuller and more perfect wisdom, and must observe certain
rites and practices (ii. 16, 21, 23) connected with the worship of
angels (ii. 18, 23) and elementary spirits (ii. 8, 20).
The origin and the exact nature of this religious movement are alike
uncertain. (1) If it represents a type of syncretism as definite as that
known to have existed in the developed gnostic systems of the 2nd
century, it is inconceivable that Paul should have passed it by as
easily as he did. (2) As there is no reference to celibacy, communism
and the worship of the sun, it is improbable that the movement is
identical with that of the Essenes. (3) The phenomena might be explained
solely on the basis of Judaism (von Soden, Peake). Certainly the
asceticism and ritualism might so be interpreted, for there was among
the Jews of the Dispersion an increasing tendency to asceticism, by way
of protest against the excesses of the Gentiles. The reference in ii. 23
to severity of the body may have to do with fasting preparatory to
seeing visions (cf. _Apoc. Baruch_, xxi. 1, ix. 2, v. 7). Even the
worship of angels, not only as mediators of revelation and visions, but
also as cosmical beings, is a well-known fact in late Judaism (_Apoc.
Bar._ lv. 3; _Ethiopic Enoch_, lx. 11, lxi. 10; Col. ii. 8, 20; Gal. iv.
3). As for the word "philosophy" (ii. 8), it is not necessary to take it
in the technical Greek sense when the usage of Philo and Josephus
permits a looser meaning. Finally the references to circumcision,
_paradosis_ (ii. 8) and _dogmata_ (ii. 20), directly suggest a Jewish
origin. If we resort solely to Judaism for explanation, it must be a
Judaism of the Diaspora type. (4) The difficulty with the last-mentioned
position is that it under-estimates the speculative tendencies of the
errorists and ignores the direct influence of oriental theosophy. It is
quite true that Paul does not directly attack the speculative position,
but rather indicates the practical dangers inherent therein (the denial
of the supremacy of Christ and of full salvation through Him); he does
not say that the errorists hold Christ to be a mere angel or an aeon, or
that words like _pleroma_ (borrowed perhaps from their own vocabulary)
involve a rigorous dualism. Yet his characterization of the movement as
an arbitrary religion (ii. 23), a philosophy which is empty deceit (ii.
8), according to elemental spirits and not according to Christ, and a
higher knowledge due to a mind controlled by the flesh (ii. 18); his
repeated emphasis on Christ, as supreme over all things, over men and
angels, agent in creation as well as in redemption, in whom dwelt bodily
the fulness of the Godhead; and his constant stress upon knowledge,--all
these combine to reveal a speculation real and dangerous, even if naive
and regardless of consequences, and to suggest (with Julicher and
McGiffert) that in addition to Jewish influence there is also the direct
influence of Oriental mysticism.
To meet the pressing need in Colossae, Paul writes a letter and entrusts
it to Tychichus, who is on his way to Colossae with Onesimus, Philemon's
slave (iv. 7, 9). (On the relation of this letter to Ephesians and to
the letter to be sent from Laodicea to Colossae, see EPHESIANS, EPISTLE
TO THE.) His attitude is prophylactic, rather than polemic, for the
"philosophy" has not as yet taken deep root. His purpose is to restore
in the hearts of the readers the joy of the Spirit, by making them see
that Christ fulfils every need, and that through faith in Him and love
from faith, the advance is made unimpeded unto the perfect man. He will
eliminate foreign accretions, that the gospel of Christ may stand forth
in its native purity, and that Christ Himself may in all things have the
pre-eminence.
The letter begins with a thanksgiving to God for the spiritual growth of
the Colossians, and continues with a prayer for their fuller knowledge
of the divine will, for a more perfect Christian life, and for a spirit
of thanksgiving, seeing that it is God who guarantees their salvation in
Christ (i. 1-14). It is Christ who is supreme, not angels, for He is the
agent in creation; and it is solely on the basis of faith in Him, a
faith expressing itself in love, that redemption is appropriated, and
not on the basis of any further requirements such as ascetic practices
and the worship of angels (i. 15-23). It is with a full message that
Paul has been entrusted, the message of Christ, who alone can lead to
all the riches of fulness of knowledge. And for this adequate knowledge
the readers should be thankful (i. 23--ii. 7). Again he urges, that
since redemption is in Christ alone, and that, too, full redemption and
on the basis of faith alone, the demand for asceticism and meaningless
ceremonies is folly, and moreover robs Christ, in whom dwells the divine
fulness, of His rightful supremacy (ii. 8-23). And he exhorts them as
members of the Body of Christ to manifest their faith in Christian love,
particularly in their domestic relations and in their contact with
non-Christians (iii. i-iv. 6). He closes by saying that Tychichus will
give them the news. Greetings from all to all (iv. 7-18).
A letter like this, clear cut in its thought, teeming with ideas
emanating from an unique religious experience, and admirably adjusted to
known situations, bears on the face of it the marks of genuineness even
without recourse to the unusually excellent external attestation. It is
not strange that there is a growing consensus of opinion that Paul is
the author. With the critical renaissance of the early part of the 19th
century, doubts were raised as to the genuineness of the letter (e.g. by
E. T. Mayerhoff, 1838). Quite apart from the difficulties created by the
Tubingen theory, legitimate difficulties were found in the style of the
letter, in the speculation of the errorists, and in the theology of the
author. (1) As to style, it is replied that if there are peculiarities
in _Colossians_, so also in the admittedly genuine letters, _Romans_,
_Corinthians_, _Galatians_. Moreover, if _Philippians_ is Pauline, so
also the stylistically similar _Colossians_ (cf. von Soden). (2) As to
the speculation of the errorists, it is replied that it is explicable in
the lifetime of Paul, that some of the elements of it may have their
source in pre-Christian Jewish theories, and that recourse to the
developed gnosticism of the 2nd century is unnecessary. (3) As to the
Christology of the author, it is replied that it does not go beyond what
we have already in Paul except in emphasis, which itself is occasioned
by the circumstances. What is implicit in _Corinthians_ is explicit in
_Colossians_. H. J. Holtzmann (1872) subjected both _Colossians_ and
_Ephesians_ to a rigorous examination, and found in _Colossians_ at
least a nucleus of Pauline material. H. von Soden (1885), with
well-considered principles of criticism, made a similar examination and
found a much larger nucleus, and later still, (1893), in his commentary,
reduced the non-Pauline material to a negligible minimum. Harnack,
Julicher and McGiffert, however, agree with Lightfoot, Weiss, Zahn (and
early tradition) in holding that the letter is wholly Pauline--a
position which is proving more and more acceptable to contemporary
scholarship.
AUTHORITIES.--In addition to the literature already mentioned, see the
articles of Sanday on "Colossians" and Robertson on "Ephesians" in
Smith's _Bible Dictionary_ (2nd ed., 1893), and the article of A.
Julicher on "Colossians and Ephesians" in the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_
(1899); the Introductions of H. J. Holtzmann (1892), B. Weiss (1897),
Th. Zahn (1900) and Julicher (1906); the histories of the apostolic
age by C. von Weizsacker (1892), A. C. M'Giffert (1897) and O.
Pfleiderer (_Urchristentum_, 1902); and the commentaries of J. B.
Lightfoot (1875), H. von Soden (1893) T. K. Abbott (1897), E. Haupt
(1902), Peake (1903) and P. Ewald (1905). (J. E. F.)
COLOSSUS, in antiquity a term applied generally to statues of great size
(hence the adjective "colossal"), and in particular to the bronze statue
of the sun-god Helios in Rhodes, one of the wonders of the world, made
from the spoils left by Demetrius Poliorcetes when he raised the siege
of the city. The sculptor was Chares, a native of Lindus, and of the
school of Lysippus, under whose influence the art of sculpture was led
to the production of colossal figures by preference. The work occupied
him twelve years, it is said, and the finished statue stood 70 cubits
high. It stood near the harbour ([Greek: epi limeni]), but at what point
is not certain. When, and from what grounds, the belief arose that it
had stood across the entrance to the harbour, with a beacon light in its
hand and ships passing between its legs, is not known, but the belief
was current as early as the 16th century. The statue was thrown down by
an earthquake about the year 224 B.C.; then, after lying broken for
nearly 1000 years, the pieces were bought by a Jew from the Saracens,
and probably reconverted into instruments of war.
Other Greek colossi were the Apollo of Calamis; the Zeus and Heracles of
Lysippus; the Zeus at Olympia, the Athena in the Parthenon, and the
Athena Promachos on the Acropolis--all the work of Pheidias.
The best-known Roman colossi are: a statue of Jupiter on the Capitol; a
bronze statue of Apollo in the Palatine library; and the colossus of
Nero in the vestibule of his Golden House, afterwards removed by Hadrian
to the north of the Colosseum, where the basement upon which it stood is
still visible (Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxxiv. 18).
COLOUR (Lat. _color_, connected with _celare_, to hide, the root
meaning, therefore, being that of a covering). The visual apparatus of
the eye enables us to distinguish not only differences of form, size and
brilliancy in the objects looked upon, but also differences in the
character of the light received from them. These latter differences,
familiar to us as differences in _colour_, have their physical origin in
the variations in wave-length (or frequency) which may exist in light
which is capable of exciting the sensation of vision. From the physical
point of view, light of a _pure colour_, or homogeneous light, means
light whose undulations are mathematically of a simple character and
which cannot be resolved by a prism into component parts. All the
visible pure colours, as thus defined, are to be found in the spectrum,
and there is an infinite number of them, corresponding to all the
possible variations of wave-length within the limits of the visible
spectrum (see SPECTROSCOPY). On this view, there is a strict analogy
between variations of _colour_ in light and variations of _pitch_ in
sound, but the visible spectrum contains a range of frequency extending
over about one octave only, whereas the range of audibility embraces
about eleven octaves.
Of all the known colours it might naturally be thought that white is the
simplest and purest, and, till Sir Isaac Newton's time, this was the
prevailing opinion. Newton, however, showed that white light could be
decomposed by a prism into the spectral colours red, orange, yellow,
green, blue, indigo and violet; the colours appearing in this order and
passing gradually into each other without abrupt transitions. White is
therefore not a simple colour, but is merely the colour of sunlight, and
probably owes its apparently homogeneous character to the fact that it
is the average colour of the light which fills the eye when at rest. The
colours of the various objects which we see around us are not due (with
the exception of self-luminous and fluorescent bodies) to any power
possessed by these objects of creating the colours which they exhibit,
but merely to the exercise of a selective action on the light of the
sun, some of the constituent rays of the white light with which they are
illuminated being absorbed, while the rest are reflected or scattered in
all directions, or, in the case of transparent bodies, transmitted.
White light is thus the basis of all other colours, which are derived
from it by the suppression of some one or more of its parts. A red
flower, for instance, absorbs the blue and green rays and most of the
yellow, while the red rays and usually some yellow are scattered. If a
red poppy is illuminated successively by red, yellow, green and blue
light it will appear a brilliant red in the red light, yellow in the
yellow light, but less brilliant if the red colour is pure; and black in
the other colours, the blackness being due to the almost complete
absorption of the corresponding colour.
Bodies may be classified as regards colour according to the nature of
the action they exert on white light. In the case of ordinary opaque
bodies a certain proportion of the incident light is irregularly
reflected or scattered from their surfaces. A white object is one which
reflects nearly all the light of all colours; a black object absorbs
nearly all. A body which reflects only a portion of the light, but which
exhibits no predominance in any particular hue, is called _grey_. A
white surface looks grey beside a similar surface more brilliantly
illuminated.
The next class is that of most transparent bodies, which owe their
colour to the light which is transmitted, either directly through, or
reflected back again at the farther surface. A body which transmits all
the visible rays equally well is said to be colourless; pure water, for
example, is nearly quite colourless, though in large masses it appears
bluish-green. A translucent substance is one which partially transmits
light. Translucency is due to the light being scattered by minute
embedded particles or minute irregularities of structure. Some fibrous
specimens of tremolite and gypsum are translucent in the direction of
the fibres, and practically opaque in a transverse direction. Coloured
transparent objects vary in shade and hue according to their size; thus,
a conical glass filled with a red liquid commonly appears yellow at the
bottom, varying through orange up to red at the upper part. A coloured
powder is usually of a much lighter tint than the substance in bulk, as
the light is reflected back after transmission through only a few thin
layers. For the same reason the powders of transparent substances are
opaque.
Polished bodies, whether opaque or transparent, when illuminated with
white light and viewed at the proper angle, reflect the incident light
regularly and appear white, without showing much of their distinctive
colours.
Some bodies reflect light of one colour and transmit that of another;
such bodies nearly always possess the properties of _selective_ or
_metallic reflection_ and _anomalous dispersion_. Most of the coal-tar
dyes belong to this category. Solid eosin, for example, reflects a
yellowish-green and transmits a red light. Gold appears yellow under
ordinary circumstances, but if the light is reflected many times from
the surface it appears a ruby colour. On the other hand, a powerful beam
of light transmitted through a thin gold-leaf appears green.
Some solutions exhibit the curious phenomenon of _dichromatism_ (from
[Greek: di-], double, and [Greek: chroma], colour), that is, they appear
of one colour when viewed in strata of moderate thickness, but of a
different colour in greater thicknesses (see Absorption of Light).
The blue colour of the sky (q.v.) has been explained by Lord Rayleigh as
due to the scattering of light by small suspended particles and air
molecules, which is most effective in the case of the shorter waves
(blue). J. Tyndall produced similar effects in the laboratory. The green
colour of sea-water near the shore is also due to a scattering of light.
The colours of bodies which are gradually heated to white incandescence
occur in the order--red, orange, yellow, white. This is because the
longer waves of red light are first emitted, then the yellow as well, so
that orange results, then so much green that the total effect is yellow,
and lastly all the colours, compounding to produce white. Fluorescent
bodies have the power of converting light of one colour into that of
another (see FLUORESCENCE).
Besides the foregoing kinds of colorization, a body may exhibit, under
certain circumstances, a colouring due to some special physical
conditions rather than to the specific properties of the material; such
as the colour of a white object when illuminated by light of some
particular colour; the colours seen in a film of oil on water or in
mother-of-pearl, or soap-bubbles, due to interference (q.v.); the
colours seen through the eyelashes or through a thin handkerchief held
up to the light, due to diffraction (q.v.); and the colours caused by
ordinary refraction, as in the rainbow, double refraction and
polarization (qq.v.).
_Composition of Colours._--It has been already pointed out that white
light is a combination of all the colours in the spectrum. This was
shown by Newton, who recombined the spectral colours and produced white.
Newton also remarks that if a froth be made on the surface of water
thickened a little with soap, and examined closely, it will be seen to
be coloured with all the colours of the spectrum, but at a little
distance it looks white owing to the combined effect on the eye of all
the colours.
The question of the composition of colours is largely a physiological
one, since it is possible, by mixing colours, say red and yellow, to
produce a new colour, orange, which appears identical with the pure
orange of the spectrum, but is physically quite different, since it can
be resolved by a prism into red and yellow again. There is no doubt that
the sensation of colour-vision is threefold, in the sense that any
colour can be produced by the combination, in proper proportions, of
three standard colours. The question then arises, what are the three
primary colours? Sir David Brewster considered that they were red,
yellow and blue; and this view has been commonly held by painters and
others, since all the known brilliant hues can be derived from the
admixture of red, yellow and blue pigments. For instance, vermilion and
chrome yellow will give an orange, chrome yellow and ultramarine a
green, and vermilion and ultramarine a purple mixture. But if we
superpose the pure spectral colours on a screen, the resulting colours
are quite different. This is especially the case with yellow and blue,
which on the screen combine to produce white, generally with a pink
tint, but cannot be made to give green. The reason of this difference in
the two results is that in the former case we do not get a true
combination of the colours at all. When the mixed pigments are
illuminated by white light, the yellow particles absorb the red and blue
rays, but reflect the yellow along with a good deal of the neighbouring
green and orange. The blue particles, on the other hand, absorb the red,
orange and yellow, but reflect the blue and a good deal of green and
violet. As much of the light is affected by several particles, most of
the rays are absorbed except green, which is reflected by both pigments.
Thus, the colour of the mixture is not a mixture of the colours yellow
and blue, but the remainder of white light after the yellow and blue
pigments have absorbed all they can. The effect can also be seen in
coloured solutions. If two equal beams of white light are transmitted
respectively through a yellow solution of potassium bichromate and a
blue solution of copper sulphate in proper thicknesses, they can be
compounded on a screen to an approximately white colour; but a single
beam transmitted through both solutions appears green. Blue and yellow
pigments would produce the effect of white only if very sparsely
distributed. This fact is made use of in laundries, where cobalt blue is
used to correct the yellow colour of linen after washing.
Thomas Young suggested red, green and violet as the primary colours, but
the subsequent experiments of J. Clerk Maxwell appear to show that they
should be red, green and blue. Sir William Abney, however, assigns
somewhat different places in the spectrum to the primary colours, and,
like Young, considers that they should be red, green and violet. All
other hues can be obtained by combining the three primaries in proper
proportions. Yellow is derived from red and green. This can be done by
superposition on a screen or by making a solution which will transmit
only red and green rays. For this purpose Lord Rayleigh recommends a
mixture of solutions of blue litmus and yellow potassium chromate. The
litmus stops the yellow and orange light, while the potassium chromate
stops the blue and violet. Thus only red and green are transmitted, and
the result is a full compound yellow which resembles the simple yellow
of the spectrum in appearance, but is resolved into red and green by a
prism. The brightest yellow pigments are those which give both the pure
and compound yellow. Since red and green produce yellow, and yellow and
blue produce white, it follows that red, green and blue can be
compounded into white. H. von Helmholtz has shown that the only pair of
simple spectral colours capable of compounding to white are a
greenish-yellow and blue.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
Just as musical sounds differ in pitch, loudness and quality, so may
colours differ in three respects, which Maxwell calls _hue_, _shade_ and
_tint_. All hues can be produced by combining every pair of primaries in
every proportion. The addition of white alters the tint without
affecting the hue. If the colour be darkened by adding black or by
diminishing the illumination, a variation in shade is produced. Thus the
hue red includes every variation in tint from red to white, and every
variation in shade from red to black, and similarly for other hues. We
can represent every hue and tint on a diagram in a manner proposed by
Young, following a very similar suggestion of Newton's. Let RGB (fig. 1)
be an equilateral triangle, and let the angular points be coloured red,
green and blue of such intensities as to produce white if equally
combined; and let the colour of every point of the triangle be
determined by combining such proportions of the three primaries, that
three weights in the same proportion would have their centre of gravity
at the point. Then the centre of the triangle will be a neutral tint,
white or grey; and the middle points of the sides Y, S, P will be
yellow, greenish-blue and purple. The hue varies all round the
perimeter. The tint varies along any straight line through W. To vary
the shade, the whole triangle must be uniformly darkened.
The simplest way of compounding colours is by means of Maxwell's colour
top, which is a broad spinning-top over the spindle of which coloured
disks can be slipped (fig. 2). The disks are slit radially so that they
can be slipped partially over each other and the surfaces exposed in any
desired ratio. Three disks are used together, and a match is obtained
between these and a pair of smaller ones mounted on the same spindle. If
any five colours are taken, two of which may be black and white, a match
can be got between them by suitable adjustment. This shows that a
relation exists between any four colours (the black being only needed to
obtain the proper intensity) and that consequently the number of
independent colours is three. A still better instrument for combining
colours is Maxwell's colour box, in which the colours of the spectrum
are combined by means of prisms. Sir W. Abney has also invented an
apparatus for the same purpose, which is much the same in principle as
Maxwell's colour box. Several methods of colour photography depend on
the fact that all varieties of colour can be compounded from red, green
and blue in proper proportions.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
[Illustration: (After Muller-Pouillet's _Lehrbuch der Physik_, 1897.)
FIG. 3.]
Any two colours which together give white are called _complementary_
colours. Greenish-yellow and blue are a pair of complementaries, as
already mentioned. Any number of pairs may be obtained by a simple
device due to Helmholtz and represented in fig. 3. A beam of white
light, decomposed by the prism P, is recompounded into white light by
the lens l and focussed on a screen at f. If the thin prism p is
inserted near the lens, any set of colours may be deflected to another
point n, thus producing two coloured and complementary images of the
source of light.
_Nature of White Light._--The question as to whether white light
actually consists of trains of waves of regular frequency has been
discussed in recent years by A. Schuster, Lord Rayleigh and others, and
it has been shown that even if it consisted of a succession of somewhat
irregular impulses, it would still be resolved, by the dispersive
property of a prism or grating, into trains of regular frequency. We may
still, however, speak of white light as compounded of the rays of the
spectrum, provided we mean only that the two systems are mathematically
equivalent, and not that the homogeneous trains exist as such in the
original light.
See also Newton's _Opticks_, bk. i. pt. ii.; Maxwell's _Scientific
Papers_; Helmholtz's papers in _Poggendorf's Annalen_; Sir G. G.
Stokes, _Burnett Lectures for 1884-5-6_; Abney's _Colour Vision_
(1895). (J. R. C.)
COLOURS, MILITARY, the flags carried by infantry regiments and
battalions, sometimes also by troops of other arms. Cavalry regiments
and other units have as a rule standards and guidons (see FLAG). Colours
are generally embroidered with mottoes, symbols, and above all with the
names of battles.
From the earliest time at which men fought in organized bodies of
troops, the latter have possessed some sort of insignia visible over all
the field of battle, and serving as a rallying-point for the men of the
corps and an indication of position for the higher leaders and the men
of other formed bodies. In the Roman army the eagle, the _vexillum_, &c.
had all the moral and sentimental importance of the colours of to-day.
During the dark and the middle ages, however, the basis of military
force being the individual knight or lord, the banner, or other flag
bearing his arms, replaced the regimental colour which had signified the
corporate body and claimed the devotion of each individual soldier in
the ranks, though the original meaning of the colour as a corps, not a
personal distinction, was sometimes maintained by corporate bodies (such
as trade-gilds) which took the field as such. An example is the famous
_carroccio_ or standard on wheels, which was frequently brought into the
field of battle by the citizen militia of the Italian cities, and was
fought for with the same ardour as the royal standard in other medieval
battles.
The application of the word "colour" to such insignia, however, dates
only from the 16th century. It has been suggested that, as the
professional captain gradually ousted the nobleman from the command of
the drilled and organized companies of foot--the man of gentle birth, of
course, maintained his ascendancy in the cavalry far longer--the leaders
of such bodies, no longer possessing coat-armour and individual banners,
had recourse to small flags of distinctive colour instead. "Colour" is
in the 16th century a common name in England and middle Europe for the
unit of infantry; in German the _Fahnlein_ (colour) of landsknechts was
a strong company of more than 300 foot. The ceremonial observances and
honours paid nowadays to the colours of infantry were in fact founded
for the most part by the landsknechts, for whom the flag (carried by
their "ensign") was symbolical of their intense regimental life and
feeling. The now universal customs of constituting the colour guard of
picked men and of saluting the colours were in equal honour then; before
that indeed, the appearance of the personal banner of a nobleman implied
his actual presence with it, and the due honours were paid, but the
colour of the 16th century was not the distinction of one man, but the
symbol of the corporate life and unity of the regiment, and thus the new
colour ceremonial implied the same allegiance to an impersonal
regimental spirit, which it has (with the difference that the national
spirit has been blended with the regimental) retained ever since. The
old soldier rallied to the colours as a matter of habit in the confusion
of battle, and the capture or the loss of a colour has always been
considered a special event, glorious or the reverse, in the history of a
regiment, the importance of this being chiefly sentimental, but having
as a very real background the fact that, if its colour was lost, a
regiment was to all intents and purposes dissolved and dispersed.
Frederick the Great and Napoleon always attached the highest importance
to the maintenance at all costs of the regimental colours. Even over
young troops the influence of the colour has been extraordinary, and
many generals have steadied their men in the heat of battle by taking a
regimental colour themselves to lead the advance or to form up the
troops. Thus in the first battle of Bull Run (1861) the raw Confederate
troops were rallied under a heavy fire by General Joseph Johnston, their
commander-in-chief, who stood with a colour in his hand until the men
gathered quickly in rank and file. The archduke Charles at Aspern (1809)
led his young troops to the last assault with a colour in his hand.
Marshal Schwerin was killed at the battle of Prague while carrying a
regimental colour.
In the British army colours are carried by guards and line (except
rifle) battalions, each battalion having two colours, the king's and the
regimental. The size of the colour is 3 ft. 9 in. by 3 ft., and the
length of the stave 8 ft. 7 in. The colour has a gold fringe and gold
and crimson tassels, and bears various devices and "battle honours."
Both colours are carried by subaltern officers, and an escort of
selected non-commissioned officers forms the rest of the colour party.
The ceremony of presenting new colours is most impressive. The old
colours are "trooped" (see below) before being cased and taken to the
rear. The new colours are then placed against a pile of drums and then
uncased by the senior majors and the senior subalterns. The consecration
follows, after which the colours are presented to the senior subalterns.
The battalion gives a general salute when the colours are unfurled, and
the ceremony concludes with a march past. "Trooping the colour" is a
more elaborate ceremonial peculiar to the British service, and is said
to have been invented by the duke of Cumberland. In this, the colour is
posted near the left of the line, the right company or guard moves up to
it, and an officer receives it, after which the guard with the colour
files between the ranks of the remainder from left to right until the
right of the line is reached.
In the United States army the infantry regiment has two colours, the
national and the regimental. They are carried in action.
In the French army one colour (_drapeau_) is carried by each infantry
regiment. It is carried by an officer, usually a _sous-lieutenant_, and
the guard is composed of a non-commissioned officer and a party of
"first class" soldiers. Regiments which have taken an enemy's colour or
standard in battle have their own colours "decorated," that is, the
cross of the Legion of Honour is affixed to the stave near the point.
Battle honours are embroidered on the white of the tricolour. The
_eagle_ was, in the First and Third Empires, the infantry colour, and
was so called from the gilt eagle which surmounted the stave. The
_chasseurs a pied_, like the rifles of the British army, carry no
colours, but the battalion quartered for the time being at Vincennes
carries a colour for the whole arm in memory of the first _chasseurs de
Vincennes_. As in other countries, colours are saluted by all armed
bodies and by individual officers and men. When the _drapeau_ is not
present with the regiment its place is taken by an ordinary flag.
The colours of the German infantry, foot artillery and engineers vary in
design with the states to which the corps belong in the first instance;
thus, black and white predominate in Prussian colours, red in those of
Wurttemberg regiments, blue in Bavarian, and so on. The point of the
colour stave is decorated in some cases with the iron cross, in memory
of the War of Liberation and of the war of 1870. Each battalion of an
infantry regiment has its own colour, which is carried by a
non-commissioned officer, and guarded as usual by a colour party. The
colour is fastened to the stave by silver nails, and the ceremony of
driving the first nail into the stake of a new colour is one of great
solemnity. Rings of silver on the stave are engraved with battle
honours, the names of those who have fallen in action when carrying the
colour, and other commemorative names and dates. The oath taken by each
recruit on joining is sworn on the colour (_Fahneneid_).
The practice in the British army of leaving the colours behind on taking
the field dates from the battle of Isandhlwana (22nd January 1879), in
which Lieutenants Melvill and Coghill lost their lives in endeavouring
to save the colours of the 24th regiment. In savage warfare, in which
the British regular army is more usually engaged, it is true that no
particular reason can be adduced for imperilling the colours in the
field. It is questionable, however, whether this holds good in civilized
warfare. Colours were carried in action by both the Russians and the
Japanese in the war of 1904-5, and they were supplemented on both sides
by smaller flags or camp colours. The conception of the colour as the
emblem of union, the rallying-point, of the regiment has been mentioned
above. Many hold that such a rallying-point is more than ever required
in the modern _guerre de masses_, when a national short-service army is
collected in all possible strength on the decisive battle-field, and
that scarcely any risks or loss of life would be disproportionate to the
advantages gained by the presence of the colours. There is further a
most important factor in the problem, which has only arisen in recent
years through modern perfection in armament. In the first stages of an
attack, the colours could remain, as in the past, with the closed
reserves or line of battle, and they would not be uncased and sent into
the thick of the fight at all hazards until the decisive assault was
being delivered. Then, it is absolutely essential, as a matter of
tactics, that the artillery (q.v.), which covers the assault with all
the power given it by modern science and training, should be well
informed as to the progress of the infantry. This covering fire was
maintained by the Japanese until the infantry was actually in the smoke
of their own shrapnel. With uniforms of neutral tint the need of some
means whereby the artillery officers can, at 4000 yds. range,
distinguish their own infantry from that of the enemy, is more
pronounced than ever. The best troops are apt to be unsteadied by being
fired into by their own guns (e.g. at Elandslaagte), and the more
powerful the shell, and the more rapid and far-ranging the fire of the
guns, the more necessary it becomes to prevent such accidents. A
practicable solution of the difficulty would be to display the colours
as of old, and this course would not only have to an enhanced degree the
advantages it formerly possessed, but would also provide the simplest
means for ensuring the vitally necessary co-operation of infantry and
artillery in the decisive assault. The duty of carrying the colours was
always one of special danger, and sometimes, in the old short-range
battles, every officer who carried a flag was shot. That this fate would
necessarily overtake the bearer under modern conditions is far from
certain, and in any case the few men on the enemy's side who would be
brave enough to shoot accurately under heavy shell fire would, however
destructive to the colour party, scarcely inflict as much damage on the
battalion as a whole, as a dozen or more accidental shells from the
massed artillery of its own side.
COLOUR-SERGEANT, a non-commissioned officer of infantry, ranking, in the
British army, as the senior non-commissioned officer of each company. He
is charged with many administrative duties, and usually acts as pay
sergeant. A special duty of the colour-sergeants of a battalion is that
of attending and guarding the colours and the officers carrying them. In
some foreign armies the colours are actually carried by
colour-sergeants. The rank was created in the British army in 1813.
COLOURS OF ANIMALS. Much interest attaches in modern biology to the
questions involved in the colours of animals. The subject may best be
considered in two divisions: (1) as regards the uses of colour in the
struggle for existence and in sexual relationships; (2) as regards the
chemical causation.