FOOTNOTE:

[1] See A. Hettner and G. Linck, "Beitrage zur Geologie und

Petrographie der columbianischen Anden," _Zeits. deutsch. geol. Ges._

vol. xl. (1888), pp. 204-230; W. Sievers, "Die Sierra Nevada de Santa

Marta und die Sierra de Perija," _Zeits. Ges. Erdk. Berlin_, vol.

xxiii. (1888), pp. 1-158 and p. 442, Pls. i. and iii.; A. Hettner,

"Die Kordillere von Bogota," _Peterm. Mitt._, Erganzungsheft 104

(1892), and "Die Anden des westlichen Columbiens," _Peterm. Mitt._

(1893), pp. 129-136; W. Reiss and A. Stubel, _Reisen in Sud America.

Geologische Studien in der Republik Colombia_ (Berlin, 1892-1899),--a

good geological bibliography will be found in part ii. of this work.

COLOMBIER, PIERRE BERTRAND DE (1299-1361), French cardinal and

diplomatist, was born at Colombier in Ardeche. He was nephew and

namesake of Cardinal Pierre Bertrand of Annonay. After a careful

juristic education he was successively advocate at the parlement of

Paris, intendant of the council of the count of Nevers (1321), and

counsellor-clerk to the parlement (1329). Having taken holy orders, he

became dean of St Quentin in 1330, and was employed to negotiate the

marriage of the duke of Normandy, the future king John the Good of

France, with the daughter of the king of Bohemia. In 1335 he became

bishop of Nevers, in 1339 of Arras, and contributed to bring the county

of Flanders into the kingdom of France. Created cardinal priest of St

Susanna in 1344, he was employed by the pope on important missions,

notably to negotiate peace or an armistice between France and England.

Having become bishop of Ostia in 1353, he was sent next year to Charles

IV. of Germany, and induced him to come to Italy to be crowned emperor

at Rome, 1355. In 1356 he went to France to try to arrange a peace with

England, and died in 1361 at the priory of Montaud near Avignon.

See A. Mazon, _Essai historique sur l'etat du Vivarais pendant la

guerre de cent ans_ (Paris, 1889), with references there.

COLOMBO, the capital and principal seaport of Ceylon, situated on the

west coast of the island. Pop. (1901) 154,691. Colombo stands to the

south of the mouth of the river Kelani. The coast-land is here generally

low-lying, but broken by slight eminences. The great artificial harbour,

enclosed by breakwaters, is bounded on the south by a slight promontory.

This is occupied by the quarter of the city known as the Fort, from the

former existence of a fort founded by the Portuguese and reconstructed

by the Dutch. In 1869 the governor, Sir Hercules Robinson (afterwards

Lord Rosmead), obtained authority to demolish the fortifications, which

were obsolete for purposes of defence, and required 6000 men to man them

properly. The levelling of the walls and filling up of the moat made the

Fort much more accessible and healthy, and since then it has become the

business centre of the city. Here are situated Queen's House, the

governor's residence; the secretariat or government offices, and other

government buildings, such as the fine general post office and the

customs house. Here also are most of the principal hotels, which have a

peculiarly high reputation among European hotels in the East. A lofty

tower serves as the principal lighthouse of the port and also as a

clock-tower. On the south side of the Fort are extensive barracks. The

old banqueting-hall of the Dutch governors is used as the garrison

church of St Peter.

To the north-east of the Fort, skirting the harbour, are the Pettah, the

principal native quarter, the districts of Kotahena and Mutwall, and

suburbs beyond. In this direction the principal buildings are the

Wolfendahl church, a massive Doric building of the Dutch (1749); the

splendid Roman Catholic cathedral of St Lucia (completed in 1904); and

St Thomas's College (1851), which follows the lines of an English public

school. Close to this last is the Anglican cathedral of Christ Church.

The Kotahena temple is the chief Buddhist temple in Colombo.

To the north-east of the Fort is the Lake, a ramifying sheet of fresh

water, which adds greatly to the beauty of the site of Colombo, its

banks being clothed with luxuriant foliage and flowers. The narrow

isthmus between this lake and the sea, south of the Fort, is called

Galle Face, and is occupied chiefly by promenades and recreation

grounds. The peninsula enclosed by two arms of the Lake is known as

Slave Island, having been the site of a slave's prison under the Dutch.

South-east of this is the principal residential quarter of Colombo, with

the circular Victoria Park as its centre. To the east of the park a

series of parallel roads, named after former British governors, are

lined with beautiful bungalows embowered in trees. This locality is

generally known as the Cinnamon Gardens, as it was formerly a Dutch

reserve for the cultivation of the cinnamon bush, many of which are

still growing here. In the park is the fine Colombo Museum, founded by

Sir William Gregory; and near the neighbouring Campbell Park are the

handsome buildings of a number of institutions, such as Wesley College,

and the General, Victoria Memorial Eye and other hospitals. South of

Victoria Park is the Havelock racecourse. Among educational

establishments not hitherto mentioned are the Royal College, the

principal government institution, the government technical college and

St Joseph's Roman Catholic college. Most of the town is lighted by gas,

and certain quarters with electric light, and electric tramways have

been laid over several miles of the city roads. The water-supply is

drawn from a hill region 30 m. distant.

Under British rule Colombo has shared in the prosperity brought to the

island by the successive industries of coffee and tea-planting. At the

height of the coffee-growing enterprise 20,000 men, women and children,

chiefly Sinhalese and Tamils, found employment in the large factories

and stores of the merchants scattered over the town, where the coffee

was cleaned, prepared, sorted and packed for shipment. Tea, on the

contrary, is prepared and packed on the estates; but there is a

considerable amount of work still done in the Colombo stores in sorting,

blending and repacking such teas as are sold at the local public sales;

also in dealing with cacao, cardamoms, cinchona bark and the remnant

still left of the coffee industry. But it is to its position as one of

the great ports of call of the East that Colombo owes its great and

increasing importance. A magnificent breakwater, 4200 ft. long, the

first stone of which was laid by the prince of Wales in 1875, was

completed in 1884. This breakwater changed an open roadstead into a

harbour completely sheltered on the most exposed or south-west side; but

there was still liability in certain months to storms from the

north-west and south-east. Two additional arms were therefore

constructed, consisting of a north-east and north-west breakwater,

leaving two openings, one 800 ft. and the other 700 ft. wide, between

the various sections. The area enclosed is 660 acres. A first-class

graving-dock, of which the Admiralty bore half the cost, has also been

added. These improvements caused Galle to be abandoned as a port of call

for steamers in favour of Colombo, while Trincomalee has been abandoned

as a naval station. The port has assumed first-class importance, mail

steamers calling regularly as well as men-of-war and the mercantile

marine of all nations; and it is now one of the finest artificial

harbours in the world. The extension of railways also has concentrated

the trade of the island upon the capital, and contributed to its rise in

prosperity.

Colombo was originally known as the Kalantotta or Kalany ferry. By the

Arabs the name was changed to Kolambu, and the town was mentioned by Ibn

Batuta in 1346 as the largest and finest in Serendib. In 1517 the

Portuguese effected a settlement, and in 1520 they fortified their port

and bade defiance to the native besiegers. In 1586 the town was invested

by Raja Singh, but without success. On its capture by the Dutch in 1656

it was a flourishing colony with convents of five religious orders,

churches and public offices, inhabited by no fewer than 900 noble

families and 1500 families dependent on mercantile or political

occupations. In 1796 it was surrendered to the British.

COLON (formerly known as ASPINWALL), a city of the Republic of Panama,

on the Atlantic coast, in the Bay of Limon, and 47 m. by rail N.W. of

the city of Panama. Pop. (1908) about 3000, consisting largely of

Jamaica negroes and natives of mixed Spanish, Indian and African

descent. It is served by the Panama railway, which crosses the Isthmus

of Panama from ocean to ocean. Colon has a deep, though poorly sheltered

harbour, and is either the terminus or a place of call for seven lines

of steamships. It thus serves as an entrepot for much of the commerce

between Atlantic and Pacific ports, and between the interior towns of

Central and South America and the cities of Europe and the United

States. The city lies on the west side of the low island of Manzanillo,

is bordered on the landward sides by swamp, and consists mainly of

unimposing frame houses and small shops. The most attractive parts are

the American quarter, where the employes of the Panama railway have

their homes, and the old French quarter, where dwelt the French officers

during their efforts to build the canal. In this last district, near the

mouth of the old canal, stands a fine statue of Christopher Columbus,

the gift of the empress Eugenie in 1870. Here also stands the mansion

erected and occupied by Ferdinand de Lesseps during his residence on the

isthmus. With the exception of railway shops, there are no important

industrial establishments.

Colon dates its origin from the year 1850, when the island of Manzanillo

was selected as the Atlantic terminus of the Panama railway. The

settlement was at first called Aspinwall, in honour of William H.

Aspinwall (1807-1875), one of the builders of the railway; but some

years afterwards its name was changed by legislative enactment to Colon,

in honour of Christopher Columbus, who entered Limon Bay in 1502. The

original name, however, survived among the English-speaking inhabitants

for many years after this change. With the completion of the railway in

1855, the town supplanted Chagres (q.v.) as the principal Atlantic port

of the isthmus. Later it acquired increased importance through its

selection by de Lesseps as the site for the Atlantic entrance to his

canal. During the revolution of 1885 it was partly burned and was

rebuilt on a somewhat larger plan. As the city has always been

notoriously unhealthful, the United States, on undertaking the

construction of the Panama Canal (q.v.), became interested in preventing

its becoming a centre of infection for the Canal Zone, and by the treaty

of November 1903 secured complete jurisdiction in the city and harbour

over all matters relating to sanitation and quarantine, and engaged to

construct a system of waterworks and sewers in the municipality, which

had been practically completed in 1907. The United States government has

also opened a port at Cristobal, within the Canal Zone.

COLON, a town of Matanzas province, Cuba, on the railway between

Matanzas and Santa Clara, and the centre of a rich sugar-planting

country. Pop. (1907) 7124.

COLON, (1) (Gr. [Greek: kolon], miswritten and mispronounced as [Greek:

kolon], the term being taken from [Greek: kolos], curtailed), in

anatomy, that part of the greater intestine which extends from the

caecum to the rectum (see ALIMENTARY CANAL). (2.) (Gr. [Greek: kolon], a

member or part), originally in Greek rhetoric a short clause longer

than the "comma," hence a mark (:), in punctuation, used to show a break

in construction greater than that marked by the semicolon (;), and less

than that marked by the period or full stop. The sign is also used in

psalters and the like to mark off periods for chanting. The word is

applied in palaeography to a unit of measure in MSS., amounting in

length to a hexameter line.

COLONEL (derived either from Lat. _columna_, Fr. _colonne_, column, or

Lat. _corona_, a crown), the superior officer of a regiment of infantry

or cavalry; also an officer of corresponding rank in the general army

list. The colonelcy of a regiment formerly implied a proprietary right

in it. Whether the colonel commanded it directly in the field or not, he

always superintended its finance and interior economy, and the

emoluments of the office, in the 18th century, were often the only form

of pay drawn by general officers. The general officers of the 17th and

18th centuries were invariably colonels of regiments, and in this case

the active command was exercised by the lieutenant-colonels. At the

present day, British general officers are often, though not always,

given the colonelcy of a regiment, which has become almost purely an

honorary office. The sovereign, foreign sovereigns, royal princes and

others, hold honorary colonelcies, as colonels-in-chief or honorary

colonels of many regiments. In other armies, the regiment being a

fighting unit, the colonel is its active commander; in Great Britain the

lieutenant-colonel commands in the field the battalion of infantry and

the regiment of cavalry. Colonels are actively employed in the army at

large in staff appointments, brigade commands, &c. extra-regimentally.

Colonel-general, a rank formerly used in many armies, still survives in

the German service, a colonel-general (_General-Oberst_) ranking between

a general of infantry, cavalry or artillery, and a general field marshal

(_General-Feldmarschall_). Colonels-general are usually given the

honorary rank of general field marshal.

COLONIAL OFFICE, the department of the administration of the United

Kingdom which deals with questions affecting the various colonial

possessions of the British crown. The department as it now exists is of

comparatively modern creation, dating only from 1854. The affairs of the

English colonies began to assume importance at the Restoration, and were

at first entrusted to a committee of the privy council, but afterwards

transferred to a commission created by letters patent. From 1672 to 1675

the council for trade was combined with this commission, but in the

latter year the colonies were again placed under the control of the

privy council. This arrangement continued until 1695, when a Board of

Trade and Plantations was created; its duty, however, was confined to

collecting information and giving advice when required. The actual

executive work was performed by the secretary of state for the southern

department, who was assisted, from 1768 to 1782, by a secretary of state

for the colonies. Both the Board of Trade and Plantations and the

additional secretary were abolished in 1782, and the executive business

wholly given over to the home office. In 1794 a third secretary of state

was reappointed, and in 1801 this secretary was designated as secretary

of state for war and the colonies. In 1854 the two offices were

separated, and a distinct office of secretary of state for the colonies

created.

The secretary of state for the colonies is the official medium of

communication with colonial governments; he has certain administrative

duties respecting crown colonies, and has a right of advising the veto

of an act of a colonial legislature--this veto, however, is never

exercised in the case of purely local statutes. He is assisted by a

permanent and a parliamentary under-secretary and a considerable

clerical staff.

As reorganized in 1907 the colonial office consists of three chief

departments: (1) the Dominions Department, dealing with the affairs of

the self-governing over-sea dominions of the British crown, and of

certain other possessions geographically connected with those dominions;

(2) the Colonial Department, dealing with the affairs of crown colonies

and protectorates; (3) the General Department, dealing with legal,

financial and other general business. In addition to these three

departments, standing committees exist to take a collective view of

such matters as contracts, concessions, mineral and other leases, and

patronage.

COLONNA, a noble Roman family, second only to the Gaetani di Sermoneta

in antiquity, and first of all the Roman houses in importance. The popes

Marcellinus, Sixtus III., Stephen IV. and Adrian III. are said to have

been members of it, but the authentic pedigree of the family begins with

Pietro, lord of Columna, Palestrina and Paliano (about 1100), probably a

brother of Pope Benedict IX. His great grandson Giovanni had two sons,

respectively the founders of the Colonna di Paliano and Colonna di

Sciarra lines. The third, or Colonna-Romano line, is descended from

Federigo Colonna (1223). In the 12th century we find the Colonna as

counts of Tusculum, and the family was then famous as one of the most

powerful and turbulent of the great Roman clans; its feuds with the

Orsini and the Gaetani are a characteristic feature of medieval Rome and

the Campagna; like the other great nobles of the Campagna the Colonna

plundered travellers and cities, and did not even spare the pope himself

if they felt themselves injured by him. Boniface VIII. attempted to

break their power, excommunicated them in 1297, and confiscated their

estates. He proclaimed a crusade against them and captured Palestrina,

but they afterwards revenged themselves by besieging him at Anagni, and

Sciarra Colonna laid violent hands on His Holiness, being with

difficulty restrained from actually murdering him (1303). In 1347 the

Colonna, at that time almost an independent power, were defeated by Cola

di Rienzi, but soon recovered. Pope Martin V. (1417-1431) was a Colonna,

and conferred immense estates on his family, including Marino, Frascati,

Rocca di Papa, Nettuno, Palinao, &c., in the Campagna, and other fiefs

in Romagna and Umbria. Their goods were frequently confiscated and

frequently given back, and the house was subject to many changes of

fortune; during the reign of Pope Alexander VI. they were again humbled,

but they always remained powerful and important, and members of the

family rose to eminence as generals, prelates and statesmen in the

service of the Church or other powers. In the war of 1522 between France

and Spain there were Colonna on both sides, and at the battle of Lepanto

(1571) Marc Antonio Colonna, who commanded the papal contingent, greatly

distinguished himself. A detailed record of the Colonna family would be

a history of Rome. To-day there are three lines of Colonna: (1) Colonna

di Paliano, with two branches, the princes and dukes of Paliano, and the

princes of Stigliano; (2) Colonna di Sciarra, with two branches, Colonna

di Sciarra, princes of Carbagnano, and Barberini-Colonna, princes of

Palestrina; and (3) Colonna-Romano. The Colonna palace, one of the

finest in Rome, was begun by Martin V. and contains a valuable picture

and sculpture gallery.

See A. von Reumont, _Geschichte der Stadt Rom_ (Berlin, 1868),

containing an elaborate account of the family; F. Gregorovius,

_Geschichte der Stadt Rom_ (Stuttgart, 1872); _Almanack de Gotha_.

(L. V.*)

COLONNA, GIOVANNI PAOLO (_circa_ 1637-1695), Italian musician, was born

in Bologna about 1637 and died in the same city on the 28th of November

1695. He was a pupil of Filippuzzi in Bologna, and of Abbatini and

Benevoli in Rome, where for a time he held the post of organist at S.

Apollinare. A dated poem in praise of his music shows that he began to

distinguish himself as a composer in 1659. In that year he was chosen

organist at S. Petronio in Bologna, where on the 1st of November 1674 he

was made chapel-master. He also became president of the Philharmonic

Academy of Bologna. Most of Colonna's works are for the church,

including settings of the psalms for three, four, five and eight voices,

and several masses and motets. He also composed an opera, under the

title _Amilcare_, and an oratorio, _La Profezia d' Eliseo_. The emperor

Leopold I. received a copy of every composition of Colonna, so that the

imperial library in Vienna possesses upwards of 83 church compositions

by him. Colonna's style is for the most part dignified, but is not free

from the inequalities of style and taste almost unavoidable at a period

when church music was in a state of transition, and had hardly learnt

to combine the gravity of the old style with the brilliance of the new.

COLONNA, VITTORIA (1490-1547), marchioness of Pescara, Italian poet,

daughter of Fabrizio Colonna, grand constable of the kingdom of Naples,

and of Anna da Montefeltro, was born at Marino, a fief of the Colonna

family. Betrothed when four years old at the instance of Ferdinand, king

of Naples, to Ferrante de Avalos, son of the marquis of Pescara, she

received the highest education and gave early proof of a love of

letters. Her hand was sought by many suitors, including the dukes of

Savoy and Braganza, but at nineteen, by her own ardent desire, she was

married to de Avalos on the island of Ischia. There the couple resided

until 1511, when her husband offered his sword to the League against the

French. He was taken prisoner at the battle of Ravenna (1512) and

conveyed to France. During the months of detention and the long years of

campaigning which followed, Vittoria and Ferrante corresponded in the

most passionate terms both in prose and verse. They saw each other but

seldom, for Ferrante was one of the most active and brilliant captains

of Charles V.; but Vittoria's influence was sufficient to keep him from

joining the projected league against the emperor after the battle of

Pavia (1525), and to make him refuse the crown of Naples offered to him

as the price of his treason. In the month of November of the same year

he died of his wounds at Milan. Vittoria, who was hastening to tend him,

received the news of his death at Viterbo; she halted and turned off to

Rome, and after a brief stay departed for Ischia, where she remained for

several years. She refused several suitors, and began to produce those

_Rime spirituali_ which form so distinct a feature in her works. In 1529

she returned to Rome, and spent the next few years between that city,

Orvieto, Ischia and other places. In 1537 we find her at Ferrara, where

she made many friends and helped to establish a Capuchin monastery at

the instance of the reforming monk Bernardino Ochino, who afterwards

became a Protestant. In 1539 she was back in Rome, where, besides

winning the esteem of Cardinals Reginald Pole and Contarini, she became

the object of a passionate friendship on the part of Michelangelo, then

in his sixty-fourth year. The great artist addressed some of his finest

sonnets to her, made drawings for her, and spent long hours in her

society. Her removal to Orvieto and Viterbo in 1541, on the occasion of

her brother Ascanio Colonna's revolt against Paul III., produced no

change in their relations, and they continued to visit and correspond as

before. She returned to Rome in 1544, staying as usual at the convent of

San Silvestro, and died there on the 25th of February 1547.

Cardinal Bembo, Luigi Alamanni and Baldassare Castiglione were among her

literary friends. She was also on intimate terms with many of the

Italian Protestants, such as Pietro Carnesecchi, Juan de Valdes and

Ochino, but she died before the church crisis in Italy became acute,

and, although she was an advocate of religious reform, there is no

reason to believe that she herself became a Protestant. Her life was a

beautiful one, and goes far to counteract the impression of the

universal corruption of the Italian Renaissance conveyed by such careers

as those of the Borgia. Her amatory and elegiac poems, which are the

fruits of a sympathetic and dainty imitative gift rather than of any

strong original talent, were printed at Parma in 1538; a third edition,

containing sixteen of her _Rime Spirituali_, in which religious themes

are treated in Italian, was published at Florence soon afterwards; and a

fourth, including a still larger proportion of the pious element, was

issued at Venice in 1544.

A great deal has been written about Vittoria Colonna, but perhaps the

best account of her life is A. Luzio's _Vittoria Colonna_ (Modena,

1885); A. von Reumont's _Vita di Vittoria Colonna_ (Italian corrected

edit., Turin, 1883) is also excellent; F. le Fevre's _Vittoria

Colonna_ (Paris, 1856) is somewhat inaccurate, but T. Roscoe's

_Vittoria Colonna_ (London, 1868) may be recommended to English

readers; P. E. Visconti's _Le Rime di Vittoria Colonna_ (Rome, 1846)

deals with her poems. (L. V.*)

COLONNADE, in architecture, a range of columns (Ital. _colonna_) in a

row. When extended so as to enclose a temple, it is called a peristyle,

and the same term applies when round an open court, as in the houses at

Pompeii. When projecting in front of a building, it is called a portico,

as in the Pantheon at Rome and the National Gallery in London. When

enclosed between wings, as in Perrault's facade to the Louvre, it is

correctly described as a colonnade. Colonnades lined the streets of the

towns in Syria and Asia Minor, and they were largely employed in Rome.

COLONSAY, an island of the Inner Hebrides, Argyllshire, Scotland, 10 m.

S. of the Ross of Mull. It is 7-1/2 m. long by 3 m. broad. The highest

point is Carnan Eoin (470 ft.). Towards the middle of the island lies

Loch Fada, nearly 2 m. long but very narrow, and there are two other

small lakes and a few streams. The coast-line, with frequent beautiful

sandy reaches, is much indented, the chief bays being Kiloran,

Kilchattan and Staosunaig. On the north-western coast the cliffs are

particularly fine. To the south, separated by a strait that is fordable

at low water, lies the isle of ORONSAY, 2-1/4 m. long by 2-3/4 m. wide. Both

islands contain a number of ecclesiastical remains, standing stones, and

some beautiful sculptured crosses. They are named after Columba and

Oran, who are said to have stopped here after they left Ireland. There

is regular communication between Scalasaig and Glasgow and the Clyde

ports. The golf-course at Kilchattan lends a touch of modernity to these

remote islands. Near Scalasaig a granite obelisk has been erected to the

memory of Sir Duncan M'Neill (1794-1874), a distinguished Scottish

lawyer, who took the title of Lord Colonsay when he became a lord of

appeal. The soil of both islands is fertile, potatoes and barley being

raised and cattle pastured. Population: Colonsay (1901), 301; Oronsay

(1901), 12.

COLONY (Lat. _colonia_, from _colonus_, a cultivator), a term most

commonly used to denote a settlement of the subjects of a sovereign

state in lands beyond its boundaries, owning no allegiance to any

foreign power, and retaining a greater or less degree of dependence on

the mother country. The founding and the growth of such communities

furnish matter for an interesting chapter in the history as well of

ancient as of modern civilization; and the regulation of the relations

between the parent state and its dependencies abroad gives rise to

important problems alike in national policy and in international

economics.

It was mainly the spirit of commercial enterprise that led the

Phoenicians to plant their colonies upon the islands and along the

southern coast of the Mediterranean; and even beyond the Pillars of

Hercules this earliest great colonizing race left enduring traces of its

maritime supremacy. Carthage, indeed, chief of the Phoenician

settlements, sent forth colonies to defend her conquests and strengthen

her military power; and these sub-colonies naturally remained in strict

subjection to her power, whereas the other young Phoenician states

assumed and asserted entire independence.

In this latter respect the Greek colonies resembled those of the

Phoenicians. From a very early period the little civic communities of

Greece had sent forth numerous colonizing streams. At points so far

asunder as the Tauric Chersonese, Cyrene and Massilia were found

prosperous centres of Greek commercial energy; but the regions most

thickly peopled by settlers of Greek descent were the western seaboard

of Asia Minor, Sicily and the southern parts of the Italian peninsula.

Nor were the least prosperous communities those which were sprung from

earlier colonies. The causes that led to the foundation of the Greek

colonies were very various. As in Phoenicia, pressure created by the

narrow limits of the home country coincided with an adventurous desire

to seek new sources of wealth beyond seas; but very many Greek

emigrations were caused by the expulsion of the inhabitants of conquered

cities, or by the intolerable domination of a hated but triumphant

faction within the native state. The polity of the new community, often

founded in defiance of the home authorities, might either be a copy of

that just left behind or be its direct political antithesis. But

wherever they went, and whether, as apparently in Asia Minor, Greek

blood was kept free from barbaric mixture, or whether, as in Magna

Graecia and Sicily, it was mingled with that of the aboriginal races,

the Greek emigrants carried with them the Hellenic spirit and the

Hellenic tongue; and the colonies fostered, not infrequently more

rapidly and more brilliantly than at home, Greek literature, Greek art

and Greek speculation. The relation to be preserved towards the mother

states was seldom or never definitely arranged. But filial feeling and

established custom secured a measure of kindly sympathy, shown by

precedence yielded at public games, and by the almost invariable

abstinence of the colony from a hostile share in wars in which the

mother city was engaged.

The relation of Rome to her colonies was altogether different. No Roman

colony started without the sanction and direction of the public

authority; and while the _Colonia Romano_ differed from the _Colonia

Latina_ in that the former permitted its members to retain their

political rights intact, the colony, whether planted within the bounds

of Italy or in provinces such as Gaul or Britain, remained an integral

part of the Roman state. In the earlier colonies, the state allotted to

proposing emigrants from amongst the needy or discontented class of

citizens portions of such lands as, on the subjection of a hostile

people, the state took into its possession as public property. At a

later time, especially after the days of Sulla, the distribution of the

territories of a vanquished Roman party was employed by the victorious

generals as an easy means of satisfying the claims of the soldiery by

whose help they had triumphed. The Roman colonies were thus not merely

valuable as _propugnacula_ of the state, as permanent supports to Roman

garrisons and armies, but they proved a most effective means of

extending over wide bounds the language and the laws of Rome, and of

inoculating the inhabitants of the provinces with more than the

rudiments of Roman civilization.

The occupation of the fairest provinces of the Roman empire by the

northern barbarians had little in common with colonization. The Germanic

invaders came from no settled state; they maintained loosely, and but

for a short while, any form of brotherhood with the allied tribes. A

nearer parallel to Greek colonization may be found in Iceland, whither

the adherents of the old Norse polity fled from the usurpation of Harold

Haarfager; and the early history of the English pale in Ireland shows,

though not in orderliness and prosperity, several points of resemblance

to the Roman colonial system.

Though both Genoese and Venetians in their day of power planted numerous

trading posts on various portions of the Mediterranean shores, of which

some almost deserve the name of colonies, the history of modern

colonization on a great scale opens with the Spanish conquests in

America. The first Spanish adventurers came, not to colonize, but to

satisfy as rapidly as possible and by the labour of the enslaved

aborigines, their thirst for silver and gold. Their conquests were

rapid, but the extension of their permanent settlements was gradual and

slow. The terrible cruelty at first exercised on the natives was

restrained, not merely by the zeal of the missionaries, but by effective

official measures; and ultimately home-born Spaniards and Creoles lived

on terms of comparative fairness with the Indians and with the

half-breed population. Till the general and successful revolt of her

American colonies, Spain maintained and employed the latter directly and

solely for what she conceived to be her own advantage. Her commercial

policy was one of most irrational and intolerable restriction and

repression; and till the end of Spanish rule on the American continent,

the whole political power was retained by the court at Madrid, and

administered in the colonies by an oligarchy of home-bred Spaniards.

The Portuguese colonization in America, in most respects resembling that

of Spain, is remarkable for the development there given to an

institution sadly prominent in the history of the European colonies. The

nearness of Brazil to the coast of Africa made it easy for the

Portuguese to supply the growing lack of native labour by the wholesale

importation of purchased or kidnapped Africans.

Of the French it is admitted that in their colonial possessions they

displayed an unusual faculty for conciliating the prejudices of native

races, and even for assimilating themselves to the latter. But neither

this nor the genius of successive governors and commanders succeeded in

preserving for France her once extensive colonies in Canada or her great

influence in India. In Algeria and West Africa the French government has

not merely found practical training schools for her own soldiers, but by

opening a recruiting field amongst the native tribes it has added an

available contingent to the French army.

The Dutch took early a leading share in the carrying trade of the

various European colonies. They have still extensive colonies in the

East Indian Archipelago, as well as possessions in the West Indies. The

Danish dependencies in the Antilles are but trifling in extent or

importance.

It is the English-speaking race, however, that has shown the most

remarkable energy and capacity for colonization. The English settlements

in Virginia, New England, New York, New Jersey, Maryland, Pennsylvania,

Delaware, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Georgia had, between the

first decade of the 17th and the seventh decade of the 18th century,

developed into a new nation, the United States of America. It is

unnecessary here to deal with the development of what have since been

the two great independent branches of the English-speaking people--those

of the United States (q.v.) and of the British Empire (q.v.), as their

history is given elsewhere. But the colonizing genius which, with the

British Isles as centre, has taken up the "white man's burden" in all

quarters of the globe, is universally recognized. In the problems of

government raised by the organization of the British dominions beyond

the seas the system of colonization has been developed to an extent

unknown under any other national flag.

COLOPHON, an ancient city of Ionia, situated inland about 15 m. N. of

Ephesus. Its port was at Notium or New Colophon. The site, now called

_Tracha_ (only recognized towards the end of the 19th century), lies

near Diermendere, 5 m. S. of Develikeui station on the Smyrna-Aidin

railway, and about 2 m. from the farms and hamlet of Malkajik. It is

almost entirely under cultivation, and there is little to be seen but

remains of the walls and certain tumuli. Rich tombs, however, have been

found beside the old roads leading to it, and the site is usually

regarded as a particularly promising one for excavation, since Colophon

was a very flourishing city in the great period of Ionia and had

declined and been largely superseded by Notium before the Roman age. The

common belief, however, that it had no existence after the time of

Lysimachus is not borne out by the remains on the site. Founded by

Andracmon of Pylos, it was at the acme of its prosperity in the 8th and

7th centuries B.C. up to the epoch of its sack by Gyges of Lydia in 665.

It claimed to have produced Homer, but its greatest genuine literary

name was Mimnermus. It seems to have been ruled by a rich aristocracy

which provided a famous troop of horse; and, from the Greek saying,

usually supposed to refer to the decisive effect of the final charge of

this troop in battle, the word _colophon_ has come to be used for the

final note appended to old printed books, containing date, &c. In 287

Lysimachus transferred a part of the population to his new city at

Ephesus. Though an Ionian colony Colophon did not share in the common

festival of the _Apaturia_ and seems to have been isolated for some

reason among its neighbours, with one of whom, Ephesus, it was

constantly at enmity. The forts by which Ephesus protected itself

against Colophonian invasion are still to be seen on the hills north of

the Caystrus.

Notium or New Colophon contained the important shrine of the Clarian

Apollo, whose site has recently been identified with probability by Th.

Makridy Bey during excavations conducted for the Ottoman museum.

See C. Schuchardt in _Athen. Mitteil._ (1886); W. M. Ramsay, _Hist.

Geog. of Asia Minor_ (addenda) (1890). (D. G. H.)

COLOPHON, a final paragraph in some manuscripts and many early printed

books (see BOOK), giving particulars as to authorship, date and place of

production, &c. Before the invention of printing, a scribe when he had

finished copying a book occasionally added a final paragraph at the end

of the text in which he recorded the fact, and (if he were so minded)

expressed his thankfulness to God, or asked for the prayers of readers.

In the famous Bodleian MS. 264 of the _Roman d'Alexandre_ there is an

unusually full note of this kind recording the completion of the copy on

the 18th of December 1338 and ending--

"Explicit iste liber, scriptor sit crimine liber,

Christus scriptorem custodiat ac det honorem."

Both in manuscripts and also in early printed books authors made use of

such a final paragraph for expressing similar feelings. Thus the

Guillermus who made a famous collection of sermons on the gospels for

Sundays and saints' days records its completion in 1437 and submits it

to the correction of charitable readers, and Sir Thomas Malory notes

that his _Morte d'Arthur_ "was ended the ix yere of the reygne of Kyng

Edward the fourth," and bids his readers "praye for me whyle I am on

lyue that God sende me good delyuerance, and whan I am deed I praye you

all praye for my soule." So again Jacobus Bergomensis records that his

_Supplementum Chronicarum_ was finished "anno salutis nostre 1483. 3 deg.

Kalendas Julii in ciuitate Bergomi: mihi vero a natiuitate quadragesimo

nono," and in the subsequent editions which he revised brings both the

year and his own age up to date. Before printing was invented, however,

such paragraphs were exceptional, and many of the early printers,

notably Gutenberg himself, were content to allow their books to go out

without any mention of their own names. Fust and Schoeffer, on the other

hand, printed at the end of their famous psalter of 1457 the following

paragraph in red ink:--_Presens spalmorum (sic for psalmorum) codex

venustate capitalium decoratus Rubricationibusque sufficienter

distinctus, Adinuentione artificiosa imprimendi ac caracterizandi absque

calami vlla exaracione sic effigiatus, Et ad eusebiam dei industrie est

consummatus, Per Iohannem fust ciuem maguntinum, Et Petrum Schoffer de

Gernszheim Anno domini Millesimo. cccc. lvii In vigilia Assumpcionis_.

Similar paragraphs in praise of printing and of Mainz as the city where

the art was brought to perfection appear in most of the books issued by

the partners and after Fust's death by Schoeffer alone, and were widely

imitated by other printers. In their Latin Bible of 1462 Fust and

Schoeffer added a device of two shields at the end of the paragraph, and

this addition was also widely copied. Many of these final paragraphs

give information of great value for the history of printing; many also,

especially those to the early editions of the classics printed in Italy,

are written in verse. As the practice grew up of devoting a separate

leaf or page to the title of a book at its beginning, the importance of

these final paragraphs slowly diminished, and the information they gave

was gradually transferred to the title-page. Complete title-pages

bearing the date and name of the publishers are found in most books

printed after 1520, and the final paragraph, if retained at all, was

gradually reduced to a bare statement of the name of the printer. From

the use of the word in the sense of a "finishing stroke," such a final

paragraph as has been described is called by bibliographers a "colophon"

(Gr. [Greek: kolophon]), but at what period this name for it was first

used has not been ascertained. It is quite possibly not earlier than the

18th century. (For origin see COLOPHON [city].) (A. W. PO.)

COLORADO, a state of the American union, situated between 41 deg. and 37

deg. N. lat. and 102 deg. and 109 deg. W. long., bounded N. by Wyoming

and Nebraska, E. by Nebraska and Kansas, S. by Oklahoma and New Mexico,

and W. by Utah. Its area is 103,948 sq. m. (of which 290 are water

surface). It is the seventh largest state of the Union.

_Physiography._--Colorado embraces in its area a great variety of

plains, mountains and plateaus. It lies at the junction of the Great

Plains--which in their upward slant to the westward attain an average

elevation of about 4000 ft. along the east boundary of the state--with

the Rocky Mountains, to the west of which is a portion of the Colorado

Plateau. These are the three physiographic provinces of the state (see

also UNITED STATES, section _Geology_, ad fin., for details of

structure). The last-named includes a number of lofty plateaus--the Roan

or Book, Uncompahgre, &c., which form the eastern continuation of the

high plateaus of Utah--and covers the western quarter of the state. Its

eastern third consists of rich, unbroken plains. On their west edge lies

an abrupt, massive, and strangely uniform chain of mountains, known in

the neighbourhood of Colorado Springs as the Rampart Range, and in the

extreme north as the Front Range, and often denominated as a whole by

the latter name. The upturning of the rocks of the Great Plains at the

foot of the Front Range develops an interesting type of topography, the

harder layers weathering into grotesquely curious forms, as seen in the

famous Garden of the Gods at the foot of Pike's Peak. Behind this

barrier the whole country is elevated 2000 ft. or so above the level of

the plains region. In its lowest portions just behind the front ranges

are the natural "parks"--great plateaus basined by superb enclosing

ranges; and to the west of these, and between them, and covering the

remainder of the state east of the plateau region, is an entanglement of

mountains, tier above tier, running from north to south, buttressed

laterally with splendid spurs, dominated by scores of magnificent peaks,

cut by river valleys, and divided by mesas and plateaus. These various

chains are known by a multitude of local names. Among the finest of the

chains are the Rampart, Sangre de Cristo, San Juan, Sawatch (Saguache)

and Elk ranges. The first, like the other ranges abutting from north to

south upon the region of the prairie, rises abruptly from the plain and

has a fine, bold outline. It contains a number of fine summits dominated

by Pike's Peak (14,108 ft.). Much more beautiful as a whole is the

Sangre de Cristo range. At its southern end are Blanca Peak (14,390) and

Old Baldy (14,176, Hayden), both in Costilla county; to the northward

are Rito Alto Peak (12,989, Wheeler), in Custer county, and many others

of almost equal height and equal beauty. The mountains of the south-west

are particularly abrupt and jagged. Sultan Mountain (13,366, Hayden), in

San Juan county, and Mt. Eolus (14,079), in La Plata county, dominate

the fine masses of the San Juan ranges; and Mt. Sneffels (14,158,

Hayden), Ouray county, and Uncompahgre Peak (14,289), Hinsdale county,

the San Miguel and Uncompahgre ranges, which are actually parts of the

San Juan. Most magnificent of all the mountains of Colorado, however,

are the Sawatch and adjoining ranges in the centre of the state. The

former (the name is used a little loosely) consists of almost a solid

mass of granite, has an average elevation of probably 13,000 ft.,

presents a broad and massive outline, and has a mean breadth of 15 to 20

m. Mt. Ouray (13,956 ft.), in Chaffee county, may be taken as the

southern end, and in Eagle county, the splendid Mount of the Holy Cross

(14,170)--so named from the figure of its snow-filled ravines--as the

northern. Between them lie: in Chaffee county, Mt. Shavano (14,239,

Hayden), Mt. Princeton (14,196, Hayden), Mt. Yale (14,187, Hayden), Mt.

Harvard (14,375, Hayden), and La Plata Peak (14,342); in Pitkin county,

Grizzly Peak (13,956, Hayden); in Lake county, Elbert Peak (14,421), and

Massive mountain (14,424), the highest peak in the state; on the

boundary between Summit and Park counties, Mt. Lincoln (14,297, Hayden);

and, in Summit county, Mt. Fletcher (14,265). The Elk range is

geologically interesting for the almost unexampled displacement of the

strata of which it is composed, and the apparent confusion which has

thence arisen. Among the most remarkable of its separate summits, which

rise superbly in a crescent about Aspen, are North Italian Peak

(13,225), displaying the red, white and green of Italy's national

colours, White Rock Mountain (13,532), Mt. Owen (13,102), Teocalli

Mountain (13,220), Snow Mass (13,970, Hayden) and Maroon (14,003,

Hayden) mountains, Castle Peak (14,259), Capitol Mountain (13,997,

Hayden), Pyramid Peak (13,885, Hayden), Taylor Peak (13,419), and about

a dozen other summits above 12,000 ft. A few miles to the north and

north-east of the Mount of the Holy Cross are Red Mountain (13,333,

Wheeler), in Eagle county, Torrey Peak (14,336, Hayden) and Gray's Peak

(14,341, Hayden), in Summit county, Mt. Evans (14,330, Hayden), in Clear

Creek county, and Rosalie Peak (13,575), in Park county; a little

farther north, in Gilpin, Grand and Clear Creek counties, James Peak

(13,283, Hayden), and, in Boulder county, Long's Peak (14,271, Hayden).

Many fine mountains are scattered in the lesser ranges of the state.

Altogether there are at least 180 summits exceeding 12,000 ft. in

altitude, more than 110 above 13,000 and about 40 above 14,000.

Cirques, valley troughs, numberless beautiful cascades, sharpened alpine

peaks and ridges, glacial lakes, and valley moraines offer everywhere

abundant evidence of glacial action, which has modified profoundly

practically all the ranges. The Park Range east of Leadville, and the

Sawatch Range, are particularly fine examples. Much of the grandest

scenery is due to glaciation.

One of the most remarkable orographical features of the state are the

great mountain "parks"--North, Estes, Middle, South and San

Luis--extending from the northern to the southern border of the state,

and lying (with the exception of Middle Park) just east of the

continental divide. These "parks" are great plateaus, not all of them

level, lying below the barriers of surrounding mountain chains. North

Park, the highest of all, is a lovely country of meadow and forest.

Middle Park is not level, but is traversed thickly by low ranges like

the Alleghanies; in the bordering mountain rim are several of the

grandest mountain peaks and some of the most magnificent scenery of the

state. Estes Park is small, only 20 m. long and never more than 2 m.

broad; it is in fact the valley of Thompson Creek. Its surface is one of

charming slopes, and by many it is accounted among the loveliest of

Colorado valleys. Seven ranges lie between it and the plains. South Park

is similarly quiet and charming in character. Much greater than any of

these is San Luis Park. The surface is nearly as flat as a lake, and it

was probably at one time the bed of an inland sea. In the centre there

is a long narrow lake fed by many streams. It has no visible outlet, but

is fresh. The San Luis Park, which runs into New Mexico, is traversed by

the Rio Grande del Norte and more than a dozen of its mountain

tributaries. These parks are frequented by great quantities of large

game, and--especially the North and Middle--are famous hunting-grounds.

They are fertile, too, and as their combined area is something like

13,000 sq. m. they are certain to be of great importance in Colorado's

agricultural development.

The drainage system of the state is naturally very complicated. Eleven

topographical and climatic divisions are recognized by the United States

Weather Bureau within its borders, including the several parks, the

continental divide, and various river valleys. Of the rivers, the North

Platte has its sources in North Park, the Colorado (the Gunnison and

Grand branches) in Middle Park, the Arkansas and South Platte in South

Park--where their waters drain in opposite directions from Palmer's

Lake--the Rio Grande in San Luis Park. Three of these flow east and

south-east to the Missouri, Mississippi and the Gulf; but the waters of

the Colorado system flow to the south-west into the Gulf of California.

Among the other streams, almost countless in number among the mountains,

the systems of the Dolores, White and Yampa, all in the west, are of

primary importance. The scenery on the head-waters of the White and

Bear, the upper tributaries of the Gunnison, and on many of the minor

rivers of the south-west is wonderfully beautiful. The South Platte

falls 4830 ft. in the 139 m. above Denver; the Grand 3600 ft. in the 224

m. between the mouth of the Gunnison and the Forks; the Gunnison 6477

ft. in 200 m. to its mouth (and save for 16 m. never with a gradient of

less than 10 ft.); the Arkansas 7000 ft. in its 338 m. west of the

Kansas line. Of the smaller streams the Uncompahgre falls 2700 ft. in

134 m., the Las Animas 7190 ft. in 113 m., the Los Pinos 4920 ft. in 75

m., the Roaring Fork 5923 ft. in 64 m., the Mancos 5000 ft. in 62 m.,

the La Plata 3103 ft. in 43 m., the Eagle 4293 ft. in 62 m., the San

Juan 3785 in 303, the Lake Fork of the Gunnison 6047 in 59. The canyons

formed in the mountains by these streams are among the glories of

Colorado and of America. The grandest are the Toltec Gorge near the

Southern boundary line, traversed by the railway 1500 ft. above the

bottom; the Red Gorge and Rouge Canyon of the Upper Grand, and a

splendid gorge 16 m. long below the mouth of the Eagle, with walls

2000-2500 ft. in height; the Grand Canyon of the Arkansas (8 m.) above

Canyon City, with granite walls towering 2600 ft. above the boiling

river at the Royal Gorge; and the superb Black Canyon (15 m.) of the

Gunnison and the Cimarron. But there are scores of others which, though

less grand, are hardly less beautiful. The exquisite colour contrasts of

the Cheyenne canyons near Colorado Springs, Boulder Canyon near the city

of the same name, Red Cliff and Eagle River Canyons near Red Cliff,

Clear Creek Canyon near Denver--with walls at places 1000 ft. in

height--the Granite Canyon (11 m.) of the South Platte west of

Florissant, and the fine gorge of the Rio de las Animas (1500 ft.),

would be considered wonderful in any state less rich in still more

marvellous scenery. One peculiar feature of the mountain landscapes are

the mines. In districts like that of Cripple Creek their enormous ore

"dumps" dot the mountain flanks like scores of vast ant-hills; and in

Eagle River canyon their mouths, like dormer windows into the granite

mountain roof, may be seen 2000 ft. above the railway.

Many parts of the railways among the mountains are remarkable for

altitude, construction or scenery. More than a dozen mountain passes lie

above 10,000 ft. Argentine Pass (13,000 ft.), near Gray's Peak, is one

of the highest wagon roads of the world; just east of Silverton is Rio

Grande Pass, about 12,400 ft. above sea-level, and in the Elk Mountains

between Gunnison and Pitkin counties is Pearl Pass (12,715 ft.). Many

passes are traversed by the railways, especially the splendid scenic

route of the Denver and Rio Grande. Among the higher passes are Hoosier

Pass (10,309 ft.) in the Park Range, and Hayden Divide (10,780) and Veta

Pass (9390); both of these across the Sangre de Cristo range; the

crossing of the San Miguel chain at Lizard Head Pass (10,250) near Rico;

of the Uncompahgre at Dallas Divide (8977) near Ouray; of the Elk and

Sawatch ranges at Fremont (11,320), Tennessee (10,229), and Breckenridge

(11,470) passes, and the Busk Tunnel, all near Leadville; and Marshall

Pass (10,846) above Salida. Perhaps finer than these for their

wide-horizoned outlooks and grand surroundings are the Alpine Tunnel

under the continental divide of the Lower Sawatch chain, the scenery of

the tortuous line along the southern boundary in the Conejos and San

Juan mountains, which are crossed at Cumbres (10,003 ft.), and the

magnificent scenery about Ouray and on the Silverton railway over the

shoulder of Red Mountain (attaining 11,235 ft.). Notable, too, is the

road in Clear Creek Canyon--where the railway track coils six times upon

itself above Georgetown at an altitude of 10,000 ft.

_Climate._--The climate of Colorado is exceptional for regularity and

salubrity. The mean annual temperature for the state is about 46 deg.

The mean yearly isothermals crossing the state are ordinarily 35 deg. to

50 deg. or 55 deg. F. Their course, owing to the complex orography of

the state, is necessarily extremely irregular, and few climatic

generalizations can be made. It can be said, however, that the

south-east is the warmest portion of the state, lying as it does without

the mountains; that the north-central region is usually coldest; that

the normal yearly rainfall for the entire state is about 15.5 in., with

great local variations (rarely above 27 in.). Winds are constant and

rather high (5 to 10 m.), and for many persons are the most trying

feature of the climate. Very intense cold prevails of course in winter

in the mountains, and intense heat (110 deg. F. or more in the shade) is

often experienced in summer, temperatures above 90 deg. being very

common. The locality of least annual thermometric range is Lake Moraine

(10,268 ft. above the sea)--normally 91 deg. F.; at other localities the

range may be as great as 140 deg., and for the whole state of course

even greater (155 deg. or slightly more). The lowest monthly mean in 16

years (1887-1903) was 17.30. Nevertheless, the climate of Colorado is

not to be judged severe, and that of the plains region is in many ways

ideal. In the lowlands the snow is always slight and it disappears

almost immediately, even in the very foothills of the mountains, as at

Denver or Colorado Springs. However hot the summer day, its night is

always cool and dewless. Between July and October there is little rain,

day after day bringing a bright and cloudless sky. Humidity is moderate

(annual averages for Grand Junction, Pueblo, Denver and Cheyenne, Wyo.,

for 6 A.M. about 50 to 66; for 6 P.M. 33 to 50); it is supposed to be

increasing with the increasing settlement of the country. Sunshine is

almost continuous, and splendidly intense. The maximum number of "rainy"

days (with a rainfall of more than 0.01 in.) rarely approaches 100 at

the most unfortunate locality; for the whole state the average of

perfectly "clear" days is normally above 50%, of "partly cloudy" above

30, of "cloudy" under 20, of "rainy" still less. At Denver, through 11

years, the actual sunlight was 70% of the possible; many other points

are even more favoured; very many enjoy on a third to a half of the days

of the year above 90% of possible sunshine. All through the year the

atmosphere is so dry and light that meat can be preserved by the

simplest process of desiccation. "An air more delicious to breathe,"

wrote Bayard Taylor, "cannot anywhere be found; it is neither too

sedative nor too exciting, but has that pure, sweet, flexible quality

which seems to support all one's happiest and healthiest moods." For

asthmatic and consumptive troubles its restorative influence is

indisputable. Along with New Mexico and Arizona, Colorado has become

more and more a sanitarium for the other portions of the Union. Among

the secondary hygienic advantages are the numerous mineral wells.

_Flora and Fauna._--The life zones of Colorado are simple in

arrangement. The boreal embraces the highest mountain altitudes; the

transition belts it on both sides of the continental divide; the upper

Sonoran takes in about the eastern half of the plains region east of the

mountains, and is represented further by two small valley penetrations

from Utah. Timber is confined almost wholly to the high mountain sides,

the mountain valleys and the parks being for the most part bare. Nowhere

is the timber large or dense. The timber-line on the mountains is at

about 10,000 ft., and the snow line at about 11,000. It is supposed that

the forests were much richer before the settlement of the state, which

was followed by reckless consumption and waste, and the more terrible

ravages of fire. In 1872-1876 the wooded area was estimated at 32% of

the state's area. It is certainly much less now. The principal trees,

after the yellow and lodgepole pines, are the red-fir, so-called hemlock

and cedar, the Engelmann spruce, the cottonwood and the aspen (_Populus

tremuloides_). In 1899 Federal forest reserves had been created,

aggregating 4849 sq. m. in extent, and by 1910 this had been increased

to 24,528 sq. m. The reserves cover altitudes of 7000 to 14,000 ft. The

rainfall is ample for their needs, but no other reserves in the country

showed in 1900 such waste by fire and pillage. The minor flora of the

country is exceedingly rich. In the plains the abundance of flowers,

from spring to autumn, is amazing.

Large game is still very abundant west of the continental divide. The

great parks are a favourite range and shelter. Deer and elk frequent

especially the mountains of the north-west, in Routt and Rio Blanco

counties, adjoining the reservations of the Uncompahgre (White River

Ute) and Uintah-Ute Indians--from whose depredations, owing to the

negligence of Federal officials, the game of the state has suffered

enormous losses. The bison have been exterminated. Considerable bands of

antelope live in the parks and even descend to the eastern plains, and

the mule-deer, the most common of large game, is abundant all through

the mountains of the west. Grizzly or silver-tip, brown and black bears

are also abundant in the same region. Rarest of all is the magnificent

mountain sheep. Game is protected zealously, if not successfully, by the

state, and it was officially estimated in 1898 that there were then

probably 7000 elk, as many mountain sheep, 25,000 antelope and 100,000

deer within its borders (by far the greatest part in Routt and Rio

Blanco counties). Fish are not naturally very abundant, but the mountain

brooks are the finest home for trout, and these as well as bass,

cat-fish and some other varieties have been used to stock the streams.

_Soil._--The soils of the lowlands are prevailing sandy loams, with a

covering of rich mould. The acreage of improved lands in 1900 was

returned by the federal census as 2,273,968, three times as much being

unimproved; the land improved constituted 3.4% of the state's area. The

lands available for agriculture are the lowlands and the mountain parks

and valleys.

Speaking generally, irrigation is essential to successful cultivation,

but wherever irrigation is practicable the soil proves richly

productive. Irrigation ditches having been exempted from taxation in

1872, extensive systems of canals were soon developed, especially after

1880. The Constitution of Colorado declares the waters of its streams

the property of the state, and a great body of irrigation law and

practice has grown up about this provision. The riparian doctrine does

not obtain in Colorado. In no part of the semi-arid region of the

country are the irrigation problems so diverse and difficult. In 1903

there were, according to the governor, 10 canals more than 50 m. in

length, 51 longer than 20 m., and hundreds of reservoirs. In 1899 there

were 7374 m. of main ditches. The average annual cost of water per acre

was then estimated at about 79 cents. The acres under ditch in 1902 were

greater (1,754,761) than in any other state; and the construction cost

of the system was then $14,769,561 (an increase of 25.6% from 1899 to

1902). There are irrigated lands in every county. Their area increased

8.9% in 1899-1902, and 80.9% from 1890 to 1900; in the latter year they

constituted 70.9% of the improved farm-land of the state, as against

48.8 in 1890. The land added to the irrigated area in the decade was in

1890 largely worthless public domain; its value in 1900 was about

$29,000,000. As a result of irrigation the Platte is often dry in

eastern Colorado in the summer, and the Arkansas shrinks so below Pueblo

that little water reaches Kansas. The water is almost wholly taken from

the rivers, but underflow is also utilized, especially in San Luis Park.

The South Platte is much the most important irrigating stream. Its

valley included 660,495 acres of irrigated land in 1902, no other valley

having half so great an area. The diversion of the waters of the

Arkansas led to the bringing of a suit against Colorado by Kansas in the

United States Supreme Court in 1902, on the ground that such diversion

seriously and illegally lessened the waters of the Arkansas in Kansas.

In 1907 the Supreme Court of the United States declared that Colorado

had diverted waters of the Arkansas, but, since it had not been shown

that Kansas had suffered, the case was dismissed, without prejudice to

Kansas, should it be injured in future by diversion of water from the

river. The exhaustion, or alleged exhaustion, by irrigation in Colorado

of the waters of the Rio Grande has raised international questions of

much interest between Mexico and the United States, which were settled

in 1907 by a convention pledging the United States to deliver 60,000

acre-feet of water annually in the bed of the Rio Grande at the Acequia

Madre, just above Juarez, in case of drought this supply being

diminished proportionately to the diminution in the United States. As a

part of the plans of the national government for reclamation of land in

the arid states, imposing schemes have been formulated for such work in

Colorado, including a great reservoir on the Gunnison. One of the

greatest undertakings of the national reclamation service is the

construction of 77 m. of canal and of a six-mile tunnel, beneath a

mountain, between the canyon of the Gunnison and the valley of the

Uncompahgre, designed to make productive some 140,000 acres in the

latter valley.

Apart from mere watering, cultivation is in no way intensive. One of the

finest farming regions is the lowland valley of the Arkansas. It is a

broad, level plain, almost untimbered, given over to alfalfa, grains,

vegetables and fruits. Sugar-beet culture has been found to be

exceptionally remunerative in this valley as well as in those of the

South Platte and Grand rivers. The growth of this interest has been

since 1899 a marked feature in the agricultural development of the

state; and in 1905, 1906 and 1907 the state's product of beets and of

sugar was far greater than that of any other state; in 1907, 1,523,303

tons of beets were worked--more than two-fifths of the total for the

United States. There are various large sugar factories (in 1903, 9, and

in 1907, 16), mainly in the north; also at Grand Junction and in the

Arkansas valley. The total value of all farm property increased between

1880 and 1900 from $42,000,000 to $161,045,101 and 45.9% from 1890 to

1900. In the latter year $49,954,311 of this was in live-stock

(increase 1890-1900, 121.1%), the remaining value in land with

improvements and machinery. The total value of farm products in 1899 was

$33,048,576; of this sum 97% was almost equally divided between crop

products and animal products, the forests contributing the remainder. Of

the various elements in the value of all farm produce as shown by the

federal census of 1900, live-stock, hay and grains, and dairying

represented 87.2%. The value of cereals ($4,700,271)--of which wheat and

oats represent four-fifths--is much exceeded by that of hay and forage

($8,159,279 in 1899). Wheat culture increased greatly from 1890 to 1900.

Flour made from Colorado wheat ranks very high in the market. As a

cereal-producing state Colorado is, however, relatively unimportant; nor

in value of product is its hay and forage crop notable, except that of

alfalfa, which greatly surpasses that of any other state. In 1906 the

state produced 3,157,136 bushels of Indian corn, valued at $1,578,568;

8,266,538 bushels of wheat, valued at $5,373,250; 5,962,394 bushels of

oats, valued at $2,683,077; 759,771 bushels of barley, valued at

$410,276; 43,580 bushels of rye, valued at $24,405; and 1,596,542 tons

of hay, valued at $15,167,149. The value of vegetable products, of

fruits, and of dairy products was, relatively, equally small (only

$7,346,415 in 1899). Natural fruits are rare and practically worthless.

Apples, peaches, plums, apricots, pears, cherries and melons have been

introduced. The best fruit sections are the Arkansas valley, and in the

western and south-western parts of the state. Melons are to some extent

exported, and peaches also; the musk-melons of the Arkansas valley

(Rocky Ford Canteloupes) being in demand all over the United States. The

fruit industry dates practically from 1890. The dairy industry is

rapidly increasing. In the holdings of neat cattle (1,453,971) and sheep

(2,045,577) it ranked in 1900 respectively seventeenth and tenth among

the states of the Union; in 1907, according to the _Yearbook_ of the

Department of Agriculture, there were in the state 1,561,712 neat cattle

and 1,677,561 sheep. Stock-raising has always been important. The parks

and mountain valleys are largely given over to ranges. The native

grasses are especially adapted for fodder. The grama, buffalo and bunch

varieties cure on the stem, and furnish throughout the winter an

excellent ranging food. These native grasses, even the thin bunch

varieties of dry hills, are surprisingly nutritious, comparing very

favourably with cultivated grasses. Large areas temporarily devoted to

cultivation with poor success, and later allowed to revert to ranges,

have become prosperous and even noted as stock country. This is true of

the sandhill region of eastern Colorado. The grass flora of the lowlands

is not so rich in variety nor so abundant in quality as that of high

altitudes. Before the plains were fenced large herds drifted to the

south in the winter, but now sufficient hay and alfalfa are cut to feed

the cattle during the storms, which at longest are brief. An account of

Colorado agriculture would not be complete without mentioning the

depredations of the grasshopper, which are at times extraordinarily

destructive, as also of the "Colorado Beetle" (_Doryphora

decemlineata_), or common potato-bug, which has extended its fatal

activities eastward throughout the prairie states.

_Minerals._--Colorado is pre-eminently a mineral region, and to this fact

it owes its colonization. It possesses unlimited supplies, as yet not

greatly exploited, of fine building stones, some oil and asphalt, and

related bituminous products, a few precious and semi-precious stones

(especially tourmalines, beryls and aquamarines found near Canyon near

the Royal Gorge of the Arkansas river), rare opalized and jasperized wood

(in the eastern part of the El Paso county), considerable wealth of lead

and copper, enormous fields of bituminous coal, and enormous wealth of

the precious metals. In the exploitation of the last there have been

three periods: that before the discovery of the lead-carbonate silver

ores of Leadville in 1879, in which period gold-mining was predominant;

the succeeding years until 1894, in which silver-mining was predominant;

and the period since 1894, in which gold has attained an overwhelming

primacy. The two metals are found in more than 50 counties, San Miguel,

Gilpin, Boulder, Clear Creek, Lake, El Paso and Teller being the leading

producers. The Cripple Creek field in the last-named county is one of the

most wonderful mining districts, past or present, of America. Leadville,

in Lake county, is another. The district about Silverton (product

1870-1900 about $35,000,000, principally silver and lead, and mostly

after 1881) has also had a remarkable development; and Creede, in the

years of its brief prosperity, was a phenomenal silver-field. From 1858

up to and including 1904 the state produced, according to the State

Bureau of Mines (whose statistics have since about 1890 been brought into

practical agreement with those of the national government) a value of no

less than $889,203,323 in gold, silver, lead, copper and zinc at market

prices. (If the value of silver be taken at coinage value this total

becomes vastly greater.) The yield of gold was $353,913,695-$229,236,997

from 1895 to 1904; of silver, $386,455,463-$115,698,366 from 1889 to

1893; of lead, $120,742,674--its importance beginning in 1879; of copper,

$17,879,446-$8,441,783 from 1898 to 1904; and of zinc, $10,212,045--all

this from 1902 to 1904. Silver-mining ceased to be highly remunerative

beginning with the closing of the India mints and repeal of the Sherman

Law in 1893; since 1900 the yield has shown an extraordinary decrease--in

1905 it was $6,945,581, and in 1907 $7,411,652--and it is said that as a

result of the great fall in the market value of the metal the mines can

now be operated only under the most favourable conditions and by exercise

of extreme economy. In Lake county, for example, very much of the

argentiferous ore that is too low for remunerative extraction (limit 1903

about $12.00 per ton) is used for fluxes.[1] The copper output was of

slight importance until 1889--$1,457,749 in 1905, and $1,544,918 in 1907;

and that of zinc was nil until 1902, when discoveries made it possible to

rework for this metal enormous dumps of waste material about the mines,

and in 1906 the zinc output was valued at $5,304,884. Lead products

declined with silver, but a large output of low ores has continued at

Leadville, and in 1905 the product was valued at $5,111,570, and in 1906

at $5,933,829. Up to 1895 the gold output was below ten million dollars

yearly; from 1898 to 1904 it ran from 21.6 to 28.7 millions. In 1897 the

product first exceeded that of California. In 1907 the value was

$20,826,194. Silver values ran, in the years 1880-1902, from 11.3 to 23.1

million dollars; and the quantities in the same years from 11.6 to 26.3

million ounces. In 1907 it was 11,229,776 oz., valued at $7,411,652.

Regarding again the total combined product of the above five metals, its

growth is shown by these figures for its value in the successive periods

indicated: 1858-1879, $77,380,140; 1879-1888, $220,815,709; 1889-1898,

$322,878,362; 1899-1904, $268,229,112. From 1900 to 1903 Colorado

produced almost exactly a third of the total gold and silver (market

value) product of the entire country.

In addition, iron ores (almost all brown hematite) occur abundantly, and

all material for making steel of excellent quality. But very little iron

is mined, in 1907 only 11,714 long tons, valued at $21,085. Of much more

importance are the manganiferous and the silver manganiferous ores,

which are much the richest of the country. Their product trebled from

1889 to 1903; and in 1907 the output of manganiferous ores amounted to

99,711 tons, valued at $251,207. A small amount is used for

spiegeleisen, and the rest as a flux.

The stratified rocks of the Great Plains, the Parks, and the Plateaus

contain enormous quantities of coal. The coal-bearing rocks are confined

to the Upper Cretaceous, and almost wholly to the Laramie formation. The

main areas are on the two flanks of the Rockies, with two smaller fields

in the Parks. The east group includes the fields of Canyon City (whose

product is the ideal domestic coal of the western states), Raton and the

South Platte; the Park group includes the Cones field and the Middle

Park; the west group includes the Yampa, La Plata and Grand River

fields--the last prospectively (not yet actually) the most valuable of

all as to area and quality. About three-fifths of all the coal produced

in the state comes from Las Animas and Huerfano counties. In 1901 about

a third and in 1907 nearly two-fifths of the state's output came from

Las Animas county. The Colorado fields are superior to those of all the

other Rocky Mountain states in area, and in quality of product. In 1907

Colorado ranked seventh among the coal-producing states of the Union,

yielding 10,790,236 short tons (2.2% of the total for the United

States). The total includes every variety from typical lignite to

typical anthracite. The aggregate area of beds is estimated by the

United States Geological Survey at 18,100 sq. m. (seventh in rank of the

states of the Union); and the accessible coal, on other authority, at

33,897,800,000 tons. The industry began in 1864, in which year 500 tons

were produced. The product first exceeded one million tons in 1882, two

in 1888, three in 1890, four in 1893, five in 1900. From 1897 to 1902

the yield almost doubled, averaging 5,267,783 tons (lignite,

semi-bituminous, bituminous, and a steady average production of 60,038

tons of anthracite). About one-fifth of the total product is made into

coke, the output of which increased from 245,746 tons in 1890 to

1,421,579 tons (including a slight amount from Utah) in 1907; in 1907

the coke manufactured in Colorado (and Utah) was valued at $4,747,436.

Colorado holds the same supremacy for coal and coke west of the

Mississippi that Pennsylvania holds for the country as a whole. The true

bituminous coal produced, which in 1897 was only equal to that of the

lignitic and semi-bituminous varieties (1.75 million tons), had come by

1902 to constitute three-fourths (5.46 million tons) of the entire coal

output. Much of the bituminous coal, especially that of the Canyon City

field, is so hard and clean as to be little less desirable than

anthracite; it is the favoured coal for domestic uses in all the

surrounding states.

Petroleum occurs in Fremont and Boulder counties. There have been very

few flowing wells. The product increased from 76,295 barrels in 1887 to

above 800,000 in the early 'nineties; it fell thereafter, averaging

about 493,269 barrels from 1899 to 1903; in 1905 the yield was 376,238

barrels; and in 1907, 331,851 barrels. In 1905 the state ranked

eleventh, in 1907 twelfth, in production of petroleum. It is mostly

refined at Florence, the centre of the older field. The Boulder district

developed very rapidly after 1902; its product is a high-grade

illuminant with paraffin base. Asphalt occurs in the high north rim of

Middle Park (c. 10,000 ft.). Tungsten is found in wolframite in Boulder

county. In 1903 about 37,000 men were employed in the mines of Colorado.

Labour troubles have been notable in state history since 1890.

Mineral springs have already been mentioned. They are numerous and occur

in various parts of the state. The most important are at Buena Vista,

Ouray, Wagon Wheel Gap, Poncha or Poncho Springs (90 deg.-185 deg. F.),

Canyon City, Manitou, Idaho Springs and Glenwood Springs (120 deg.-140

deg. F., highly mineralized). The last three places, all beautifully

situated--the first at the base of Pike's Peak, the second in the Clear

Creek Canyon, and the third at the junction of the Roaring Fork with the

Grand river--have an especially high repute. In 1904 it was competently

estimated that the mineral yield and agricultural yield of the state

were almost equal--somewhat above $47,000,000 each.[2]

In 1900 only 4.6% of the population were engaged in manufactures. They

are mainly dependent on the mining industry. There are many large

smelters and reduction plants in the state, most of them at Denver,

Leadville, Durango and Pueblo; at the latter place there are also

blast-furnaces, a steel plant and rolling mills. Use is made of the most

improved methods of treating the ore. The cyanide process, introduced

about 1890, is now one of the most important factors in the utilization

of low-grade and refractory gold and silver ores. The improved dioxide

cyanide process was adopted about 1895. The iron and steel

product--mainly at Pueblo--is of great importance, though relatively

small as compared with that of some other states. Nevertheless, the very

high rank in coal and iron interests of the state among the states west

of the Mississippi, the presence of excellent manganiferous ores, a

central position for distribution, and much the best railway system of

any mountain state, indicate that Colorado will almost certainly

eventually entirely or at least largely control the trans-Mississippi

market in iron and steel. The Federal census of 1900 credited the

manufacturing establishments of the state with a capital of $62,825,472

and a product of $102,830,137 (increase 1890-1900, 142.1%); of which

output the gold, silver, lead and copper smelted amounted to

$44,625,305. Of the other products, iron and steel ($6,108,295),

flouring and grist-mill products ($4,528,062), foundry and machine-shop

products ($3,986,985), steam railway repair and construction work

($3,141,602), printing and publishing, wholesale slaughtering and meat

packing, malt liquors, lumber and timber, and coke were the most

important. The production of beet sugar is relatively important, as more

of it was produced in Colorado in 1905 than in any other state; in 1906

334,386,000 lb (out of a grand total for the United States of

967,224,000 lb) were manufactured here; the value of the product in 1905

was $7,198,982, being 29.2% of the value of all the beet sugar produced

in the United States in that year.[3]

_Railways._--On the 1st of January 1909 there were 5403.05 m. of railway

in operation. The Denver Pacific, built from Cheyenne, Wyoming, reached

Denver in June 1870, and the Kansas Pacific, from Kansas City, in August

of the same year. Then followed the building of the Denver & Rio Grande

(1871), to which the earlier development of the state is largely due.

The great Santa Fe (1873), Burlington (1882), Missouri Pacific (1887)

and Rock Island (1888) systems reached Pueblo, Denver and Colorado

Springs successively from the east. In 1888 the Colorado Midland started

from Colorado Springs westward, up the Ute Pass, through the South Park

to Leadville, and thence over the continental divide to Aspen and

Glenwood Springs. The Colorado & Southern, a consolidation of roads

connecting Colorado with the south, has also become an important system.

_Population._--The population of the state in 1870 was 39,864; in 1880,

194,327[4]; in 1890, 413,249; in 1900, 539,700; and in 1910, 799,024. Of

the 1900 total, males constituted 54.7%, native born 83.1%. The 10,654

persons of coloured race included 1437 Indians and 647 Chinese and

Japanese, the rest being negroes. Of 185,708 males twenty-one or more

years of age 7689 (4.1%) were illiterate (unable to write), including a

fourth of the Asiatics, a sixth of the Indians, one-nineteenth of the

negroes, one in twenty-four of the foreign born, and one in 147.4 of the

native born. Of 165 incorporated cities, towns and villages, 27 had a

population exceeding 2000, and 7 a population of above 5000. The latter

were Denver (133,859), Pueblo (28,137), Colorado Springs (21,085),

Leadville (12,455), Cripple Creek (10,147), Boulder (6150) and Trinidad

(5345). Creede, county-seat of Mineral county, was a phenomenal silver

camp from its discovery in 1891 until 1893; in 1892 it numbered already

7000 inhabitants, but the rapid depreciation of silver soon thereafter

caused most of its mines to be closed, and in 1910 the population was

only 741. Grand Junction (pop. in 1910, 7754) derives importance from

its railway connexions, and from the distribution of the fruit and other

products of the irrigated valley of the Grand river. Roman Catholics are

in the majority among church adherents, and Methodists and Presbyterians

most numerous of the Protestant denominations. The South Ute Indian

Reservation in the south of the state is the home of the Moache, Capote

and Wiminuche Utes, of Shoshonean stock.

_Administration._--The first and only state constitution was adopted in

1876. It requires a separate popular vote on any amendment--though as

many as six may be (since 1900) voted on at one election. Amendments

have been rather freely adopted. The General Assemblies are biennial,

sessions limited to 90 days (45 before 1884); state and county elections

are held at the same time (since 1902). A declared intention to become a

United States citizen ceased in 1902 to be sufficient qualification for

voters, full citizenship (with residence qualifications) being made

requisite. An act of 1909 provides that election campaign expenses shall

be borne "only by the state and by the candidates," and authorized

appropriations for this purpose. Full woman suffrage was adopted in 1893

(by a majority of about 6000 votes). Women have served in the

legislature and in many minor offices; they are not eligible as jurors.

The governor may veto any separate item in an appropriation bill. The

state treasurer and auditor may not hold office during two consecutive

terms. Convicts are deprived of the privilege of citizenship only during

imprisonment. County government is of the commissioner type. There is a

State Voter's League similar to that of Illinois.

In 1907 the total bonded debt of the state was $393,500; the General

Assembly in 1906 authorized the issue of $900,000 worth of bonds to fund

outstanding military certificates of indebtedness incurred in

suppressing insurrections at Cripple Creek and elsewhere in 1903-1904.

The question of issuing bonds for all outstanding warrants was decided

to be voted on by the people in November 1908. Taxation has been very

erratic. From 1877 to 1893 the total assessment rose steadily from

$3,453,946 to $238,722,417; it then fell at least partly owing to the

depreciation in and uncertain values of mining property, and from 1894

to 1900 fluctuated between 192.2 and 216.8 million dollars; in 1901 it

was raised to $465,874,288, and fluctuated in the years following; the

estimated total assessment for 1907 was $365,000,000.

Of charitable and reformatory institutions a soldiers' and sailors' home

(1889) is maintained at Monte Vista, a school for the deaf and blind

(1874) at Colorado Springs, an insane asylum (1879) at Pueblo, a home

for dependent and neglected children (1895) at Denver, an industrial

school for girls (1887) near Morrison, and for boys (1881) at Golden, a

reformatory (1889) at Buena Vista, and a penitentiary (1868) at Canyon

City. Denver was one of the earliest cities in the country to institute

special courts for juvenile offenders; a reform that is widening in

influence and promise. The parole system is in force in the state

reformatory; and in the industrial school at Golden (for youthful

offenders) no locks, bars or cells are used, the theory being to treat

the inmates as "students." The state has a parole law and an

indeterminate-sentence law for convicts.

[Illustration: Colorado map]

The public school system of Colorado dates from 1861, when a school law

was passed by the Territorial legislation; this law was superseded by

that of 1876, which with subsequent amendments is still in force. In

expenditure for the public schools per capita of total population from

1890 to 1903 Colorado was one of a small group of leading states. In

1906 there were 187,836 persons of school age (from 6 to 21) in the

state, and of these 144,007 were enrolled in the schools; the annual

cost of education was $4.34 per pupil. In 1902-1903, 92.5% of persons

from 5 to 18 years of age were enrolled in the schools. The institutions

of the state are: the University of Colorado, at Boulder, opened 1877;

the School of Mines, at Golden (1873); the Agricultural College, at Fort

Collins (1870); the Normal School (1891) at Greeley; and the

above-mentioned industrial schools. All are supported by special taxes

and appropriations--the Agricultural College receiving also the usual

aid from the federal government. Experiment stations in connexion with

the college are maintained at different points. Colorado College (1874)

at Colorado Springs, Christian but not denominational, and the

University of Denver, Methodist, are on independent foundations. The

United States maintains an Indian School at Grand Junction.

_History._--According as one regards the Louisiana purchase as including

or not including Texas to the Rio Grande (in the territorial meaning of

the state of Texas of 1845), one may say that all of Colorado east of

the meridian of the head of the Rio Grande, or only that north of the

Arkansas and east of the meridian of its head, passed to the United

States in 1803. At all events the corner between the Rio Grande and the

Arkansas was Spanish from 1819 to 1845, when it became American

territory as a part of the state of Texas; and in 1850, by a boundary

arrangement between that state and the federal government, was

incorporated in the public domain. The territory west of the divide was

included in the Mexican cession of 1848. Within Colorado there are

pueblos and cave dwellings commemorative of the Indian period and

culture of the south-west. Coronado may have entered Colorado in 1540;

there are also meagre records of indisputable Spanish explorations in

the south in the latter half of the 18th century (friars Escallante and

Dominguez in 1776). In 1806 Zebulon M. Pike, mapping the Arkansas and

Red rivers of the Louisiana Territory for the government of the United

States, followed the Arkansas into Colorado, incidentally discovering

the famous peak that bears his name. In 1819 Major S. H. Long explored

the valleys of the South Platte and Arkansas, pronouncing them

uninhabited and uncultivable (as he also did the valley of the Missouri,

whence the idea of the "Great American Desert"). His work also is

commemorated by a famous summit of the Rockies. There is nothing more of

importance in Colorado annals until 1858. From 1804 to 1854 the whole or

parts of Colorado were included, nominally, under some half-dozen

territories carved successively out of the Trans-Mississippi country;

but not one of these had any practical significance for an uninhabited

land. In 1828 (to 1832) a fortified trading post was established near La

Junta in the Arkansas valley on the Santa Fe trail; in 1834-1836 several

private forts were erected on the Platte; in 1841 the first overland

emigrants to the Pacific coast crossed the state, and in 1846-1847 the

Mormons settled temporarily at the old Mexican town of Pueblo. John C.

Fremont had explored the region in 1842-1843 (and unofficially in later

years for railway routes), and gave juster reports of the country to the

world than his predecessors. Commerce was tributary in these years to

the (New) Mexican town of Taos.

Colorado was practically an unknown country when in 1858 gold was

discovered in the plains, on the tributaries of the South Platte, near

Denver. In 1859 various discoveries were made in the mountains. The

history of Denver goes back to this time. Julesburg, in the extreme

north-east corner, at the intersection of the Platte valley and the

overland wagon route, became transiently important during the rush of

settlers that followed. Emigration from the East was stimulated by the

panic and hard times following 1857. During 1860, 1861 and 1862 there

was a continuous stream of immigration. Denver (under its present name),

Black Hawk, Golden, Central City, Mount Vernon and Nevada City were all

founded in 1859; Breckenridge, Empire, Gold Hill, Georgetown and Mill

City date from 1860 and 1861. The political development of the next few

years was very complicated. "Arapahoe County," including all Colorado,

was organized as a part of Kansas Territory in 1858; but a delegate was

also sent to Congress to work for the admission of an independent

territory (called "Jefferson"). At the same time, early in 1860, a

movement for statehood was inaugurated, a constitution being framed and

submitted to the people, who rejected it, adopting later in the year a

constitution of territorial government. Accordingly the Territory of

Jefferson arose, assuming to rule over six degrees of latitude (37

deg.-43 deg.) and eight of longitude (102 deg.-110 deg.). Then there was

the Kansas territorial government also, and under this a full county

organization was maintained. Finally, peoples' court, acting wholly

without reference to Kansas, and with no more than suited them (some

districts refusing taxes) to the local "provisional" legislature,

secured justice in the mining country. The provisional legislature of

the Territory of Jefferson maintained a wholly illegal but rather

creditable existence somewhat precariously and ineffectively until 1861.

Its acts, owing to the indifference of the settlers, had slight

importance. Some, such as the first charter of Denver, were later

re-enacted under the legal territorial government, organized by the

United States in February 1861. Colorado City was the first capital, but

was soon replaced by Golden, which was the capital from 1862 until 1868,

when Denver was made the seat of government (in 1881 permanently, by

vote of the people). In 1862 some Texas forces were defeated by Colorado

forces in an attempt to occupy the territory for the Confederacy. From

1864 to 1870 there was trouble with the Cheyenne and Arapahoe Indians. A

sanguinary attack on an Indian camp in Kiowa county in 1864 is known as

the Sand Creek Massacre. In 1867 the Republican party had prepared for

the admission of Colorado as a state, but the enabling act was vetoed by

President Johnson, and statehood was not gained until 1876. Finally,

under a congressional enabling act of the 3rd of March 1875, a

constitution was framed by a convention at Denver (20th of December 1875

to 14th of March 1876) and adopted by the people on the 1st of July

1876. The admission of Colorado to the Union was thereupon proclaimed on

the 1st of August 1876.

From this time on the history of the state was long largely that of her

great mining camps. After 1890 industrial conditions were confused and

temporarily set greatly backward by strikes and lockouts in the mines,

particularly in 1894, 1896-1897 and 1903-1904, several times threatening

civil war and necessitating the establishment of martial law. Questions

of railways, of franchises, union scales and the recognition of the

union in contracts, questions of sheep and cattle interests, politics,

civic, legal and industrial questions, all entered into the economic

troubles of these years. The Colorado "labour wars" were among the most

important struggles between labour and capital, and afforded probably

the most sensational episodes in the story of all labour troubles in the

United States in these years. A state board of arbitration was created

in 1896, but its usefulness was impaired by an opinion of the state

attorney-general (in 1901) that it could not enforce subpoenas, compel

testimony or enforce decisions. A law establishing an eight-hour day for

underground miners and smelter employees (1899) was unanimously voided

by the state supreme court, but in 1902 the people amended the

constitution and ordered the general assembly to re-enact the law for

labourers in mines, smelters and dangerous employments. Following the

repeal of the Sherman Law and other acts and tendencies unfavourable to

silver coinage in 1893 and thereafter, the silver question became the

dominant issue in politics, resulting in the success of the

Populist-Democratic fusion party in three successive elections, and

permanently and greatly altering prior party organizations.