[1] The word is a corruption of Sp. _cucaracha_. In America it is
commonly abbreviated to "roach."
COCK'S-COMB, in botany, a cultivated form of _Celosia cristata_ (natural
order Amarantaceae), in which the inflorescence is monstrous, forming a
flat "fasciated" axis bearing numerous small flowers. The plant is a
low-growing herbaceous annual, bearing a large, comb-like, dark red,
scarlet or purplish mass of flowers. Seeds are sown in March or April in
pans of rich, well-drained sandy soil, which are placed in a hot-bed at
65 deg. to 70 deg. in a moist atmosphere. The seedlings require plenty
of light, and when large enough to handle are potted off and placed
close to the glass in a frame under similar conditions. When the heads
show they are shifted into 5-in. pots, which are plunged to their rims
in ashes or coco-nut fibre refuse, in a hot-bed, as before, close to the
glass; they are sparingly watered and more air admitted. The soil
recommended is a half-rich sandy loam and half-rotten cow and stable
manure mixed with a dash of silver sand. The other species of _Celosia_
cultivated are _C. pyramidalis_, with a pyramidal inflorescence, varying
in colour in the great number of varieties, and _C. argentea_, with a
dense white inflorescence. They require a similar cultural treatment to
that given for _C. cristata_.
COCKTON, HENRY (1807-1853), English humorous novelist, was born in
London on the 7th of December 1807. He published a number of volumes,
but is best known as the author of _Valentine Vox, the Ventriloquist_
(1840) and _Sylvester Sound, the Somnambulist_ (1844). He died at Bury
St Edmunds on the 26th of June 1853.
COCKX (or COCK), HIERONYMUS [JEROME] (1510-1570), Flemish painter and
engraver, was born at Antwerp, and in 1545 was admitted to the Gild of
St Luke as a painter. It is as an engraver, however, that he is famous,
a number of portraits and subject-pictures by him, and reproductions of
Flemish masters, being well known. His brother Matthys (1505-1552) was
also a painter.
COCOA,[1] more properly CACAO, a valuable dietary substance yielded by
the seeds of several small trees belonging to the genus _Theobroma_, of
the natural order Sterculiaceae. The whole genus, which comprises twelve
species, belongs to the tropical parts of the American continent; and
although the cocoa of commerce is probably the produce of more than one
species, by far the greatest and most valuable portion is obtained from
_Theobroma Cacao_. The generic name is derived from [Greek: theos] (god)
and [Greek: broma] (food), and was bestowed by Linnaeus as an indication
of the high appreciation in which he held the beverage prepared from the
seeds, which he considered to be a food fit for the gods.
The common cacao tree is of low stature, seldom exceeding 25 ft. in
height, but it is taller in its native forests than it is in cultivated
plantations. The leaves are large, smooth, and glossy, elliptic-oblong
and tapering in form, growing principally at the ends of branches, but
sometimes springing directly from the main trunk. The flowers are small,
and occur in numerous clusters on the main branches and the trunk, a
very marked peculiarity which gives the matured fruit the appearance of
being artificially attached to the tree. Generally only a single fruit
is matured from each cluster of flowers. When ripe the fruit or "pod" is
elliptical-ovoid in form, from 7 to 10 in. in length and from 3 to 4-1/2
in. in diameter. It has a hard, thick, leathery rind of a rich
purplish-yellow colour, externally rough and marked with ten very
distinct longitudinal ribs or elevations. The interior of the fruit has
five cells, in each of which is a row of from 5 to 12 seeds embedded in
a soft delicately pink acid pulp. Each fruit thus contains from 20 to 50
or more seeds, which constitute the raw cacao or "cacao beans" of
commerce.
[Illustration: Branch of Cocoa Tree, with Fruit in section, much
reduced.]
The tree appears to have been originally a native of the coast lands of
the Gulf of Mexico and tropical South America as far south as the basin
of the Amazon; but it can be cultivated in suitable situations within
the 25th parallels of latitude. It flourishes best within the 15th
parallels, at elevations ranging from near the sea-level up to about
2000 ft. in height. It is now cultivated in Mexico, Honduras, Guatemala,
Nicaragua, Brazil, Peru, Ecuador, New Granada, Venezuela, Surinam,
Guiana, and in many of the West Indian islands, particularly in
Trinidad, San Domingo, Grenada, Cuba, Porto Rico and Jamaica. Away from
America it has been introduced, and is cultivated on a large scale in
West Africa, Ceylon and the Dutch East Indies.
_History._--The value of cacao was appreciated in its native country
before the discovery of America by Europeans. The Spaniards found in use
in Mexico a beverage known by the Aztec name of _chocolath_, from
_choco_ (cacao) and _lath_ (water). W. H. Prescott records that the
emperor Montezuma of Mexico was "exceedingly fond of it ... no less than
50 jars or pitchers being prepared for his own daily consumption; 2000
more were allowed for that of his household." Bags of cacao containing a
specified number of beans were also a recognized form of currency in the
country. The product was early introduced into Spain, and thence to
other parts of Europe. The _Public Advertiser_ (London) of June 16,
1657, contains an announcement that "In Bishopgate St., in Queen's Head
Alley, at a Frenchman's house, is an excellent West India drink, called
chocolate, to be sold, where you may have it ready at any time, and also
unmade at reasonable rates." Chocolate was a very fashionable beverage
in the early part of the 18th century.
_Cultivated Varieties._--Numerous varieties of the cacao, i.e. of
_Theobroma Cacao_, are recognized in cultivation. According to Dr P.
Preuss, who has travelled extensively in the cacao producing countries
of the world studying this crop, it is impossible to embody in a single
table the characteristics of the world's varieties. A separate
classification is needed for almost each country. In 1882 the Trinidad
forms were classified by Sir D. Morris. This table was later revised by
Mr J. H. Hart, and more recently Mr R. H. Lock studied the Ceylon
varieties. As the Ceylon cacaos were obtained mainly from Trinidad, and
as Mr Lock's results agree substantially with those of Sir D. Morris,
they serve to illustrate the distinguishing characteristics of the West
Indian and Ceylon forms. The main divisions are as follows:--
1. _Criollo._--Pods relatively thin-walled and soft, rough, pointed at
apex. The seeds or beans are plump and of pale colour. The ripe pods
may be either red (colorado) or yellow (amarillo).
2. _Forastero._--Pods relatively thick-walled and hard. The seeds vary
in colour from pale to deep purple. Various varieties are recognized,
such as cundeamor, amelonado, liso, calabacillo, differing in shape,
colour and character of beans, &c., and of each of these again there
may be a colorado and amarillo sub-variety. Of special interest is
calabacillo, a variety with a smooth, small pod, and deep purple
beans. It is considered by some to be sufficiently distinct to form a
third type equivalent to criollo or forastero. Others again would
raise amelonado to the rank of a distinct type. Of the above
calabacillo is the hardiest and yields the least valuable beans;
criollo is the most delicate and yields beans of the highest value,
whilst forastero is intermediate in both respects. In general pale
coloured beans are less bitter and more valuable than purple beans.
Both, however, may occur in the same pod.
_Alligator_, or _lagarto cacao_, is the common name of a variety
cultivated in Nicaragua, Guatemala, &c. Its pods are distinctly
five-angled and beset with irregular, warty protuberances. Some regard
it as a distinct species, _T. pentagona_, but others only as a variety
of _T. Cacao_. Its produce is of high value.
_T. bicolor_, indigenous to Central America, is another species of some
interest. It bears small, hard woody pods about 6 in. long and 3 in. in
diameter, with curious surface markings. The beans possess a fetid odour
and a bitter flavour and are known as "tiger cacao." It is not likely to
become of great commercial importance, although consumed locally where
found. "_Cacao bianco_" and "_pataste_" are other names for this
species.
_Cultivation and Preparation._--Cacao requires for its successful
cultivation a deep, well-watered and yet well-drained soil, shelter from
strong winds, and a thoroughly tropical climate, with a mean annual
temperature of about 80 deg. F., a rainfall of from 50 to 100 or more in.,
and freedom from long droughts. Young plants are grown from seed, which
may either be sown directly in the positions the future trees are to
occupy, varying according to local circumstances from 6 to 25 ft. apart
in all directions, or raised in nurseries and transplanted later. The
latter course is desirable when it is necessary to water and otherwise
tend the seedlings. However raised, the young plants require to be
shaded, and this is usually done by planting bananas, cassava or other
useful crops between the rows of cacao. In some countries, but not in
all, permanent shade trees are planted amongst the cacao. Various
leguminous trees are commonly used, e.g. the coral tree (_Erythrina_
spp.) sometimes known as _bois immortel_ and _madre del cacao_ or mother
of cocoa, _Albizzia Lebbek_, _Pithecolobium Saman_, &c. The various
rubber trees have been employed with success. Wind belts are also
necessary in exposed situations.
Cacao comes into bearing when about five years old, the small pink
flowers and the succeeding large pods being borne directly on the trunk
and main branches. The pods are carefully picked when ripe, broken open,
and the slimy mass of contained seeds and their enveloping mucilaginous
pulp extracted. The "beans" are next fermented or "sweated," often in
special houses constructed for the purpose, or by placing them in heaps
and covering with leaves or earth, or in baskets, barrels, &c., lined
with banana leaves. During fermentation the beans should be stirred once
daily or oftener. The time of fermentation varies from one to twelve or
even more days. Pale-coloured beans usually require less time than the
deep purple and bitter kinds. The method adopted also considerably
modifies the time required. The process of fermenting destroys the
mucilage; the seeds lose to some degree their bitter flavour and their
colour also changes: the pale criollo seeds, for example, developing a
cinnamon-brown colour. The "fracture" of the beans also
characteristically alters. Fermentation is not universally practised;
the purple colour and bitter taste of unfermented cacao being wanted in
some markets.
After the fermentation is completed the beans may or may not be washed,
opinion as to the desirability of this process varying in different
countries. In any case, however, they have to be dried and cured. When
climatic conditions are favourable this is commonly done by spreading
the beans in thin layers on barbecues, or stone drying floors, or
otherwise exposing them to the sun. Sliding roofs or other means of
rapidly affording shelter are desirable in case of showers, excessive
heat, and also for protection at night. Artificial drying is now often
resorted to and various patterns of drying houses are in use.
The appearance of the beans may often be improved by "claying," a very
slight coating of red earth or clay being added. Polishing the beans
also gives them a brighter appearance, removes mildew, and remnants of
dried mucilage, &c. This may be done by "dancing the cacao," i.e.
treading a heap with the bare feet, or by the use of special polishing
machines. The cacao is now ready for shipment, and is usually packed in
bags. Hamburg is the chief port in the world for cacao. Until quite
recently, however, this position was held by Havre, which is now second
in Europe. New York imports about the same amount as Havre. London
follows next in importance.
_Cacao-producing Countries._--In the following table the production in
tons (of 1000 kilos = 2205 lb) of the principal producing countries,
arranged under continents, is given for 1905 and 1901. During this
period the total world's production has increased by about 40%, as
indicated in the summary below. Study of the table will show where the
increase has taken place, but attention is directed especially to the
rapid development in West Africa.
_America._
1905 (tons). 1901 (tons).
Ecuador 21,128 22,896
Brazil 21,091 18,324
Trinidad 20,018 11,943
San Domingo 12,785 6,850
Venezuela 11,700 7,860
Grenada 5,456 4,865
Cuba and Porto Rico 3,000 1,750
Haiti 2,343 1,950
Surinam 1,612 3,163
Jamaica 1,484 1,350
French West Indies 1,200 825
St. Lucia 700 765
Dominica 597 ..
------- -------
Total, America 103,114 82,541
_Africa._
1905 (tons). 1901 (tons).
San Thome 25,379 16,983
Gold Coast and Lagos 5,666 997
Cameroons 1,185 528
Congo Free State 195 ..
------- -------
Total, Africa 32,425 18,508
_Asia._
1905 (tons). 1901 (tons).
Ceylon 3543 2697
Dutch East Indies 1492 1277
----- -----
Total, Asia 5035 3974
Other countries 800 700
_World's Production._
1905 (tons). 1901 (tons).
Tropical America and West Indies 103,114 82,541
West Africa 32,425 18,508
Asia 5,035 3,974
Other countries 800 700
------- -------
Total 141,374 105,723
_Composition._--The relative weights of the various parts of a whole
cacao pod are given thus by Prof. J. B. Harrison for British Guiana
specimens:--
Calabacillo. Forastero.
Husk 80.59 89.87
Pulp 7.61 4.23
Cuticles of the beans 1.77 0.50
Kernels of the beans 10.03 5.40
------- -------
100.00 100.00
The husk is composed mainly of water and cellulose woody tissue, with
their usual mineral constituents, and has a low manurial value. The pulp
contains sugars which become converted into alcohol during fermentation.
Fibrous elements and water compose about six-tenths of the cuticles,
which also contain approximately: albuminoids (6%), alkaloids (2%), fat
(2%), sugars (6%), starch (7%), colouring matter (4%), tartaric acid
(3%) and small quantities of various mineral constituents. The average
composition of the kernels, according to Payen, is:--
Per cent.
Fat (cacao butter) 50
Starch 10
Albuminoids 20
Water 12
Cellulose 2
Mineral matter 4
Theobromine 2
Colouring matter (cacao-red) trace
-------
100.00
_Manufacture of Cocoa and Chocolate._--The beans are cleaned and sorted
to remove foreign bodies of all kinds and also graded into sizes to
secure uniformity in roasting. The latter process is carried out in
rotating iron drums in which the beans are heated to a temperature of
about 260 deg. to 280 deg. F., and results in developing the aroma,
partially converting the starch into dextrin, and eliminating bitter
constituents. The beans also dry and their shells become crisp. In the
next process the beans are gently crushed and winnowed, whereby the
light shells are removed, and after removal by sifting of the "germs"
the beans are left in the form of the irregular cocoa-nibs occasionally
seen in shops. Cocoa-nibs may be infused with water and drunk, but for
most people the beverage is too rich, containing the whole of the
cacao-fat or cacao-butter. This fat is extracted from the carefully
ground nibs by employing great hydraulic pressure in heated presses. The
fat exudes and solidifies. When fresh it is yellowish-white, but becomes
quite white on keeping. It is very valuable for pharmaceutical purposes
and is a constituent of many pomades. With care it can be kept for a
long time without going rancid.
After the extraction of the fat the resulting mass is ground to a fine
powder when it is ready for use in the ordinary way. Many preparations
on the market are of course not pure cocoa but contain admixtures of
various starchy and other bodies.
The shells of the beans separated by the winnowing process contain
theobromine, and their infusion with water is sometimes used as a
substitute for coffee, under the name "miserabile." More recently they
have been put to good account as a cattle food.
In the preparation of chocolate the preliminary processes of cleaning,
sorting, roasting and removing the shells, and grinding the nibs, are
followed as for cocoa. The fat, however, is not extracted, but sugar,
and sometimes other materials also, are added to the ground pasty mass,
together with suitable flavouring materials, as for example vanilla. The
greatest care is taken in the process and elaborate grinding and mixing
machinery employed. The final result is a semi-liquid mass which is
moulded into the familiar tablets or other forms in which chocolate
comes on the market.
Cocoa as a beverage has a similar action to tea and coffee, inasmuch as
the physiological properties of all three are due to the alkaloids and
volatile oils they contain. Tea and coffee both contain the alkaloid
caffeine, whilst cocoa contains theobromine. In tea and coffee, however,
we only drink an infusion of the leaves or seeds, whilst in cocoa the
whole material is taken in a state of very fine suspension, and as the
preceding analysis indicates, the cocoa bean, even with the fat
extracted, is of high nutritive value.
_Cacao-consuming Countries._--The principal cacao-consuming countries
are indicated below, which gives the imports into the countries named
for 1905. These figures, as also those on production, are taken from
_Der Gordian_.
Tons (1000 kilos).
United States of America 34,958
Germany 29,663
France 21,748
United Kingdom 21,106
Holland 19,295
Spain 6,102
Switzerland 5,218
Belgium 3,019
Austria Hungary 2,668
Russia 2,230
Denmark 1,125
Italy 971
Sweden 900
Canada 700
Australia 600
Norway, Portugal and Finland 692
-------
Total 150,995
During recent years the use of cocoa has increased rapidly in some
countries. The following table gives the increase per cent in
consumption in 1905 over that in 1901 for the five chief consumers:--
Per cent.
United States 70
Germany 61
France 21
United Kingdom 11
Holland 34
(A. B. R.; W. G. F.)