this country," said an officer of the Erie Milk Producers' Association
yesterday. "That amount is almost double the money invested in banking
and commercial industries, it is estimated that it requires 15,000,000
cows to supply the demand for milk and its products in the United
States. To feed these cows 60,000,000 acres of land are under
cultivation. The agricultural and dairy machinery and implements in use
are worth over $200,000,000. The men employed in the business number
700,000 and the horses nearly 1,000,000. The cows and horses consume
annually 30,000,000 tons of hay, nearly 90,000,000 bushels of corn meal,
about the same amount of oat-meal, 275,000,000 bushels of oats,
2,000,000 bushels of bran, and 30,000,000 bushels of corn, to say
nothing of the brewery grains and questionable feed of various kinds
that is used to a great extent. It costs $400,000,000 to feed these cows
and horses. The average price paid to the laborers necessary in the
dairy business is probably $20 a month, amounting to $168,000,000 a
year.
"The average cow yields about 450 gallons of milk a year, giving a total
product of 6,750,000,000 gallons. Twelve cents a gallon is a fair price
to estimate the value of this milk at, a total return to the dairy
farmer of $810,000,000. Fifty per cent of the milk is made into cheese
and butter. It takes twenty-seven pounds of milk to make one pound of
butter, and about ten pounds of milk to make one pound of cheese. There
is the same amount of nutrition in three and one half pounds of milk
that there is in one pound of beef. A fat steer furnishes fifty per cent
of boneless beef, but it would require about 24,000,000 steers, weighing
1,500 pounds each, to produce the same amount of nutrition as the annual
milk product does."
VETERINARY.
ABOUT SOUNDNESS.
It may be supposed that the hackneyed term "sound" is so explicit as to
need no comment,--and most people conceive it to be so; but the term
"sound" really admits of as much contrariety of opinion as the word
"tipsy;" one man considers another so if, at ten at night, he is not
precisely as cool and collected as he was at one in the day. Another one
calls a man so when he lies on the floor and holds himself on by the
carpet. So,--as to soundness, some persons can not see that a horse is
unsound, unless he works his flanks like the drone of a bagpipe, or
blows and roars like a blacksmith's bellows; while some are so
fastidious as to consider a horse as next to valueless because he may
have a corn that he never feels, or a thrush for which he is not, nor
likely to be, one dollar the worse.
So far as relates to such hypercritical deciders on soundness, we will
venture to say that, if they brought us twenty reported horses in
succession, we would find something in all of those produced that would
induce such persons to reject them, though, perhaps, not one among the
lot had anything about him of material consequence. To say the least, we
will venture to assert that nine-tenths of the horses now in daily use
are more or less unsound. We make no reservation as to the description
of horse, his occupation, or what he may be worth. We scarcely ever had,
indeed scarcely ever knew, a horse that had been used, and tried
sufficiently to prove him a good one, that was in every particular
unequivocally sound. We have no doubt that there are thousands of owners
of horses who will at once say we are wrong in this assertion, and would
be ready to produce their own horses as undeniable proofs, whereby to
back their opinion and refute ours. They may, perhaps, say that their
horses are never lame--perhaps not; that is, not lame in their
estimation or to their eye; but we daily see horses that go to a certain
degree indubitably lame, while their owners conceive them to be as
indubitably sound. These horses, perhaps, all do their work perfectly
well, are held as sound by owners, servants, acquaintances, and casual
observers; but a practical eye would detect an inequality in their
going, as a watchmaker would do the same in the movement of a watch,
though we might look for a week, or listen for the same length of time,
without being able to either see or hear the variation. The watch might,
however, on the average keep fair time; but it would not be a perfect
one; and what matters, if it answers all the purposes for which we want
it? A really bad watch that can not keep time is a different affair;--it
is pretty much the same with a horse. If the unsoundness is such as to
render him unable to do his work, or even to do it unpleasantly to
himself or owner, or if it is likely to bring him to this, our advice is
to have nothing to do with him. If, however, this is not the case, or
likely to be so,--if you like him--buy him.
It is not improbable that a man may say, I begin to believe that few
horses that have done work are quite sound; but a sound one I will have;
I will, therefore, buy a four-year old, that has never done a day's
work. We will acknowledge that if he does so, he may probably get his
desideratum; but do not let him make too sure of this. There are such
things as four-year olds, unsound, as well as worked. But, supposing him
to have got this sound animal; what has he got? An animal that he has to
run the risk of making useful, so far as teaching him his business goes;
and by the time this is effectually done, and the colt has arrived at a
serviceable age, he will probably be quite as unsound as many of those
he has rejected; independent of which, and supposing him to continue
sound, the breeder of this horse must have better luck or better
judgment in breeding than his neighbors, if more than one in five or six
that he does breed turn out desirable horses in every respect. If he
turns out but a middling sort of beast, it is but small satisfaction to
know that he is sound; in fact, so little satisfaction should we feel,
that, if we were compelled to keep and use him, so far from rejoicing
that he was sound, we should only regret that he was not dead.
In relations to the doings of dealers in horses, it is not our present
object to expose the tricks of the trade, or to prejudice the
unsophisticated buyer against all horse dealers. There are honest horse
dealers, and there are dishonest ones; and we are sorry to say that, in
numbers, the latter predominate; that honesty in horse dealing is not
proverbial. But horse dealers, like other mortals, are apt to err in
judgment; and all their acts should not be set down as willful
wrong-doings. However, be their acts what they may, the general verdict
is against their motives. Therefore, supposing we could bring any person
or number of persons to believe the fact that a man conversant with
horses might sell, as a sound horse, one that might, on proper
inspection, be returned as unsound, all that we could say or write,
would never convince the majority of persons that a dealer could
innocently do the same thing. If his judgment errs, and leads him into
error as to the soundness of his horse, it is set down, not as willful
or corrupt perjury as to oath, but most undoubtedly as to his word and
honesty.
QUESTIONS ANSWERED.
Glanders, Chronic Catarrh, and "Horse Distemper."--H.P.W., Peotone,
Ill.--Query--What are the symptoms whereby a person may know the
difference between glanders, catarrh, and ordinary horse distemper?
Reply--Among the prominent symptoms of glanders may be mentioned a
discharge of purulent matter from one or both nostrils; one or both
glands on the inside of the lower jaw bones are more or less swollen,
hard and knotty. One or both nostrils are sometimes swollen and glued up
by a sticky, unhealthy looking pus, sometimes streaked with blood. On
opening the nostrils, pustules and ulcers are seen on the inner surface.
The nose may sometimes bleed. The eyes are often prominent and watery;
the coat rough and staring if the horse is in lean condition; and the
voice more or less hoarse. The appetite is not often impaired. Sooner or
later, farcy buds may appear on the head, neck, body or limbs, generally
along the inner side of the thighs. In chronic nasal catarrh or
so-called gleet, the glands between the jaw bones are very slightly, if
at all, enlarged; they are loose, not hard and knotty, as in glanders.
This ailment, which is apt to persist for months, unless properly
treated, may leave an animal in an unthrifty state, with a staring coat,
disturbed appetite, dullness at work, cough and discharge from one or
both nostrils; but there are no pustules or ragged sores or ulcers
within the nose, as in glanders. Chronic nasal gleet, however, is apt to
run into glanders; and, as there is no telling when the beginning is,
such a horse, with chronic discharge from the nose, should always be
looked upon with suspicion, and be kept away from other horses. The
difference between glanders and influenza or ordinary horse distemper,
is so marked that a mistake is not easily made. The more prominent
symptoms of distemper are as follows: With signs more or less prominent
of a general febrile condition, there is great dullness and debility,
frequent and weak pulse, scanty discharge of high-colored urine,
costiveness, loss of appetite, and a yellow appearance of the membranes
of the mouth and the eyes. The eyes appear more or less sunken, upper
lid drooping and lips hanging, giving the animal a sleepy look; there is
cough, soreness of the throat, and labored breathing; the mouth is
filled with frothy slime, the legs are cold and sometimes more or less
swollen below the knees and hocks. In the advanced stages of distemper,
there is a free discharge from both nostrils.
Brittle Hoofs.--I.F.C., Camden, Ill. If the animal is shod, the shoes
should be removed and reset at least once a month, to allow the feet to
be properly pared and trimmed. If habitually brittle, it will be proper
to keep such feet off from much moisture, and instead provide dry floor
of whatever kind. Once or twice a week such feet should be given an
ample coat of some simple hoof ointment, such as equal parts of tar,
tallow and beeswax, carefully melted together, and stirred till cold.
Lung Disease in Swine.--A.J.T., Emery, Ill. Most internal diseases of
swine, especially inflammation of the lungs, which is often given the
wrong name of thumps, are very intractable and apt to prove fatal when
occurring during the winter months. Prevention is the sheet anchor for
these troubles, and it must be a poor farmer indeed who can not manage
to provide clean, comfortable and dry housing for his live stock during
this season, or who can not comprehend that such is necessary for the
well-doing of animals as well as of himself. Any animal, even a hog,
will of course suffer more, or less severely when constantly exposed to
chilly winds, draft of cold air, wet ground and damp surroundings, icy
or frozen drink or food, etc.
Blindness After Lockjaw.--M.J.G., Los Angeles, Cal. Let the animal go
loose in a comfortable, roomy, well-bedded shed, from which strong light
is excluded. Apply, once daily, to the hollow space above the orbit of
the eyes, a small portion of fluid extract of belladonna. Give food
which does not require much hard chewing.
* * * * *
REMEMBER _that $2.00 pays for_ THE PRAIRIE FARMER _one year, and the
subscriber gets a copy of_ THE PRAIRIE FARMER COUNTY MAP OF THE UNITED
STATES, FREE! _This is the most liberal offer ever made by any
first-class weekly agricultural paper in this country._
HORTICULTURAL
[Illustration]
Horticulturists, Write for Your Paper.
THE HEDGE QUESTION.
At one of the December meetings of the Massachusetts Horticultural
Society a prize essay from the pen of John J. Thomas, of Union Springs,
N.Y., was read on the subject "Hedge Plants and Hedges."
The subject of the essay was proposed in the form of a question, "Are
live hedges to be recommended either for utility or ornament, and if
they are, what plants are most suitable?" The answer to this question
was given from the experiments of the essayist during the last forty
years. The deciduous plants tried were the buckthorn, Osage orange,
honey-locust, privet and barberry. The evergreens were the Norway
spruce, hemlock, and American arbor-vitae.
The buckthorn has the advantage of great hardiness, thick growth, and
easy propagating and transplanting, and requires but a moderate amount
of cutting back. But the growth is not stout enough to resist unruly
animals, unless in very rich soils, and even a moderate amount of
cutting back is an objection to farmers.
The cost of buckthorn hedges, including the preparation of a strip of
soil five feet wide, purchase of plants, setting, and occasional horse
cultivation on each side, was about twenty-five cents a rod the first
year. The yearly cultivation and cutting back, until the hedge had
reached full size, was three or four cents a rod. Though the buckthorn
has nearly passed out of use on account of its inefficiency, it is not
impossible that it may be extensively planted when cultivators find that
it may be converted into an efficient barrier by inclosing two or three
barbed wires extending its length through the interior--these wires,
supported on occasional posts, being successively placed in position as
the hedge increases in height, the branches growing around the wires and
holding them immovably in position. Galvanized wire should be always
used, on account of its durability.
Osage orange hedges require more care than buckthorn, in assorting
plants of equal size and vigor, and the rejection of feeble plants. Like
all other hedge plants, they should be set in a single line, and eight
inches apart is a suitable distance. For the first few years the ground
must be kept well cultivated. It is partly tender and will not endure
the winters at the North, unless on a well-drained soil. Hence the
importance of placing a good tile drain parallel to the hedge and within
a few feet of it. Thus protected, good hedges have stood for twenty-five
years where the thermometer has often shown ten or twelve degrees below
zero, and sometimes lower.
No hedge is more commonly mismanaged than the Osage orange. It is
planted in imperfectly prepared ground; vigorous and feeble plants are
planted indiscriminately, cultivation and pruning are omitted or not
done thoroughly, resulting in broken and irregular lines. When more care
is given, the hedge is nearly spoiled by being pruned too wide at the
top, the heavy shade above causing meagre growth and openings below. It
should be pruned in wedge shape, but shearing is objectionable as
causing a thick and short growth of leaves at the exterior, excluding
light from the inside and causing bare branches there. Cutting back more
irregularly with a knife allows the growth of interior foliage, and
gives more breadth to the hedge. The sheared hedge presents an unnatural
stiffness in ornamental grounds; but skillfully cut back with the knife
it has more of the beauty of natural form. The manner of pruning is very
important, both as regards utility and beauty. For farm barriers hedges
do not require so elaborate care. Another mode of treatment has been
adopted in the Western States. The trees are trimmed and the main stems
trained upright for a few years. They are then cut half off at the
ground and bent over at an angle of thirty degrees with the ground, a
tree being left upright at distances of four or five feet, and the
inclined ones interwoven among them, a straight line of trees being thus
formed. The tops are then cut off about three feet high. New shoots
spring up in abundance and form an impenetrable growth, as many as
fifty having been counted from a single plant the first year. The top is
cut to within a few inches each year of its previous height. Hedges made
in this way have no gaps.
A similar treatment may be adopted when a hedge becomes too high by long
years of growth. The trees are first partly trimmed with a light axe or
hook with a long handle, and then half cut off at the ground and bent
over. A new growth will spring up and form a new hedge. This course was
adopted by the essayist with a hedge planted twenty-eight years ago, and
which has been a perfect farm barrier for more than twenty years. The
cost of this hedge was about twenty-five cents a rod the first year, and
the three subsequent cuttings for sixty rods cost about twenty dollars,
averaging less than a dollar a year. But it was usually too tall and
shaded, and occupied too much ground, to be recommended where land is
valuable.
Ninety rods of Osage orange hedge, properly trimmed, cost about the same
for the first four years of cultivation, but more for annual cutting
back. It was planted twenty-four years ago, and has been a perfect
barrier for about twenty years. The yearly cost of pruning was about
four cents a rod for ten or twelve years, and since it has become larger
and higher nearly double. For cutting back a stout hook with a handle
two and a-half feet long or a stout scythe was used. Hedge shears are
too slow except for ornamental hedges, and even for these the knife is
preferable.
The Honey locust has been extensively used for hedges of late years on
account of its hardiness. Seed should be selected from the most thorny
trees. The trees have a tall, slender, and not hedgy growth, and require
thorough cutting back to secure a thick mass of branches at the bottom,
and very few have received this treatment when young. The care in
planting and rearing is similar to that required by the Osage orange.
Many hedges have been injured or even destroyed by pruning after the
summer growth has commenced. The pruning must be done in spring before
the buds swell, if vigorous growth is to be preserved. But
strong-growing hedges, that are likely to become too high, may be
checked by summer pruning.
Though the cost of planting and starting a hedge is less than that of
building a good board fence, they are not adapted to farmers who will
not give them the continued care required to keep them in good order.
This conclusion is justified by observing how few have succeeded with
hedges, and many have allowed them to be ruined by neglect.
The evergreens which have been employed have been exclusively for
ornamental screens, and not for farm barriers. The Norway spruce may be
placed at the head on account of its rigid growth, hardiness, and the
freedom with which it may be cut back, it will bear more shade than many
other evergreens, and hence the interior of the screen is green with
foliage. The cutting back should be done with a knife, and not with
shears. Next to the Norway spruce is the hemlock, which excels the
former in its livelier green in winter, while it is unsurpassed for
retaining interior foliage. It will bear cutting back to an almost
unlimited extent in spring before growth commences. But it is not so
stiff as the Norway spruce as a barrier. The American arbor-vitae, though
much used, becomes destitute of foliage inside, and is browned by
winter.
By the introduction of barbed wire an important change is likely to take
place in planting hedges. Barbed wire makes a cheaper fence for its
efficiency than any other material. A serious objection to it is the
danger of animals being lacerated against it, the wires being nearly
invisible. This objection may be obviated by inclosing the wires in
visible hedges. Efficiency may also be thus imparted to small-growing
hedge plants, such as privet, barberry and small evergreens, which will
require but little labor in pruning and would become handsome ornaments.
The purple barberry, for example, would present an attractive appearance
during a large portion of the year. A new value may thus be given to
hedges by rendering moderate growers and those easily kept in shape
efficient barriers for farm and fruit gardens.
YOUNG MEN WANTED.
Perhaps one of the greatest needs of horticulture at the present day, is
young men to engage in the work--intelligent, patient, energetic young
men, who will begin and make it a life-labor and study. What nobler
employment in which young men can engage? What field for study and
investigation can be found for them which offers a more gratifying and
pleasant pursuit, and promises richer and more substantial results?
There are so many open questions connected with the science; so many
points that need investigation, so many problems to be solved; so much
to learn that is yet unknown--that the needs for more laborers are great
and pressing; and the wonder is that more of our young men are not
entering upon the work.
That young men are needed, rather than the old or middle aged, is
because many of the investigations to be undertaken require a lifetime
to perfect, and can only be brought to a profitable issue in a long
series of years. Such, for instance, as the production of new varieties
of fruits; the relative hardiness and longevity of trees; the effects of
soil and climate, heat, cold, etc., upon plant life; the degeneracy of
species, etc.;--all of which require a long series of experiments to
determine. Older men, here and there, are engaged in these
investigations; but they are passing away in the midst of their work
only partially accomplished, and their labors are thus in a degree lost.
Our farmers' sons--stout, healthy, energetic young men--are the ones
upon whom this labor and high duty more properly devolves. To them
belongs, or should belong, the honor and glory of pushing forward this
noble work. Many of these, however, are mistakenly leaving the farms to
engage in trade and speculation; while others who remain at home mostly
incline to other branches. The agricultural colleges are doubtless
developing a few faithful workers for these too neglected fields; but
these munificently endowed institutions are believed to fall far short
of their duty in this respect.
I will close by recommending this matter to the thoughtful consideration
of the young readers of THE PRAIRIE FARMER, who, as a class, I believe
to be as capable and intelligent as the country affords, and with the
remark that I know of no business in life to which I would sooner urge
any young friend of my own to devote his talents and his energies.
T.G.
POSSIBILITIES IN IOWA CHERRY GROWING.
Prof. Budd, of Iowa, sends THE PRAIRIE FARMER the following copy of his
address before the Eastern Iowa Horticultural Society, remarking that
its appearance in this paper may lead the Bloomington nurserymen to look
up this very important line of propagation:
The topic assigned me is, as usual, experimental horticulture. I select
the division of the work implied in the heading for the reason that it
is, as yet, mainly an unoccupied field of inquiry. If the idea occurs
that my treatment of the question is speculative rather than practical
permit me to suggest that thought and investigation must always precede
the work of adapting fruits to a newly occupied country, especially if
that country is as peculiar in climate and soil as the great Northwest.
In the summer of 1882, I was fortunate in having a fine opportunity for
studying the varieties and races of cherries in Continental Europe. The
fruit was ripening when we were in the valley of the Moselle in France,
and as we went slowly northward and eastward it continued in season
through Wirtemberg, the valleys and spurs of the Swabian Alps to Munich
in Bavaria, through the passes of the Tyrol in Saltzburg to Austria,
Bohemia, Siberia, Poland, and Southwestern Russia. Still farther north
of St. Petersburg and Moscow we met the cherries from Vladimir on every
corner, and our daily excursions to the country permitted the gathering
of the perfectly ripened fruit from the trees.
Still again when we passed six hundred miles east of Moscow we had
opportunities for picking stray cherries of excellent quality from trees
standing near the 56th parallel of north latitude.