THE SPEECH OF CHIMPANZEES
The speech of chimpanzees is limited to a few sounds, and these are
confined chiefly to their natural wants. The entire vocabulary of their
language embraces perhaps not more than twenty words, and many of them
are vague or ambiguous, but they express the concept of the ape with
as much precision as it is defined to his mind, and quite distinctly
enough for his purpose.
In my researches I have learned about ten words of his speech, so that
I can understand them, and make myself understood by them. Most of
these sounds are within the compass of the human voice, in tone, pitch,
and modulation; but two of them are much greater in volume than it
is possible for the human lungs to reach, and one of them rises to a
pitch more than an octave higher than any human voice. These two sounds
are audible at a great distance, but they do not fall within the true
limits of speech.
[Illustration: THE EDGE OF THE JUNGLE]
The vocal organs of this ape resemble those of man as closely as any
other character has been shown to resemble. They differ slightly in
one detail that is worthy of notice. Just above the opening called
the glottis, which is between the vocal cords, are two small sacs or
ventricles. These, in the ape, are larger and more flexible than in
man. In the act of speaking they are inflated by the air passing out
of the lungs through the long tube called the larynx. The function
of these organs is to control and modify the sound by increasing or
decreasing the pressure of the air that is jetted through this tube.
They serve, at the same time, as a reservoir and a gauge.
In the louder sounds produced by the chimpanzee these ventricles
distend until the membrane of which they are composed is held at a high
tension. This greatly intensifies the voice, and increases its volume.
It is partly due to these little sacs that the ape is able to make
such a loud and piercing scream. But the pitch and volume of his voice
cannot be due to this cause alone, for the gorilla, in which these
ventricles are much smaller, can make a vastly louder sound, unless we
are mistaken about the one ascribed to him.
Although the sounds made by the chimpanzee can be imitated by the
human voice, they cannot be expressed or represented by any system of
phonetic symbols in use among men. All alphabets have been deduced from
pictographs, and the symbol that represents any given sound has no
reference to the organs that produced it. The few rigid lines that have
survived to form the alphabets are conventional, and within themselves
meaningless, but they have been so long used to represent these sounds
of speech that it would be difficult to supplant them with others, even
if such were desired.
As no literal formula can be made to represent the phonetic elements
of the speech of chimpanzees, I have taken a new step in the art of
writing by framing a system of my own, which is rational in plan and
simple in device.
The organs of speech always act in harmony, and a certain movement
of the lips is always attended by a certain movement of the internal
organs of speech. This is true of the ape as well as of man, and in
order to utter the same sounds each would employ the same organs, and
use them in the same way.
By this means, deaf mutes are able to distinguish the sounds of speech
and reproduce them, although they do not hear them. By close study and
long practice they learn to distinguish the most delicate shades of
sound.
In this plain fact lies the clue to the method I have used. It is, as
yet, only in the infant state, but it is possible to be made, with a
very few symbols, to represent the whole range of vocal sounds made by
man or other animals.
The chief symbols I employ are the parentheses used in common print.
The two curved lines placed with the convex sides opposite, thus, (),
represent the open glottis, in which position the voice will utter the
deep sound of "O." The glottis about half closed utters the sound
of "U," as in the German, and to represent this sound a period is
inserted between the two curved lines, thus, (.). When the aperture
is contracted still more it produces the sound of "A" broad, and to
represent this a colon is placed between the lines, thus, (:). When
the aperture is restricted to a still smaller compass the sound of "U"
short is uttered, and to represent this an apostrophe is placed between
the lines, thus, ('). When the vocal cords are brought to a greater
tension, and the aperture is almost closed, it utters the short sound
of "E." To represent this sound a hyphen is inserted between the lines,
thus, (-). These are the main vowel sounds of all animals, although in
man they are sometimes modified, and to them is added the sound of "E"
long, while in the ape the long sounds of "O" and "E" are rarely, if
ever, heard.
From this vowel basis all other sounds may be deduced, and by the use
of diacritics to indicate the movement of the organs of speech, the
consonant elements may be easily expressed.
A single parenthesis, with the concave side to the left, will represent
the initial sound of "W," which seldom, but sometimes, occurs in the
sounds of animals. When used, it is placed on the left side of the
leading symbol, thus,)(), and this symbol, as it stands, should be
pronounced nearly like "U-O," but with the first letter suppressed, and
almost inaudible. Turning the concave side to the right, and placing
it on the right side of the symbol, it represents the vanishing sound
of "W," thus, ()(. This symbol reads "O-U," with the "O" long, and the
"W" depressed into the short sound of "U." The apostrophe placed before
or after the symbol will represent "F" or "V." The grave accent, thus,
(`), represents the breathing sound of "H," whether placed before or
after the symbol, and the acute accent, thus, (´), will represent the
aspirate sound of that letter in the same way.
When the symbol is written with a numeral exponent, it indicates
the degree of loudness. If there is no figure, the sound is such as
would be made by the human voice in ordinary speech. The letter "X"
will indicate a repetition of the sound, and the numeral placed after
it will show the number of times repeated, instead of the degree of
loudness. For example, we will write the sound (.), which is equivalent
to long "U," made in a normal tone, the same symbol written thus (.)2
indicates the sound, made with greater energy, and about twice as loud.
To write it thus, (.)X2, indicates that the sound was repeated, and so
on.
One peculiar sound made by these animals, which is described in
connection with the gorilla, appears to be the result of inhalation,
but I know of no other animal that makes a sound in this manner.
As an example of the use of this method, we will write the French
word "feu," which Moses mastered, thus, '('), which is equivalent to
"vû" with the "U" sounded short, the other word "wie," in German,
thus,)('), which is pronounced almost like "wû," giving "u" the short
sound again.
I shall not lead the reader through the long and painful task by giving
the entire system as far as I have gone, but what has been given will
convey an idea of a system, by means of which it will be possible to
represent the sounds of all animals, so that the student of phonetics
will recognise at once the character of the sound, even if he cannot
reproduce it by natural means.
It would be tedious and of no avail to the casual reader to reduce
to writing here the sounds made by the chimpanzee; but it may be of
interest to mention and describe the character and use of some of them.
Perhaps the most frequent sound made by all animals, appears to be
that referring to food, and therefore it may claim the first place in
our attention. This word in the language of the chimpanzee begins with
the short sound of the vowel "u" which blends into a strong breathing
sound of "h," the lips are compressed at the sides, and the aperture of
the mouth is nearly round. It is not difficult to imitate, and the ape
readily understands it even when poorly made.
Another sound of frequent use among them is that used for calling. The
vowel element is nearly the same, though slightly sharpened, and merges
into a distinct vanishing "w." The food sound is often repeated two or
three times in succession, but the call is rarely ever repeated, except
at long intervals.
One sound is particularly soft and musical, the vowel element is that
of long "u" as in the German. This blends into a "w," followed by the
slightest suggestion of the short sound of "a." It appears to express
affection or love. This sound is also the first of the series of sounds
attributed to the gorilla.
The most complex sound made by them is the one elsewhere described as
meaning "good." They often use it in a sense very much the same as
mankind uses the word "thanks," but it is not probable that they use it
as a polite term, yet the same idea is present.
One of the words of warning or alarm contains a vowel element closely
resembling the short sound of "e." It terminates with the breathing
sound of "h." It is used to announce the approach of anything that
he is familiar with, and not afraid of. If the sound is intended to
warn against the approach of an enemy, or something strange, the same
vowel element is used, but terminates with the aspirate sound of "h"
pronounced with energy and distinctness. The two words are the same in
vowel quality, but they differ in the time required to utter them, and
the final breathing and aspirate effects. There is also a difference
in the manner of the speaker in the act of delivering the word, which
plainly indicates that he knows the use and value of the sounds. At
the approach of danger the latter is often given almost in a whisper,
and at long intervals apart, but increases in loudness as the danger
approaches; the other is usually spoken distinctly and repeated
frequently. It is worthy of note that the native tribes often use the
same word in the same manner and for the same purpose.
There are other sounds which are easily identified but difficult to
describe, such as that used to signify "cold" or "discomfort"; another
for "drink"; another referring to "illness," and still another which I
have good reason to believe means "dead" or "death." There are perhaps
a dozen more that I can distinguish, but have not yet been able to
determine their meaning. I have an opinion as to some of them which I
have not yet verified.
The chimpanzee makes use of a few signs which seem to be fixed factors
of expression. He makes a negative sign by moving the head from side to
side, but the gesture is not frequent or pronounced. Another negative
sign, which is more common, is a motion of the hand from the body
towards the person or thing addressed. This sign is sometimes made
with great emphasis, and there can be no question as to what it means.
The manner of making the sign is not uniform. Sometimes it is done
by an urgent motion of the hand. Bringing it from his opposite side,
with the back forward, it is waved towards any one approaching, if the
ape object to the approach. The same sign is often made as a refusal
of anything offered him. Another way of making this sign is with the
arm extended forward, the hand hanging down, and the back towards the
person approaching or the thing refused. In addition to these negative
signs there is one which may be regarded as affirmative. It is made
simply by extending one arm towards the person or thing desired. It
sometimes serves the purpose of beckoning; but in this act there is no
motion of the hand. These signs are similar in character to those used
by men, and appear to be innate.
It must not be inferred from this small list of words and signs that
there is nothing left to learn. So far we have only taken the first
step as it were in the study of the speech of apes. As we grow more
familiar with their sounds, it becomes less difficult to understand
them. I have not been disappointed in what I hoped to learn from these
animals. The total number of words in the speech of all simians that
I have learned up to this time is about one hundred. I have given no
attention of late to the small monkeys, but I shall resume the task at
some future day, as it forms a part of the work I have assumed, but all
of that is described in a work already published.
In conclusion, I will say that the sounds uttered by these apes have
all the characteristics of true speech. The speaker is conscious of
the meaning of the sound used, and uses it with the definite purpose
of conveying an idea to the one addressed; the sound is always
addressed to some definite one, and the speaker usually looks at the
one addressed; he regulates the pitch and volume of the voice to suit
the condition under which it is used; he knows the value of sound as a
medium of thought. These and many other facts show that they are truly
speech.
If these apes were placed under domestication, and kept there as long
as the dog has been, he would be as far superior to the dog in sagacity
as he is by nature above the wild progenitors of the canine race.