extracted from a neighbouring quarry and put together without cement
or mortar, the interstices being filled with smaller stones. From the
fallen blocks lying scattered at their base it is estimated that they
originally measured sixty feet in height. At intervals these walls are
pierced by triangular doors and windows, the sides of which are curved,
forming arches obtained by corbelled or overlapping instead of wedged
stones. These Cyclopean constructions date from the seventeenth century
before Christ.
The Acropolis of Mycenæ is entered by a doorway formed of two vertical
monoliths of great size supporting a lintel, and called the Gate of the
Lions, from the carving above, representing two rampant lions separated
by an engaged column.
This city was surrounded by high fortified walls, and contained a place
of assembly for the people and rude habitations, the remains of which are
still visible. There is also still to be seen a conical or bee-hive-like
structure, commonly called the Treasury of Atreus. This cone is formed
by overlapping stones, curving gradually until they meet at the top of
the vault, which is capped by a large block. The doorway by which it is
entered is composed of slanting jambs of stone, sustaining a massive
lintel. This lintel is relieved from direct weight above by a triangular
opening, obtained by a similar process of corbelling. The Cyclopean
remains are of interest to architects chiefly on account of this system
of corbelled vaulting employed in their construction, which would never
have been adopted had their builders been acquainted with the voussoir
principle.
Dr. Schliemann has recently excavated the Acropolis of Mycenæ, and found
there many interesting objects of gold and pottery. Bronze nails with
flat heads have also been found within the Treasury of Atreus, which
were evidently used to attach copper plates with which the interior was
lined. Pausanias speaks of a similar treasury belonging to King Minyas,
at Orchomenos, and other remains of the same description have been
discovered in different parts of the Morea, bearing a resemblance to the
ruined cities of Etruria.
In fact, the various tumuli found in Western Europe, Sardinia, Sicily,
Greece, and Asia are all of the same type, and were a form commonly
adopted by the ancient nations.
When we come to the epoch preceding Roman architecture, we will examine
the character of Etruscan buildings, which were similar in many respects
to the works of the Pelasgi; at present the subject of most interest is
that of the great century of Greek art, for it marks the transition from
Crude Art, to which belongs all that has preceded, to Fine Art, in which
the Greeks excelled.
Greek buildings were erected according to the rules of three systems
or orders, of the origin and character of which Vitruvius gives the
following account, which, if not strictly accurate, is at least as
reasonable as some of the versions which have been advanced. “Dorus, King
of the Peloponnesus, having had a temple erected to Juno, in Argos, it
was built by chance in the manner which we call Doric; afterward, in
several other towns, other temples were built in this same order, having
no established rule for the proportions of their architecture. About the
same period the Athenians established several colonies in Asia Minor
under the guidance of Ion, and they called the country which he occupied
Ionia. These colonists built Doric temples there at first, of which the
chief was that of Apollo, but as they did not know what proportion to
give to the columns, they sought the means of making them at once strong
enough to sustain the building, and of rendering them at the same time
agreeable to the eye. For this they took the measure of a man’s foot as
the sixth part of his height, and on this measure formed their column,
giving it six diameters.[1]
[1] We have already seen that there are columns at Beni Hassan, in Egypt,
resembling so closely the Greek Doric, that it is reasonable to suppose
that the Greeks borrowed their conception of the order from the Egyptians
and refined it.
“Some time afterward, wishing to build a temple to Diana, they
endeavoured to find a new method, equally beautiful and more appropriate
to their purpose. They imitated the delicacy of a woman’s form; they
heightened the columns, gave them a base like the twisted cords which
bind a sandal; they carved volutes in the capital to represent that
portion of the hair which falls to the right and left of the head;
they put circles and rings on the columns to imitate the rest of the
hair which is braided and caught up on the back of women’s heads; and
by flutings they imitated the folds of the dress. And this
order, invented by the Ionians, took the name of Ionic.
“The Corinthian column represents the delicacy of a young girl, at
the age when the figure is slender and best suited to the display of
ornaments which may add to her natural beauty. The invention of its
capital is due to the following incident: A young girl of Corinth, who
was about to marry, having died, her nurse placed some little vases which
she had been fond of during her life, in a basket on her tomb, and,
in order that the weather should not spoil them, she placed a tile on
the basket. This, having been laid accidentally over an acanthus-root,
it came to pass, when the leaves began to grow, that the stems of the
plant crept up the sides of the basket and, meeting the corners of the
tile, were forced to curve downward, and to take the form of volutes.
Callimachus, a sculptor and architect, struck by the harmonious result,
imitated it in the capitals of columns which he subsequently made in
Corinth, establishing on this model the proportions of the Corinthian
order.”
[Illustration:
DORIC. IONIC. CORINTHIAN.
THE GREEK ORDERS.]
At this stage it is necessary to explain briefly that an order consists
of a column, the pedestal upon which it stands, and the entablature, or
top member, which it supports. The column is subdivided into the capital,
or head; the shaft, or body; and the base, or foot. The entablature
has likewise three divisions: the architrave, or beam sustained by the
columns; the frieze, or space occupied by the cross-beams; and the
cornice, or line of stone marking the extremity of the rafters. These
were originally made of wood and subsequently imitated in stone.[2]
[2] Viollet le Duc maintained that the Greek buildings were in no sense
an imitation of wooden constructions, but gave no very satisfactory
explanation of the origin of their component parts. It is perhaps best
to conclude that they were adaptations of pre-existing edifices to new
materials.
The Greek Doric column had no base and rested upon a series of steps in
place of the pedestal. The ends of the cross-beams were marked upon the
frieze by a projection, upon which were cut three grooves into which
the rain-water ran and fell in drops to the ground. These drops were
represented in stone underneath, completing an ornament which was called
a triglyph (meaning in Greek, three grooves). The spaces intervening
between the triglyphs were called metopes. The inclination of the sides
of the roof formed the lines of the triangular termination which we call
the pediment.
The Greeks employed three methods in their Doric, namely, the hexametric,
heptametric, and octometric, that is, a proportion of six, seven, and
eight diameters to the height.
We have seen what were the component parts of the Ionic and Corinthian
orders in the quotation from Vitruvius.
In Greek temples the shafts of the columns not only tapered considerably,
but the vertical lines of an entire building inclined to imaginary
points determined by the intersection of lines following
the inclination of the end columns. The mass was thus in the form of
the frustum of a pyramid, being intentionally so designed to bind the
parts of the building together in a manner to withstand effectually the
oscillation caused by earthquakes, which occur frequently in this region.
The city of Athens contained numerous examples of each of these orders,
and a brief account of the buildings of that city will be the best means
of showing their principal characteristics.
The city proper, in which were the chief temples, was built upon a
rocky hill rising from the valley of the Illysus, lying between the
mountain-chains of Pentelicus and Hymettus, and situated about five miles
from the port of Phalerum, on the Gulf of Ægina. This Acropolis (rock
city) is approached by a broad flight of stairs leading to the Propylæum,
or outer gate, with high pedestals on each side which were formerly
surmounted by equestrian statues.
The Propylæum is composed of a porch of six Doric columns, giving
access to a large vestibule flanked by two outer halls. This vestibule
is divided by a flight of steps, placed between six Ionic columns on
pedestals, supporting nine marble beams or architraves which carry the
weight of the roof.
Beyond is a second porch, opening on the plateau of the Acropolis by
means of five doors of different proportions. The lintel of the central
or largest door measures 23 feet, while the architraves are
17 feet in length and of single stones.
The Athenians prided themselves greatly upon the vestibule of the
Propylæum, and believed Pericles, by whose direction the building was
erected, to have been divinely inspired. The details and proportions
of the two orders here combined are of great beauty, and show the most
refined study. From the farther porch, the Parthenon (meaning in Greek,
virgin), or temple of Minerva, is seen to the right, exhibiting a fine
perspective view of its North and West elevations.
The temple is raised upon a platform surrounded by steps, and is
rectangular in form, composed of a cella, or oblong room, surrounded by
an open portico. It measures 228 by 101 feet, having eight Doric columns
on the front and seventeen on the flank, inclusive of the corner ones.
Ictinus and Callicrates were the architects, under the general
supervision of Phidias, who designed the gold and ivory figure of Minerva
within.
The Doric is of the hexametric order, having an approximate proportion of
six diameters of the column to its height.
The pediments of the Parthenon were decorated with rich carvings in
high relief, representing, in the one, the presentation of Minerva to
the assembled gods by her father Jupiter, and in the other, the contest
of Minerva and Neptune for the naming of the city. In the metopes were
depicted the battles of the Athenians with the Centaurs, and scenes in
the lives of Perseus, Theseus, and Hercules, in the admirable sculpture
of Phidias.
The building stood almost intact from the fifth century before Christ
to the seventeenth century of our era, when it suffered greatly from
Venetian artillery, and in modern times its richest sculpture was torn
from it under the Turkish régime, by order of Lord Elgin, who obtained
permission from the authorities to remove it to the British Museum. One
of the ships containing the marbles was sunk off Cape Matapan. Even in
its ruined condition the Parthenon stands to-day a great example of the
finest architecture the world has known.
On the plateau of the Acropolis are the three contiguous temples of
Pandrosus, Erictheus, and Minerva Polias, and the temple of the Wingless
Victory (Niké Apteros), of the Ionic order.
The temple of Pandrosus is virtually a porch attached to the larger
temple of Erictheus. It is composed of six female figures or caryatides
upon a high base, supporting an entablature without frieze. These figures
are of exceeding grace and beauty, and are models of the sculptor’s art.
The single cella was probably divided into three, to which access was had
separately by the several porches. The ceilings of these temples are flat
and decorated with sunken panels, ornamented with egg and dart moulds.
According to Diodorus Sicculus, the temple of Erictheus was
erected in his honour by the Athenians, in gratitude for his having
instructed them in the worship of Ceres, Goddess of Agriculture. While
Pausanias states that it contained the miraculous spring created by
Neptune, who shared in its dedication.
There are three windows in the wall of the cella—unusual features in
Greek architecture—and the levels of the temples are different, evidently
so arranged, with a view to distinguish them the more completely.
The temple of the Wingless Victory is supposed to have been erected
where Ægeus fell from the wall upon seeing the black sails of his son’s
ship returning after his victory over the Minotaur. Others again assert
that it was built without reference to site and so-called because the
Athenians considered victory would never leave them, and consequently
needed no wings. The temple is composed of a cella and two porches of
four columns each, supporting a beautifully decorated entablature.
At the base of the Acropolis stood the resident portion of the city,
containing also other temples and public buildings, which are still
standing. The most important are the temple of Theseus, the Tower of the
Winds, the theatre of Bacchus, and the monument of Lysicrates. Besides
these there are many Roman buildings, but they belong to a subsequent
period. Plutarch says that the Athenians under Cimon erected the temple
of Theseus on his return from Crete, and that it is of older construction
than the temple of Minerva. It has six columns in the front and thirteen
in flank, supporting marble beams the extremities of which rest on the
inner wall and correspond on the other with the triglyphs on the outer
face. The metopes had carvings representing the exploits of Theseus. The
temple stands at the base of the Acropolis to the North; it is similar
to the Parthenon in many respects, being of the same Doric order, though
less rich in sculpture. It is the best preserved of all the monuments,
having suffered but little during the twenty-two centuries it has existed.
The Tower of the Winds, erected by Adronichus Cyrrhastes, is an octagonal
structure surmounted by a frieze, upon which the eight winds of heaven
are carved in allegorical figures. The roof is a pyramid of marble slabs
and was at one time surmounted by a bronze triton holding a switch, which
answered the purpose of a vane, but has since disappeared. The building
was used as a water-clock.
[Illustration: PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF THESEUS AT ATHENS.]
The choragic monument of Lysicrates, commonly called the Lantern of
Demosthenes, is a circular structure of the Corinthian order. The spaces
intervening between its six columns are closed by panels of a single
stone upon which trivets are carved. The stone roof is decorated with
scales and surmounted by a finial of delicate workmanship. On this was
placed the tripod of the choir which had been successful in the Olympian
contest of the year 375 B.C., according to inscription.
There are other Corinthian buildings scattered throughout Greece, but
this is generally taken to be the best example and its proportions
followed. The carvings of the frieze depict the exploits of Hercules, who
is represented clothed in the traditional lion’s skin.
On the opposite slope of the hill are the ruined chairs and benches of
the theatre of Bacchus, fronting an open stage. In building a theatre,
the Northern slope of a hillside was generally selected for the site,
in order to avoid the direct solar rays. Seats were provided for the
audience by cutting circular tiers in the rock and a marble stage,
profusely ornamented, was erected facing them. The stage was raised in
order that the orchestra might not interfere with the view of the actors,
and a portico adjoining it, served as a promenade during the intervals in
the performance.
The stadium, or circus, of Athens was formed in this way, taking in plan
the shape of a horseshoe. It was here that the public games and races
took place, the upper or circular end being occupied by the seats of the
judges. It belongs, however, to a later period, having been constructed
in the time of the Roman Emperor Hadrian. A few years ago the King of
Greece caused the stadium to be excavated, and several marble chairs and
seats were discovered.
Each city of importance possessed a Palæstra, or gymnasium, in which
were rooms for bathing in hot or cold water, for the wrestlers to anoint
themselves with oil and fine dust, and a school for young lads. The
building was enclosed by a portico and surrounded by pleasure-grounds in
which the public exercises took place.
The private dwellings were of one story in height, surmounted by
terraces and divided by courts. The women’s apartments were separated
from the men’s, and the larger houses contained banqueting-halls with
accommodation for musicians and singers. The furniture consisted of
tables in wood and choice stone, vases, candelabra, tripods in bronze,
and rich Oriental carpets.
Externally the houses were painted brilliantly and decorated with
wreaths, garlands, and arms. Outside the entrance door stood the statue
of the god of the household—Jupiter, Minerva, or Mercury.
The richer citizens preferred country villas to city residences, which
they surrounded with ornamental gardens and woods. The groves of the
Academy where Plato held his school in the shade of the olives, outside
the city gates, are probably the most celebrated of the latter.
The dead were buried in necropoli without the city, and their place
of interment marked by tombs in the form of pyramids or
funeral pyres, or more simply by a stella, or upright tablet, inscribed
with the name and virtues of the deceased, and upon which were carved
scenes in his life. In the colonies in Asia Minor the system of
excavating chambers in the rock was adopted, the entrance to them being
marked by Ionic columns supporting entablatures and pediments.
The public buildings of Athens were built of white marble from the island
of Paros and the mountain quarries of Pentelicus, resembling in its
fracture the purest loaf-sugar. The sun and rain have stained them to a
tawny red during the many ages which have passed over them, and nearly
all trace of the various dyes, with which they are supposed to have been
coloured, has disappeared to-day.
The Greeks built their walls of bonded masonry, the vertical joints
coming in the centres of the stones above and below, and they were
frequently additionally strengthened by metal anchors. In walls of
unusual thickness it was customary to construct the inside and outside
faces first and fill the intervening spaces with loose stones and mortar,
with an occasional through stone to connect the parts and bind them
together.
The joints were sometimes emphasized by grooves, but this ornament was
used more frequently in Roman work.
Until its introduction by the Romans the arch was rarely, if ever,
employed, and the limit of inter-columniation was restricted by the
necessity of finding stones of sufficient length to form the architraves.
The roofs were generally of wood, covered with terra-cotta tiles or sheet
metal, and left open at intervals for the admission of light. This is,
however, a disputed point, as the wood, being perishable, has left no
positive proofs of the method employed. It appears that an awning or sail
was stretched over these openings when services were being held. It is
probable that in many instances there was no light admitted, except that
from the entrance door. The effect of a religious ceremony performed in
the temples by the artificial light of torches, with the flickering fires
from the tripods and votive stands reflected upon the ivory and gold
of the statues, and the smoke wreathing weirdly above the heads of the
assembled multitude, must have been infinitely more impressive than if
lit by the colder light of day.
The Greek colonists carried the principles of their architecture with
them, leaving monuments of their genius wherever they established
themselves. Of the temple of Diana, at Ephesus, nothing but a few fluted
drums and scattered fragments remain to-day. It was the most magnificent
temple of the Ionic order, erected with lavish expenditure, and decorated
within with panels of cedar wood. It was burned and pillaged by the
Persians.
At Agrigentum, in Sicily, and Pæstum, in Southern Italy, there are
several Doric temples of massive proportions. Of these the temples of
Concord, Jupiter, and Neptune are the most notable. The columns are
shorter and their capitals broader than the Athenian type, and in one
instance there are two orders superposed, within the cella, to support
the roof.
The Greeks erected buildings in many parts of Southern Europe, in Asia
Minor, and in Egypt, and in later times, even under the Roman conquest,
they remained the masters of the arts, teaching their principles and
supervising the erection of the monuments of Rome. The race was, indeed,
peculiarly endowed with a genius for creating the beautiful, for though
we have but scant information on the subject of Greek painting, we have
preserved to us examples of sculpture which have never been surpassed or
even equalled, and in architecture, though many more elaborate buildings
have since been erected, nothing has ever been produced worthy of
comparison with the harmonious proportions and majestic simplicity of the
temples of Attica.
V.
ETRURIA AND ROME.
Etruria was peopled, from remote ages, by the indigenous inhabitants, and
by colonizing races from Asia and Greece.
To the latter may be attributed the chief architectural works of the
country; the ancient Etruscan walled cities resembling, in their general
construction, those of Tiryns and Mycenæ.
Judging from the remains found upon the soil at the present day, the
Etruscans used their knowledge of the laws of building principally in the
erection of tombs. Of temples there now remain no traces; but, according
to Vitruvius, they were composed, as a rule, of the rectangular chamber,
or cella, of the Greeks, which was divided into three parts, and preceded
by a porch of Tuscan columns. The origin of the latter he describes as
follows:
“The Greek colonists, having brought to Etruria, the Tuscany of to-day,
their acquaintance with the proportions of the Doric order, which was the
only one as yet used in Greece, they employed this order there during a
long period, in the same manner as in the country where it originated;
but finally they changed it in several respects; they lengthened the
column, and added a base to it; they altered the capital, simplified the
entablature, and, thus changed, it was adopted by the Romans, under the
name of the Tuscan order.”
Etruscan tombs varied with the nature of the districts in which they were
erected. In the flat portions of the country they consisted usually of an
earthen cone raised upon a circular foundation of masonry, with one or
more chambers within for the reception of the dead. The largest of these
tumuli was that called the Cucumella, at Vulci.
In the mountains, where material was abundant, it was customary to bury
the dead in a square stone chamber, surmounted by a pyramidal roof, and
entered by a doorway ornamented with the Greek architrave. There are
several examples of these at Castel d’Asso.
A third form of sepulchre was the hypogee, or underground tomb, the
entrance to which was marked by a colonnade of the Tuscan order,
carved in the face of the rock; the interior apartment being usually
rectangular, and reached by a staircase. The walls were decorated with
paintings, and the tomb filled with vases, tripods, arms, and other
votive offerings. The body was generally either placed in a stone
sarcophagus or laid upon a bronze bed. The ceilings in the older tombs
were either flat, being cut in the natural rock, with piers left as
supports, and ornamented with sunken panels, or constructed
of inclined slabs, resting against and sustaining each other.
The corbelled vaults, similar to those of Mycenæ, were employed for
a considerable number of these buildings, but were subsequently
relinquished for vaults of voussoirs, or wedge-shaped stones. The
invention of the semicircular vault, the joints of which converge to a
common centre, was long attributed to the Etruscans, but we have seen
that recent discoveries have shown that it was already in use in Egypt
and Assyria many centuries before.