(_a_) In relation to the Old Testament, the prevailing tendency in the
Greek Church was to follow the Palestinian canon. Different lists appeared
from time to time in which the endeavor there to exclude apocryphal,
_i.e._, spurious works, was apparent. In addition to the _canonical_, a
class of _ecclesiastical_ books was judged fit for reading in the
Church,—a class intermediate between the canonical and apocryphal. The
distinction between the canonical and ecclesiastical writings appears in
Cyril of Jerusalem, Athanasius, Epiphanius, &c. The Latin Church showed a
disposition to elevate the ecclesiastical books of the Greek Church to the
rank of the canonical, making the line between the two indistinct; as we
see from the acts of the councils at Hippo and Carthage, in the end of the
fourth and beginning of the fifth century, where Augustine’s, influence
was predominant. But notwithstanding this deviation from the stricter
method of the Greeks, learned men like Jerome adhered to the Palestinian
canon, and even styled the ecclesiastical books _apocryphal_, transferring
the epithet from one class to another. Hilary and Rufinus also followed
the Greek usage.
During the sixth and following centuries, it cannot be said that the canon
of the Greek Church was definitely closed, notwithstanding the decrees of
councils and references to older authorities. Opinions still varied about
certain books, such as Esther; though the Palestinian list was commonly
followed. During the same period, the enlarged canon of the Alexandrian
Jews, which went far to abolish the distinction between the canonical and
deutero-canonical books, prevailed in the West, at least in practice;
though some followed the shorter one, sanctioned as it had been by Jerome.
As both lists existed, no complete or final settlement of the question was
reached in the Latin Church. Neither in the East nor in the West was the
canon of the Old Testament really closed; for though the stricter
principle of separation prevailed in theory, it was not carried out in
practice consistently or universally. The two men most influential about
the canon were Jerome and Augustine; the one representing its Palestinian,
the other its Alexandrian type. After them no legal or commanding voice
fixed either, to the absolute exclusion of its rival.
(_b_) The charge of Constantine to Eusebius to make out a list of writings
for the use of the Church and its performance may be considered as that
which first put the subject on a broad and permanent basis. Its
consequences were important. If it cannot be called the completion or
close of the New Testament canon, it determined it largely. Eusebius made
a Greek Bible containing the usual books, except the Revelation. Though
the historian of the church was not well fitted for the task, being
deficient in critical ability and trammeled by tradition, he doubtless
used his best judgment. Hence, about the year 337, the Constantinian
Church received a Bible which had an influential origin. No binding
authority indeed attached to the list of the Christian books it presented;
but it had weight in the Greek Church. It did not prevent different
opinions, nor deter individuals from dissent. Thus Athanasius, who
disliked Eusebius and his party, issued a list of the sacred writings
which included the Revelation. The canon of the Laodicean Council (A.D.
363) agreed with the Constantine one.
That variations still existed in the Eastern Church is shown by the lists
which vied with one another in precedence. The apostolic canons adopted
the seven general epistles, while the apostolic constitutions excluded
them. The Alexandrian MS. added to the ordinary books of the New
Testament, Clement’s two epistles; and Cosmas Indicopleustes omitted the
general epistles as well as the Apocalypse. At length the Council of
Constantinople, usually called the _Trullan_ (A.D. 692), laid down
positions that fixed the canon for the Greek Church. The endeavor in it
was to attain to a conclusion which should unite East and West. This
council did not enumerate the separate books, but referred to older
authorities, to the eighty-five canons of the apostles, the decrees of the
synods of Laodicea, Ephesus, Carthage, and others; to Athanasius, Gregory
of Nazianzus, Amphliochius of Iconium, Cyril of Alexandria, Gennadius, &c.
After the fourth century there was a general desire to fall back on
apostolic times, to appeal to the Church, to ascertain the opinion of
synods or assemblies; in a word, to rely on authority.
Less discrepancy and activity were manifested about the canon in the
Western Church. Here the chief doubts were directed to the epistle to the
Hebrews and the seven general ones. The former was early excluded, and
continued to be so even in the time of Jerome. The latter were adopted
much sooner. The impulse given by Constantine to determine the books of
Scripture re-acted on the West, where the Church considered it its own
privilege. Augustine’s influence contributed much to the settlement of the
question. The synods of Hippo (A.D. 393) and of Carthage (A.D. 397)
received the epistle to the Hebrews and the seven general ones, thus
fixing the New Testament canon as it now is. In 419 the African bishops,
in the presence of a Papal delegate, repeated their former decision. After
the West Goths joined the Catholic Church in the sixth century, the Romish
and Spanish Churches gave prominence to the fact of accepting both the
Apocalypse and the epistle to the Hebrews. The canon of the West was now
virtually closed; the fourth Council of Toledo (A.D. 632) at which Isidore
was present, agreeing with the Augustinian list, ratified as that list had
been by Innocent the First. The reception of the epistle to the Hebrews
was facilitated by the objections of the Arians and Semiarians; while
opposition to the Priscillianists in Spain strengthened adherence to the
traditional canon. Augustine and the Trullan Council fixed the number of
the New Testament books as they are now.
With regard to the Bible canon in general, we see that councils had weight
when they enumerated the sacred books; that prominent teachers delivered
their opinion on the subject with effect, and that tradition contributed
to one result; but no general council closed the canon once for all, till
that of Trent promulgated its decrees. This body, however, could only
settle the subject for Romanists, since, while the right of private
judgment is exercised, no corporation can declare some books inspired and
others not, some authoritative in matters of faith, others not, without
presumption. Though the present Bible canon rests upon the judgment of
good and learned men of different times, it can never be finally or
infallibly settled, because the critical powers of readers differ, and all
do not accept church authority with unhesitating assent.
It is the way of men to defer unduly to the opinions expressed by synods
and councils, especially if they be propounded dogmatically; to acquiesce
in their decisions with facility rather than institute independent
inquiry. This is exemplified in the history of the canon, where the
fallibility of such bodies in determining canonicity is conspicuous. It is
so in the general reception of the book of Esther, while the old poem, the
Song of Songs, was called in question at the synod of Jamnia; in the
omission of the Revelation from the canonical list by many belonging to
the Greek Church, while the epistles to Timothy and Titus were received as
St. Paul’s from the beginning almost universally.