CHAPTER XVI

INSPECTION OF LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS.

There is one subject in regard to the proper protection of buildings

against the destructive effects of lightning which is generally

overlooked, at least in this country, to a really surprising degree.

It is the necessity that lightning conductors, once put up, should be

regularly inspected, to see if they are in good order, so as to be

really efficacious. That this is very rarely done, is one of the main

reasons why accidents by lightning sometimes occur in places nominally

protected by conductors. The neglect is the more astounding, as one

would think that all intelligent persons, whose knowledge prompted them

to see the wisdom of protection against lightning, would likewise come

to the conclusion that the scientific apparatus set up to effect it

required occasional repairs, such as the clocks in their houses and the

buildings themselves. But such is very far from being the case. It is,

perhaps, not too much to assert that at present not one in a thousand

persons who have gone to the expense of protecting their houses by

lightning conductors make the protection complete, at a merely nominal

cost, by providing a regular--say, annual or bi-annual--inspection.

The causes which necessitate such inspection are numerous. In the first

instance, there is the constantly acting influence of wind and weather

upon those parts of the conductor which are above earth. Wonderful

as is the simple machinery devised by Franklin which conducts the

mysterious electric force from the clouds into the ground, depriving

it of its destructive power, it is, after all, but a feeble thing in

itself, and necessarily so. The upper terminal of the conductor--what

the Germans call the ‘reception rod,’ and the French the ‘tige,’ or

stem--cannot be very thick without becoming unsightly, and, as regards

large public buildings, destroying their architectural effects; while

the rope, or ribbon, running to the ground must, for the same reason,

as well as that of cost, be of comparatively small diameter. Subject

to the constant effects of moisture, to wind, and ice, and hailstorm,

there is always a possibility of the slender metal strips being

damaged, so as to interrupt their continuity, and thus destroy the

free passage of the electric force. Instances have happened in which

the damage done was so slight as to be scarcely visible, and still

sufficient to destroy the efficacy of the conductor. Nothing but the

regular testing by a galvanometer--one of which is described, with an

illustration, on page 60--by an experienced person can establish the

fact that the action of the conductor remains perfect.

A second important cause for inspection lies in the necessity of always

ascertaining with accuracy whether the earth connection is really in a

faultless state. The immense significance of the earth connection--the

basis, in more than one sense, of lightning protection--having been

dwelt upon in the preceding chapter, it is only necessary here to

state that, even if perfectly secured at the outset, it is liable

to disarrangements. One not infrequent accident causing them is a

change in the soil from moisture to dryness, which may be brought

about either by altered drainage or long absence of rain. The dangers

which threaten a break in the earth connection by altered or improved

drainage are of the most serious kind, and likely to become more so

from year to year. Not only the soil of our towns and cities, but even

that of our villages, and the fields themselves, is getting ever more

honeycombed by drain-pipes, until almost every drop of moisture is

sucked out of the ground. No doubt the pipes themselves may improve the

earth connection, if of iron or any other metal. But very frequently

they are of earthenware, in which case they are far more dangerous

than useful, even if filled with water. To guard against the danger

likely to arise from changes in the drainage, it would be wise to have

a thorough examination, by means of the test galvanometer, of all

lightning conductors near to or affected by alterations in the drains,

whenever completed. The same recommendation may be made as regards

cases where the soil has become unusually dry after a long absence of

rain. Few persons, except those who have made a study of the subject,

can form an idea to what depth such dryness often extends, more

especially in sandy and gravelly soils.

There is a third ground, as material for consideration as each of the

two preceding ones, upon which the regular inspection of lightning

conductors must be strongly urged. It is, that constant alterations

in the interior of buildings, private residences as well as public

edifices, may serve to destroy the efficacy of a conductor which was

originally good, even to perfection. Thus a roof may be repaired, and

lead or iron introduced where it was not before; or clamps of iron may

be inserted in the walls of houses, to give them greater strength;

or, in fact, any changes may be made which bring masses of metal more

or less in proximity to the conductor. Under such circumstances, the

efficacy of the conductor is destroyed just in proportion as the

metal forms a better path for the dispersion of the electric force

than the one artificially prepared. There are hundreds of instances

to prove that changes made in buildings, such as the addition of a

leaden roof without, or the iron balustrade of a staircase within,

diverted the current of the electric force from the conductor on its

way to the earth, originally well provided for. In one rather curious

case, which happened at Lyons not many years ago, even an alteration

of the fixtures of a house proved destructive to the efficacy of a

conductor, perfect at the outset, the latter fact being shown in

that it had previously received a stroke of lightning and brought it

harmlessly to earth. The case was that of a banker possessed of the

piece of furniture indispensable to his profession, namely, a large

iron safe. It stood at first near an inner wall, in the centre of the

house; but wishing to add to its strength in resisting the attack of

burglars, the banker had it embedded partly in another wall adjoining

that on the outside, near a place where the masonry was held together

by some large iron clamps. In delightful ignorance of the effect of

this removal of his safe inside the house upon the lightning conductor

outside--an ignorance which would have been the same, probably, among

999 persons out of 1,000--the banker sat quietly down to dinner with

his family one day in July, when a terrific shock made the whole house

tremble to its foundations, upsetting furniture and breaking glasses.

The idea of an earthquake naturally came up at once; but when looking

out of the window (shivered to pieces) the banker was told by a crowd

assembled outside that there had been no earthquake, but that his house

had simply been struck by lightning, as it had been before. But while

previously the electric force had passed silently into the ground,

unknown even to the inmates of the house, and its passage verified

only by the accidental observation of a neighbouring meteorologist,

it had this time left its appointed path, seeking a new road more

strongly attractive. The lightning had found its way into the banker’s

safe, filled with gold. Once inside, the electric current, not finding

a farther outlet, had expended its force in shattering the walls

and making the house tremble, besides melting some gold and burning

banknotes. The investigation of the case at the time made some noise,

but it had one most useful result--it led to the institution of a new

office in connection with the Department of Public Architecture of the

city of Lyons, that of an inspector of lightning conductors. He was

charged to examine at stated intervals, or as often as circumstances

seemed to require it, the conductors applied to all the public

buildings of the city, to ascertain their efficacy, and, if not deeming

them in good condition, to effect all necessary repairs. Shall we

repeat, again and again, ‘They manage things better in France’?

The regular inspection of lightning conductors, as yet unknown or

all but unknown in England, has been for a long time in practice in

several States of Continental Europe, among them Germany and France.

The origin of such inspection may be traced to Northern Germany. It has

been mentioned before (Chap. IV., page 43) that the first lightning

conductor set up over a public building in Europe was erected on the

steeple of the Church of St. Jacob, Hamburg, and that the extension

of conductors in the city and neighbourhood was so rapid, that before

five years had gone by there were over seven hundred conductors. ‘To

this day they are comparatively more numerous in this district than

anywhere else in Europe.’ To this day, too, the scientific aspect of

the question of lightning protection, and the statistics connected with

it, are more appreciated here, and have been more closely investigated,

than in any other part of Europe. In recent years, this has been more

particularly the case in the territories to the north of the city of

Hamburg, the German province of Schleswig-Holstein. Not even in the

country of their origin, and the one which, as yet, has the greatest

number of them in use, have the ‘Franklin rods’ given rise to so much

serious study as in that part of Germany.

Thunderstorms are more numerous, on the average, in Schleswig-Holstein

than in any other part of Central and Northern Europe--due, probably,

to the fact of the province not only being a narrow peninsula, with the

Baltic on the east, and the German Ocean on the west, but intersected

by rivers and canals, producing a generally moist atmosphere. Almost

all public edifices in the province, and the great majority of private

buildings above the rank of mere cottages, are protected by lightning

conductors; and to aid in their extension there are special laws under

which damages by lightning are not made good, except to a limited

extent, by fire insurance companies, unless it is proved that the

edifices struck had been provided previously with efficient conductors.

These laws gave rise to a curious investigation some three or four

years ago. It was found that the principal fire insurance office--an

institution under the patronage of the Government, called the

‘Landesbrandkasse,’ or ‘County Fire Insurance Office’--had been called

upon a number of times to pay for damage caused by lightning in cases

where the buildings were provided with lightning conductors of the best

kind, in apparently perfect condition. Though the cases were very few

indeed--namely, but four out of 552 claims for damages from lightning

which had been made in the course of eight years--still, the interest

taken in the subject was so great, that the managers of the institution

appointed a special commissioner to inquire thoroughly into the

matter as to how it could happen that buildings provided with proper

conductors could ever be struck by lightning. The gentleman chosen to

undertake this task was Dr. W. Holtz, of Greifswald, well known as

having given much time to the study of the phenomena of electricity,

as well as the construction of lightning conductors. Dr. Holtz in due

course made his report, which was afterwards published in a scientific

journal called ‘Nachrichten des Naturwissenschaftlichen Vereins für

Neuvorpommern und Rügen,’ being the organ of a society under the latter

title. The report--which must be completely unknown in this country--is

full of interest, and well deserves being extracted from in several

notable particulars.

Dr. Holtz begins his report by referring to the well-known fact,

already dwelt upon, that in some instances lightning conductors have

got into disrepute because houses provided with them have been struck

and damaged. ‘Unhappily,’ he says, ‘there are still at the present

moment many persons who question the utility of conductors, simply

because it happens now and then, that lightning, apparently in entire

disregard of them, falls upon dwellings. These persons completely

overlook two facts, namely: first, that such cases are excessively

rare; and, secondly, what is far more important and more to the

point, that it is beyond dispute that whenever buildings nominally

provided with conductors are struck by lightning, these conductors are

not in an efficient state. Such buildings are absolutely in the same

condition as if they had no conductors at all.’ Dr. Holtz then goes on

to speak of his journey of inspection to inquire into the causes of

failure, or so-called failure, of lightning conductors. He says that,

having examined a vast number of conductors, he found that in a good

many instances real use had been sacrificed to ornament. He expresses

this somewhat quaintly, in scientific style, apparently with the

intention of not giving offence to anybody--not even to manufacturers

of lightning conductors. ‘It was found by me,’ Dr. Holtz states,

‘that the unreal was frequently placed above the real, and that many

lightning conductors, although very costly in the first instance,

afforded no certain protection.’ The meaning of this clearly is, that

too much attention is given to the upper part of conductors, especially

the pointed top--frequently covered with needless gilding--and far

too little to the part underground, forming the all-important earth

connection. It is a criticism true for other countries besides Germany.

Among the many interesting remarks of Dr. Holtz, evidently based on a

thorough knowledge of the subject which he treats, are some good ones

about the necessity of constructing lightning conductors, not slavishly

after old models, but in conformity with modern requirements, carefully

considering the nature of the buildings to be protected and their

materials. ‘The increase of metals,’ he says, ‘in the construction

of houses, both inside and outwardly, is assuming larger proportions

from year to year. An absolute consequence of it is, that the electric

force called lightning is tempted, far more than was the case in older

dwellings, not to go to the conductor at all, or, if attracted to

it, to leave the path afterwards, seeking other attractions. I found

this to have been the case, in the course of my investigations, in

several instances, two of them notable ones. The first was that of the

public school of the town of Elmshorm, struck by lightning away from

the conductor; and the second that of the church of St. Lawrence, in

the town of Itzehoe, where the conductor was struck at first, but the

lightning deviated subsequently from its metal path. In both cases I

found that the non-efficacy of the conductor was caused by a number of

gas-pipes. But there are many other metallic masses besides gas-pipes

which interfere thus with the proper action of lightning conductors.

More or less, all metals do so, especially those which lead to the

ground, or are in contact with moisture. Water-pipes will attract

the electric force even more than gas-pipes, and likewise the metal

tubes which carry the rain from the roof into the ground. But it may

also happen that mere ornaments on the roof, more particularly if of

thick metal, and carried all along the top and sides, may divert the

electric force from the conductor, although they have no connection

whatever with the ground. Even the many wires outside and inside

houses, for bells and other purposes, may do mischief. There can be

no doubt whatever that the large increase of the use of metals in the

construction and ornamentation of modern houses has led to far greater

danger to which they are exposed from lightning. At the same time

there is equally little doubt that all this increased danger may be

absolutely guarded against by the setting up of lightning conductors

by competent persons, carefully designed to meet all cases.’ Dr. Holtz

adds, further on, that one most important element of protection to

be obtained from conductors consists in the regular testing of them,

without which, indeed, there can be no permanent security.

What the writer says on the inspection of conductors is particularly

worth quoting. ‘A lightning conductor,’ he remarks, ‘however excellent

in the first instance, may lose all its good qualities, for several

reasons. In the first instance it may suffer, like all mundane things,

from age. The decrepitude will come on all the sooner whenever the

materials are not of the best kind, or whenever little care has been

taken in properly connecting the various parts. This is frequently

the case in conductors of old design. But, even if all has been done

that scientific skill can accomplish, age will make itself felt some

time or other. Oxidation will play its part; so will the warfare of

the elements. However safely secured at first, the attachment of the

parts to the buildings will get loose, or perhaps even broken. Repairs

consequently become indispensable. When are they to be effected? It

can only be indicated by testing the conductor from time to time.’

Dr. Holtz next dwells at some length on the necessity of conductors

being designed by thoroughly competent persons; not mere ‘lightning

rod men,’ who are able to take into account all the particulars of the

building which is to be protected, more especially the metal employed

in the construction. ‘A conductor,’ he truly remarks, ‘cannot be

expected to be a trustworthy protection against the destructive force

of lightning, if simply set up over a house without consideration of

its outer and inner features. Perhaps in buildings of olden times, into

the construction of which metals seldom or never entered, a simple

wire running from top to bottom, surmounted by an iron rod, was quite

sufficient, but this is no longer the case, all the circumstances

having been completely altered. The wire, however thin, was not merely

the best, but the only path for the electric force. But at present

the masses of metal used in the construction of buildings constitute

a number of rival paths, and it requires very careful consideration

indeed to lay down an absolutely infallible lightning conductor in such

a way as to overcome all influences opposing its action. Therefore

conductors of old construction can not only not be expected to be

efficacious under modern exigencies, but even those made at the present

time cannot be expected to be efficient under circumstances which,

probably, the future may bring forth. There is really nothing else to

make a lightning conductor a safe protection under all circumstances,

and at all times, but regular, constant, and skilful examination.’

To the three great causes before indicated which make the regular

testing of conductors an almost imperative necessity, several minor

ones may be added. Among them may be cited the frequency of repairs

of the walls and roofs of houses. Our modern houses, as we all know,

are not built, like those of the Romans, ‘for an eternity,’ but in the

vast majority, particularly in towns, are ‘leaseholds for ninety-nine

years.’ Many of them, perhaps, can scarcely be expected to last

ninety-nine years, being constructed by their builders on the principle

of Peter Pindar’s razors, ‘not to shave, but to sell.’ Hence the

absolute necessity of repairs without end. Without casting the least

slur upon the character of the artisans who execute these, bricklayers,

plasterers, painters, plumbers, and others, it may be fairly asserted

that they are densely ignorant as to the nature of lightning

conductors. It is not at all a wonder that this should be so, since

they share their ignorance with many persons of far higher education,

who know no more of the action of the electric force in seeking its

way from the clouds into moist earth than they do of that of a voltaic

apparatus, or of a condensing steam-engine. These artisans, then, in

whose hands the repairs of houses are left, naturally treat the narrow

strip of metal running from the top of houses to the bottom with great

indifference, not having the slightest idea of its being one of the

most marvellous conceptions of the human mind. It has been reported,

on good authority, that there are frequently workmen to be found, such

as house painters and others, whose business it is to ‘decorate’ the

outside of dwellings with the stuff called ‘stucco,’ who feel a sort

of mild hatred for lightning conductors, as interfering with their

achievements, and, as they think, disfiguring the beauties which they

are creating. Woe to the poor conductor within their reach! Unless very

conspicuously placed, which is rarely the case, the tenant of a house

will seldom discover in time that the slender rope, or ribbon, which

gives him and his family protection against lightning has been broken

by cunning hands when the last repairs were effected, and the ends

stowed away in the gutter on the roof. The discovery will be made, in

the absence of inspection, probably, only under the fierce light of a

flash of lightning from a passing thunderstorm.

If in towns the ever increasing accumulation of gas, of water, and of

drainage pipes constitutes a danger against the efficacy of lightning

conductors--to be guarded against only by frequent testing--there is

another source of danger arising in the country. It is in the planting

of new trees and the growth of old ones which is constantly going on

in the vicinity of the thousands of country houses and mansions with

which Great Britain is dotted from one end to the other, more than

any other country in the world. The fact has already been dwelt upon,

that trees are more liable to be struck by lightning than any other

natural objects, the reason of it being unknown, except in the very

probable surmise that the moisture in them forms the natural cause why

the electric force seeks its path through them to the earth. Whatever

the cause or causes, there can be no doubt that trees are incessantly

struck by lightning, and that they are the more exposed to be struck

the higher they are and the wider the extent of their branches.

Consequently, wherever trees are being planted, or growing up around

houses, the greatest care should be taken in designing lightning

conductors, so as to provide against the action exercised by them in

juxtaposition to the electric force. Thus, if trees, originally small,

should reach to such a height above dwellings as to make it possible

that a stroke of lightning will fall upon them, in preference to the

conductor, the arrangements for protection will have to be altered,

so as to ensure the safety of the house nearest these particular

trees. Again, if, as often happens, there are new trees planted near

a building the side of which has no protection whatever, such as a

greenhouse or conservatory, the conductor should be extended in this

direction. In connection with trees, mention must be made of wells

and fountains, as possible dangers to the proper action of lightning

conductors. Many a disaster has been caused by newly-made wells to

dwellings which were previously well protected by conductors. The

only safeguard against danger arising from these and numerous other

causes, which it would be tedious to specify, lies in careful, constant

inspection and testing of conductors.

It is lamentable to think that while the regular inspection of

lightning conductors has been admitted long ago to be a necessity in

many countries on the Continent of Europe, we as yet have taken no

steps whatever to realise it. There is, probably, not a single public

building in England which has conductors systematically tested from

time to time. While there are tens of thousands of edifices, private

and public, that are entirely without protection against lightning,

there are many thousands of others which, nominally protected, are

in reality in the same position. They have conductors, but it is

impossible to say whether they would be efficacious were a more than

usually heavy stroke of lightning to fall upon them. The inmates of

such dwellings live in fancied security, which is the more to be

deplored, as it would be so easy to make it real. All that is required

is a knowledge of the subject. With the growth of such knowledge it is

certain that the inspection of conductors will become general, with

the good effect, above all others, of setting at rest all doubts as

to the infallible security they afford, if properly constructed and

maintained, against damage from lightning.

APPENDIX.

_BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORKS BEARING UPON LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS._

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THOS. NEALE. Effect of Thunder and Lightning. Phil. Trans. i.

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1670.    Effects of Lightning at Stralsund. Phil. Trans. v. 2084.

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1683–4.  DR. LISTER. On Thunder and Lightning. Phil. Trans. xiv.

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SIR R. S. On the Effect of Thunder on the Compass of a

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DR. WALLIS. On the Effects of Thunder and Lightning. Phil.

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4to. Bordeaux.

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habita 1753 4to. Petrop.

CH. RABIQUEAU. Le Spectacle de la Nature du Feu

élémentaire, ou cours d’Electricité expérimentale, où

l’on trouve l’explication, la cause et le mechanisme du

feu dans son origine, de là dans les corps, son action

sur la bougie, sur le bois, etc. etc. 8vo. Paris.

DE ROMAS. Neuer elektr. Versuch mit dem fliegenden Drachen

am 14. Nov. 1753. Journ. d. Sav. Dec. 1753.

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J. H. WINKLERI de avertendi Fulminis Artificio secundum

Electricitatis doctrinam Commentatio. 4to. Lips.

1754.    J. P. EBERHARD’s Gedanken von den Ursachen der Gewitter

und ihrer Aehnlichkeit mit der Elektricität. No. 31–33.

Wöch. Hall. Anzeig. vom J. 1754.

E. M. FAIT. Observations concerning the Thunder and

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PROF. C. V. ZENGER. On Symmetric Conductors and the

Construction of Lightning Conductors. Brit. Assoc.

Report, 1873, 41.

M. D. COLLADON. Effects of Lightning on Trees. Compt. Rend.

19. Nov. 1872.

W. H. PREECE. On Lightning and Lightning Conductors. Jour.

Soc. Tel. Eng. i. 336.

JAS. GRAVES. On Lightning Conductors. Ib. p. 413.

1873.    W. DE FONVIELLE. Note sur un Projet de Paratonnerres à

Condensateur. Compt. Rend. lxxvi. 384.

W. DE FONVIELLE. Sur Différents Mouvements électriques

observés sur le Paratonnerre interrompu de

l’Observatoire de Greenwich. Ib. 1282.

W. DE FONVIELLE. Sur les Causes multiples qui provoquent

la chute de la Foudre. Ib. 1394.

W. DE FONVIELLE. On the Advantages of keeping Records of

Physical Phenomena connected with Thunderstorms. Brit.

Assoc. Report, 55. 1873.

JNO. M. MOTT. Lightning and Lightning Rods. Journal of the

Franklin Institute. 8vo.

E. GRENET. Construction de Paratonnerres. 8vo. Paris.

PROFESSOR REYNOLDS. On the Electrical Properties of Clouds and

the Phenomena of Thunderstorms. Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng.

ii. 161.

DD. BROOKS. Lightning and Lightning Rods. Journal of the

Franklin Institute, lxvi. 4.

J. PHIN. Plain Directions for the Construction of

Lightning Rods. 8vo. New York.

1874.    A. CALLAND. Traité des Paratonnerres--leur Utilité,

leur Théorie, leur Construction. 8vo. Paris.

F. GAY-LUSSAC et CLAUDE POUILLET. Introduction sur les

Paratonnerres, adoptée par l’Académie des Sciences.

8vo. Paris.

E. NOUEL. Orage du 26 Mai à Vendôme: projet de

Paratonnerre simplifié. Compt. Rend. lxxix. 237.

F. MICHEL. Une Note relative à la Forme à donner aux

Conducteurs des Paratonnerres. Ib. 1481.

M. MELSENS. Deuxième Note sur les Paratonnerres. Bulletin

de l’Académie, Roy. de Belgique, xxxviii. 8.

M. MELSENS. Troisième Note sur les Paratonnerres. Acad.

Royale de Belgique, xxxviii. 9, 10.

1875.    M. MELSENS. Quatrième Note sur les Paratonnerres.

Bulletin de l’Académ. Roy. de Belgique, xxxix. 6.

PRÉFET DE LA SEINE. Instruction adoptée par la Commission qui

a été chargée d’étudier la meilleure disposition à

donner aux Paratonnerres surmontant les Edifices

municipaux et departementaux. Comp. Rend. lxxxi. 1118.

E. SAINT-EDME. Sur la Construction des Paratonnerres. Ib.

949.

J. CHEMINEAU. Une Description et un Dessin de

Perfectionnement apportés aux Paratonnerres. Ib. 1203.

M. FIZEAU. Avis de la Commission des Paratonnerres sur une

Disposition nouvelle proposée pour les Magasins à

Poudre. Ib. lxxx. 1440.

LT. COLONEL STOTHERD, R.E. On Earth Connections of

Lightning Conductors. Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng. iv. 262.

J. CLERK MAXWELL. Lightning Conductors. Ib. 429.

DR. ANTONIN DE BEAUFORT. Notice sur les Paratonnerres. 8vo.

Chateauroux.

J. F. SPRAGUE. Electricity: its Theory, Sources, and

Applications. 8vo. London.

DR. MANN. Lightning Conductors. Jour. Soc. of Arts. xxiii.

528.

R. F. MICHEL. On the Construction and Maintenance of

Lightning Conductors. Tel. Jour. iii. 44, 63.

1876.    R. F. MICHEL. Note sur la Méthode à employer pour

l’Essai des Conditions de Conductibilité des

Paratonnerres. Compt. Rend. lxxxii. 342.

R. F. MICHEL. Sur les Inconvénients que présente l’Emploi

d’un Câble en fils de cuivre comme Conducteur de

Paratonnerre. Ib. 1332.

E. SAINT-EDME. Construction of Lightning Protectors. Tel.

Jour. iv. 40.

EUSTACE BUTTON. Notes on a Thunder-Storm which passed over

Clevedon March 15, 1876. Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng. v. 260.

W. E. AYRTON and JNO. PERRY. On Lightning Conductors. Ib.

412. Lightning Conductors in Paris. Nature, xiii. 357.

R. J. MANN. On the Construction of Lightning Conductors.

Proc. Meteorological Soc. 8vo. London.

O. BUCHNER. Die Konstruction und Anlegung der

Blitzableiter, mit einem Atlas. 2nd edition. 8vo.

Weimar.

Electric Conductors and Tall Chimneys. Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng. v.

531.

J. CLERK MAXWELL. On the Protection of Buildings from

Lightning. Brit. Assoc. Report, 1877, 43.

R. S. NEWALL. Lightning Conductors; their use as Protectors

of Buildings, and how to apply them. 8vo. London.

1877.    R. WILSON. Boiler and Factory Chimneys; with a Chapter

on Lightning Conductors. 8vo. London.

H. W. SPANG. A Practical Treatise on Lightning Protection.

8vo. Philadelphia.

R. S. BROUGH. On a case of Lightning, with an Evaluation of

the Potential and Quantity of the Discharge in absolute

Measure. Philos. Mag. vol. iv. (5 s.), 105.

DR. HELLMAN. On Thunderstorms in Central Europe. (Pogg.

Ann.) ‘Nature,’ xv. 263.

M. JARRIANT. Sur une Nouvelle Disposition des Tiges du

Paratonnerre. Compt. Rend. lxxxiv. 217.

R. S. NEWALL. Should a Lightning Conductor be insulated?

Times, April 12.

M. MELSENS. De l’Application du Rhé-electromètre aux

Paratonnerres des Télégraphes. Bulletins de l’Académie

Royale de Belgique. xliii. No. 5.

M. MELSENS. Des Paratonnerres à pointes, à conducteurs et

à raccordements terrestres multiples. 8vo. Bruxelles.

1878.    M. MELSENS. Cinquième Note sur les Paratonnerres.

Bulletins de l’Acad. Royale de Belgique, xlvi. No. 7.

W. HOLTZ. Ueber die Theorie, die Anlage und die Prüfung

der Blitzableiter. 8vo. Greifswald.

E. CARTAILHAC. Superstitions about Thunderstorms. L’Age de

Pierre dans les Souvenirs et Superstitions populaires.

8vo. Paris.

R. J. MANN. Further Remarks concerning the Lightning Rod.

Jour. Soc. Arts, xxvi. 328.

M. MASCARL. On Artificial Thunderstorms. Nature, xvii. 515.

R. P. BROWN. Effects of a Thunderstorm on the Colon

Lighthouse. Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng. vi. 330.

PROF. C. V. ZENGER. On the Law and Origin of Thunderstorms,

from the Bulletin International, Paris. Nature, xvii.

362.

RICHARD ANDERSON. On Lightning Conductors and Accidents by

Lightning. The Electrician, vol. i. 215.

DR. NIPPOLDT. Dimensions of Lightning Rods. Telegraphic

Journal, vi. 78.

J. B. JOULE. On a Remarkable Flash of Lightning. Nature,

xviii. 260.

1879.    S. A. R. On the Cause of Thunder. Nature, xx. 29.

R. S. NEWALL. On the Importance of a Sufficient Earth Contact

for Lightning Conductors. Times, May 30 and June 14.

Curious Effects of Lightning. Electrician, vol. iii. 181.

AYRTON and PERRY. On the Earth Connection of Lightning

Conductors. Nature, xix. 475.

G. W. CAMPHUIS. On the Effects of Lightning. Nature, xx. 96.

R. S. NEWALL. On Lightning Conductors. Nature, xx. 145.

CHARLES S. TOMES. On Lightning Conductors. Nature, xx. 145.

INDEX.

A

PAGE

Accidents and fatalities from lightning 169–197

Admont, Styria, convent struck by lightning 67

Air-pump, the inventor of the 2

Alatri, the Cathedral of, struck by lightning 203

———— Father Secchi’s account thereof 203

Allamand (John Nicholas), his researches on electricity 4

Amber or ‘Electron’ and its properties 1

America, lightning protection in 133

———— the tramping ‘Lightning-rodmen’ of 133

———— account of the details of the American system 134

———— utilisation of gutters and rain-pipes in 134

———— the protection of chimneys and air-shafts in 136

———— the method of constructing the earth-terminal in 136

———— the protection of mineral oil tanks 138

Antrasme, France, church twice struck by lightning at the same

point 65

———— Arago’s remarks thereof 66

Arago on the observation of thunderstorms 62

———— on the efficiency of lightning-conductors 73

———— on whether lightning-conductors should be carried down

inside or outside a building 159

Area of protection theory 77, 101, 126, 145

Auffangstange, the German 145

Austria, statistics of fires caused by lightning in 174

B

Baden, statistics of deaths from lightning in 173

‘Balls _v._ points,’ the controversy of 40

Banker’s iron safe struck by lightning 221

Bavaria, statistics of fires caused by lightning in 173

Becquerel (Antoine C.), his experiments on the conductivity of

metals 51

Bevis (Dr.), experiments in electricity 7

Bibliography of works bearing upon lightning-conductors 231

Black Rock, Cork, St. Michael’s Church struck by lightning 184

Brass wire, the use of, for lightning-conductors 105, 107

Brescia, Italy, powder-magazine destroyed by lightning 200

Brussels, the Hôtel de Ville. The system of lightning-conductors

at 111

Buffon (Count de), his opinion of Franklin’s first pamphlet on

electricity 19

Buffon (Count de), his promotion of experiments in electricity 20

Buttor (Eustace) account of the striking of Christ Church,

Clevedon, by lightning 208

C

Carthusian monks at Paris, electrical experiments made on 6

Cavendish (Lord Charles), experiments in electricity 7

Chains, iron, the use of, for lightning-conductors 102

Chimney-shafts, the protection of, from lightning 163

Chimneys and air-shafts, the protection of, from lightning in

America 136

Churches struck by lightning 27, 38, 64, 65, 146, 147, 153, 176,

177, 181, 182, 183, 184, _see also_ 186–196, 201, 203, 208

Churches, the protection of, from lightning 152, 156

Coiffier first draws lightning from the atmosphere 21

Cleopatra’s Needle, the protection of, from lightning 141

Clevedon, Christ Church struck by lightning 208

———— Eustace Buttor’s account thereof 208

Cockburn (Sir George) and Sir William Snow Harris 89

Collinson (Peter) Correspondence with Benjamin Franklin 12, 13, 17

Compass reversed by a lightning-stroke 56

Compensator for contraction and expansion in lightning-conductors 128

Copper, the relative value of different kinds of 109

———— the necessity for its purity when used for

lightning-conductors 109

———— and iron, the relative electrical conductivity of 52, 143

———— rope-conductors, the proper thickness and weight for

different buildings 151

———— description of 62, 164

Cromer, Norfolk, church damaged by lightning 147

Cuneus, his experiments in electricity 4

Cyprus, the copper of 52

D

Dalibard (M.), his experiments in electricity 20

Davy (Sir Humphrey), his experiments on the conductivity of metals 50

Deaths from lightning, statistics of 170–175

De la Rive (Professor) on the origin of atmospheric electricity 71

Dumdum, India, destruction of a magazine by lightning at 92

E

Earth connection, the French methods of arranging the 131

———— general description of 198–217

———— Benjamin Franklin on 199

———— Rev. Dr. Hemmer on 200

———— Professor Landriani on 201

Electrical machines, Otto von Guericke’s 2

———— Sir Isaac Newton’s 2

‘Electrical tubes,’ the mania for 9, 10

Electricity, the early history of 1

———— the discovery of the instantaneity of its movement 8

———— positive and negative, Benjamin Franklin on 26

‘Electron’ or amber, and its properties 1

Electro-magnetism, Hans Oersted’s researches in 57

England and Wales, deaths from lightning in 170

England, lightning protection in 140–168

F

Fatalities and accidents from lightning 169–197

Fires caused by lightning in Russia 171

Folkes (Martin), experiments in electricity 7

France, the ‘Instruction’ of the Paris Academy on

lightning-conductors 75

———— the general adoption of lightning-conductors in 77

———— the protection of powder-magazines in, from lightning 82

———— lightning protection in 125

———— neglect of lightning-conductors in 125

———— account of the details of the French system 126

———— the ‘area of protection’ theory in 126

———— the ‘ridge-circuit’ as used in 129

———— deaths from lightning in 171

Franklin (Benjamin), his early life 10, 11

———— his first experiments in electricity 12–19

———— correspondence thereon with Peter Collinson 12, 13, 17

———— on the identity of lightning and electricity 16

———— ‘New Experiments and Observations in Electricity’ 18

———— his ‘kite’ experiment 22

———— honours conferred on him 24

———— his first lightning-conductor 25

———— his experiments therewith 25

———— on positive and negative electricity 26

———— his lightning-conductor on West’s house 30

———— his letter to Professor Winthrop defending

lightning-conductors 36

———— his troubles in making his first lightning-conductor 101

———— on the earth connection of lightning-conductors 199

French technical terms for lightning-conductors 102

Fuller (Thomas) on fires caused by lightning 176

G

Galvani’s experiments on animal electricity 70

Galvanometer, the invention of the 58

———— a new form of 60

Geneva, the progress of lightning-conductors in 43

Genoa, St. Mary’s Church struck by lightning 201

———— Professor Landriani thereon 202

‘Gentleman’s Magazine’ _quoted_ 40

George III., his opinions on lightning-conductors 41, 42

German technical terms for lightning-conductors 102

———— theories on the earth connection 212, 214

Germany, the progress of lightning-conductors in 43

Gilbert (Dr. William), his electrical discoveries 2

Gratz, Austria, buildings struck by lightning at 68

Gray (Stephen), his researches on electricity 3

Guericke (Otto von) his electrical machine 2

H

Harris (Sir William Snow) his efforts for the protection of ships

from the effects of lightning 85

———— and Sir George Cockburn 89

———— his system for protecting ships 90

———— his ‘Instructions for powder-magazines’ 93

———— his system for the protection of Westminster Palace 98, 118

Hauksbee (Francis), his researches on electricity 2

Height of lightning-clouds 67

Hemmer (Rev. Dr.), his theories on the earth connection 200

Henly’s system for protecting ships from lightning 90

‘Heretical-rods’ 44

Highbury Barn, electrical experiments made at 8

Holtz (Dr. W.), on the construction and maintenance of

lightning-conductors 223

Humboldt (Alex. von) on the height of lightning-clouds 67

I

India, the use of lightning-conductors in 92

Ingenhousz (Dr. Johan) and lightning-conductors 47

Inspection of lightning-conductors 218–229

‘Instruction’ of the Paris Academy on lightning-conductors 75

Insulators, the dangers of 147, 160, 176

Iron and Copper, the relative electrical conductivity of 52, 143

———— safe, a banker’s, struck by lightning 221

Italy, the progress of lightning-conductors in 44

J

Jarriant’s system of lightning-protection 133

Josephus’ account of Solomon’s Temple 63

K

Kant (Immanuel) on Benjamin Franklin 24

Kastner (Professor), his report on the partial destruction of

Rosstall Church by lightning 106

Kew, lightning-conductor erected by George III. at 41

Kinnersley (Ebenezer), his lectures on lightning-conductors 27

Kite, Benjamin Franklin’s experiment with 22

Kleist (Ewald George von) and the discovery of the Leyden Jar 5

L

Landriani (Professor), his theories of earth protection 201

Laughton-en-le-Morthen, church damaged by lightning 153, 176

———— R. S. Newall’s comments thereon 153, 154

Lead, the use of, for lightning-conductors 104

Leicester, St. George’s Church struck by lightning 177

Lenz (Professor) his experiments on the conductivity of metals 52

Leopold, Duke of Tuscany, and lightning-conductors 44

Le Roy (David) and the protection of the Louvre from lightning 80

———— (J. B.), his theory of protecting buildings from lightning 101

Leyden Jar, the first discovery of the 5

Lightning, superstitions in regard to 63

Lightning-clouds, the height of 67

Lightning-conductors, the discovery of 17–24

———— early experiments with 25, 33

———— the clergy on 26

———— Professor Winthrop’s defence of 26, 27

———— E. Kinnersley’s lectures on 27

———— ‘Poor Richard’s Almanac’ on 28

———— the gradual spread of 34–48

———— Abbé Nollet’s animadversions on 35, 37

———— Franklin’s reply thereto 36, 37

———— their general use in North America 38

———— their first erection on St. Paul’s 39

———— their progress in Germany 43

———— Italy 44

———— the various metals used for 50

———— Arago on the efficiency of 73

———— the French ‘Instruction’ on 75

———— Professor Pouillet on 78

———— for ships 85

———— Sir William Watson’s system of, for ships 87

———— Sir William Snow Harris’s system of, for ships 90

———— F. McTaggart’s opinion of 92

———— their use in India 92

———— the best material for 100–110

———— German and French technical terms for 102

———— and weathercocks 121

———— Jarriant’s form of 133

———— the twofold function of 142

———— the insulation of 147, 160, 176

———— Newall’s system of 140–168

———— should they be carried down inside or outside the building 158

———— Professor Clerk Maxwell’s theory of 164

———— the necessity for periodically inspecting 218

———— Dr. W. Holtz on the construction and maintenance of 223

‘Lightning-rod men,’ the tramping, of America 133

Lightning and thunderstorms, character of 62

———— protection, inquiries into 73–84

Line of least resistance, the 142, 148

Lisle (M. de) on the height of lightning-clouds 67

Louis XV. and experiments in electricity 6, 19

Louvre, the protection of the, from lightning 80

———— the first public building in France fitted with

lightning-conductors 80

M

McTaggart (F.), his opinion of lightning-conductors 92

Magnetisation of metals by lightning 56

Magnetism and lightning, the connection between 56

Majendie (Major), report on the destruction by lightning of the

powder magazine, Victoria Colliery, Burntcliffe 147

Marly-la-Ville, Dalibard’s electrical experiments at 20

Matthiessen (Professor), his researches on the conductivity of

copper 109

Maxwell (Professor Clerk, F.R.S.), his theory of lightning

protection 164

Melsens (Professor), his system of lightning-conductors at the

Hotel de Ville, Brussels 111

Merton College Chapel, Oxford, struck by lightning 182

Metals as conductors of electricity 49–61

Metals, the different conductivity of various 50–55

Michel (R. F.), his modified terminal-rod 132

Mineral oil-tanks, the protection of, from lightning in America 138

Monks, Carthusian, electrical experiments made on 6

Musschenbroek (Peter Van), his researches on electricity 4, 5

N

Newall (R. S., F.R.S.), his copper-rope manufactory 110, 142

———— on the church at Laughton-en-le-Morthen being struck by

lightning 153, 154

Newall’s system of protecting buildings from lightning 140

———— copper-rope conductors 162, 164

Newbury Church, Massachusetts, struck by lightning 27

New River, electrical experiments made on the 8

Newton (Sir Isaac), his electrical machine 2

Nollet (Abbé), his criticisms on Franklin’s electrical

experiments 19, 35

———— his animadversions on lightning-conductors 35, 37

———— Franklin’s reply thereto 36, 37

O

Oersted (Hans Christian) his researches in electro-magnetism 55, 57

Ohm (Professor), his experiments on the conductivity of metals 53

Ohm’s law 59

Oil, mineral, tanks, the protection of, from lightning in America 138

Orsini family and lightning-conductors 64

Oxford, Merton College Chapel struck by lightning 182

P

Padua, the first lightning-conductor in 48

Painting lightning-conductors 129

Paratonnerres, the Paris Academy ‘Instruction’ on 75

Paris Academy, the ‘Instruction’ of the, on lightning-conductors 75

Paris, death of two persons by the fall of a ‘tige’ from steeple

of St. Gervais 146

Peltier (Jean Athanase), his researches in electricity 71

‘Physico-mechanical experiments,’ Hauksbee’s 3

Pliny the Elder, on the observation of thunderstorms 62

‘Points _v._ balls,’ the controversy of 40

‘Poor Richard’s Almanac’ and lightning-conductors 28

Pope, the, on electrical experiments on monks 7

Pouillet (Professor Claude), his experiment on the conductivity of

metals 54

———— on lightning-conductors 78

Powder-magazines in France, the protection of, from lightning 82

———— Sir William Snow Harris’s instruction for protecting 93

Pringle (Sir John) his resignation of the Presidency of the Royal

Society in 1777 41

Protestantism and lightning-conductors 43

Prussia, statistics of deaths from lightning in 170

Purfleet, building struck by lightning in 1777 41

R

Rarefied air, the conductivity of 142, 149

Raven (Mr.), his house in Carolina, U.S., struck by lightning 159

———— Arago’s comments thereon 159

Réaumur (Rene Antoine de) Musschenbroek’s letter to, on the Leyden

Jar 5

‘Return strokes’ of lightning 70

Richmann (Professor G. W.), his experiments on electricity 31

———— his death thereby 32

‘Ridge Circuit’ as used in France 129

Robespierre and lightning-conductors 36, 43

Roman Catholicism and lightning-conductors 42, 44

Rosenburg, Austria, church repeatedly struck by lightning at 64

Rosstall, Bavaria, church struck by lightning at 105

———— Professor Kastner’s report thereon 106

Royal Navy, vessels of the, destroyed by lightning 88

Royal Society and Benjamin Franklin 17

Russia, statistics of deaths from lightning in 171

S

St. Bride’s Church, London, struck by lightning in 1764 38

———— Dr. William Watson’s account thereof 39

———— account of the damage done 183

St. Omer, the first lightning-conductor at 35

St. Paul’s Cathedral, the erection of lightning-conductors upon 39–41

Saussure (Professor Horace de) erects the first lightning-conductor

in Geneva 43

———— the opposition thereto and his manifesto thereon 43, 44

———— on the height of lightning-clouds 67

———— on the origin of atmospheric electricity 70

Schleswig-Holstein, thunderstorms in 222

Secchi (Father) on the protection of churches from lightning 203

Ships destroyed by lightning, statistics of 88

Shooter’s Hill, electrical experiments made at 8

Siena, the erection of lightning-conductors on the Cathedral at 45

Smoke, the conductivity of 142

Solokow and Professor Richmann’s experiment in electricity 32

Solomon’s Temple, its immunity from lightning-strokes 63

Staples for lightning-conductors 163

Statistics of deaths, fires, and damage caused by lightning 170

Superstitions in regard to lightning 63

Sweden, statistics of deaths from lightning in 172

Switzerland, statistics of deaths caused by lightning in 175

T

Terminal-rods, Newall’s 144

Thomson (Sir William, F.R.S.), his researches on the conductivity

of copper 109

Thunderstorms and lightning, the character of 62

‘Tightening-screw,’ the 162

Tin, the use of, for lightning-conductors 104

Toaldo (Abbé Giuseppe) and lightning-conductors 45

‘Tomlinson’s Thunderstorm,’ _quoted_ 177

Torpedo fish and electric shocks 1

Trees, their liability to be struck by lightning 228

Tuscany, the erection of lightning-conductors upon

powder-magazines in 48

U

United States, lightning protection in 133

Units, the law of 68

V

Vaccination and lightning-conductors, analogy between the progress

of 46

Venice, the erection of lightning-conductors in 48

Victoria Colliery, Burntcliffe, destruction of the magazine by

lightning 146

———— Major Majendie’s report thereon 147

Volta and the ‘return stroke’ 70

Voltaire, his _bon mot_ concerning lightning 158

W

Wall (Dr.), on electricity and lightning 3

Watson (Dr. William), experiments in electricity 7

———— the first to erect a lightning-conductor in England 38

———— on St. Bride’s Church being struck by lightning 39

———— and the protection of the Royal Navy from lightning 86

Weathercocks and lightning-conductors 21

Weber (Dr.) and the law of units 59

West-End Church, Southampton, struck by lightning 181

Westminster Bridge, electrical experiments made from 7

———— Palace, the system of lightning-conductors at 98, 118

Wilson, the advocate of ‘balls _versus_ points’ 40

Winckler (Dr.), his experiments in electricity 5, 6

Windsor Castle inadequately provided with lightning-conductors 175

Winthrop (Professor), his defence of lightning-conductors 26, 27

———— Franklin’s letter to, defending lightning-conductors 36

Wurtemberg, statistics of deaths caused by lightning in 175

Y

Yelin (J. C. von) his advocacy of brass wire for

lightning-conductors 105

_Spottiswoode & Co., Printers, New-Street Square, London._

Transcriber’s Notes

Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a

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changed.

Simple typographical errors were corrected; occasional unbalanced

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End of Project Gutenberg's Lightning Conductors, by Richard Anderson