While Pompey was absent in the East, matters at Rome were daily becoming
worse, and shaping themselves for the speedy overthrow of the Republic.
There were many who had suffered under Sulla, and who were anxious to
regain what they had lost, and there were many who, enriched by the
Dictator, had squandered their ill-gotten wealth, and now only waited
a leader to renew the assault upon the state. The Senate was jealous of
the power of the people, and the people distrusted the Senate.
Among the patricians who were aspiring to the consulship was LUCIUS
SERGIUS CATILINA, a villain steeped in every crime, but adroit, bold,
and withal captivating. In 68 he had been Praetor, the next year
Governor in Africa, where by his extortions he had obtained enough
money, as he hoped, to purchase his election to the consulship. On
his return home he was impeached for his misgovernment, but acquitted
through Cicero's defence and the careful selection of a jury.
He then came forward as candidate for the consulship of the next year
(63). There were two other candidates, Antonius, the uncle of Mark
Antony, and Cicero himself. Antony was sure of an election, so the
struggle was really between Catiline and Cicero. The latter was elected,
owing to the popularity he had acquired by his prosecution of Verres and
his defence of the Manilian Law. Thus Cicero reached the goal for which
he had been so long striving.
Caesar was rising at the same time. The year previous (65) he had
been Curule Aedile, had built a row of costly columns in front of the
Capitol, and erected a temple to the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux). But
what made him especially pleasing to the populace was his lavish display
at the public games and exhibitions.
Caesar was now looked upon as a prominent democratic leader. In 63
the office of Pontifex Maximus, the head of the state religion, became
vacant by the death of its occupant, Metellus Pius. Caesar became a
candidate for the office, and was elected, receiving more votes than
both the rival candidates combined. He also received further evidence of
the popular favor by being chosen Praetor for the next year (62).
Cicero's consulship would have closed without adding anything to his
fame had it not been for Catiline. The latter's failure to be elected
caused him to enter into a plot to seize and burn the city. He had many
followers, men of noble families, among whom were the former Consul
Lentulus, who had been recently expelled from the Senate by the Censors,
and Cethegus, a bankrupt spendthrift, who was anxious to regain a
fortune by a change in government. There were veterans of Sulla,
starving peasants who had been dispossessed of their farms, and outlaws
of every description. The conspirators were divided into two parties;
those outside of the city, headed by Marcus Manlius, whose head-quarters
were at Faesulae (Fiesole), where was gathered an army of trained
soldiers; and those inside of the city, headed by Catiline. Here secret
meetings were held, the purpose of which was to excite an uprising, kill
the magistrates, seize the government, and then unite with the army in
Etruria. Cicero was informed of these meetings by spies, and just
before the plans for the uprising were matured, he disclosed them to the
Senate.
Catiline fled from Rome; but his accomplices, of whom Lentulus and
Cethegus were the most prominent, were arrested in the city. A serious
difficulty now arose as to the disposition of the prisoners. Lentulus
was at that time Praetor, and the persons of public officers were
sacred. The Sempronian Law of Gracchus forbade the executing of any
Roman citizen without giving him a right of appeal to the Assembly. Too
many were implicated in the conspiracy for this to be safe.
In the debate in the Senate, the principal speakers were Caesar, Cato,
and Cicero.
Cato and Cicero advocated immediate death; Caesar, imprisonment for
life. The motives of the men are so characteristic that they form a
complete key to their several public careers. Cicero, vain and selfish,
weak in council, and distrustful of the temper of the people and of
his own ability to rule their factions, feared that they would become
dangerous enemies to himself; Cato, desiring the reformation of the
state, would make an example and warning for the future. The one,
forgetful of the state, was overcome by personal fears; the other,
unmindful of self, would have purity at any cost.
Caesar, on the other hand, wished everything done in strict accordance
with the laws; as a bold and wise statesman, he urged that nothing was
more impolitic than lawless violence on the part of the rulers. Cicero
was the timid magistrate; Cato, the injudicious reformer; but Caesar,
with his keener knowledge and stronger hand, was the safer guide.
A sentence of death was voted; and Cicero, with unseemly haste, caused
the conspirators to be strangled that same night (December 5, 63). The
suppression of the conspiracy in the city was followed by the defeat
of the army in Etruria. Thither Catiline had fled, and there he fell
fighting with desperate courage at the head of his motley force of
soldiers near Pistoria.
The name of "Father of his Country" was given to Cicero for the
vigilance shown in this affair.
The execution of Lentulus and Cethegus resulted as Caesar had expected.
It was a lawless act on the part of the Consul and the Senate, and it
was felt that by it the constitution was still more endangered. The
people demanded that Pompey return. In him they thought to have a
deliverer from internal strifes.
Cicero was wrapped up in his own conceit, imagining himself a second
Romulus. On the last day of the year (63), as was the custom of the
retiring Consuls, he arose in the Forum to deliver a speech, reviewing
the acts of his year of consulship. Metellus Nepos, a Tribune, forbade
his speaking, on the ground that one who had put to death Roman citizens
without a hearing did not deserve to be heard. Amid the uproar Cicero
could only shout that he had saved his country. Metellus threatened to
impeach him, and excitement in the city was at fever heat. The Tribune
moved before the Assembly that Pompey be recalled. The Senate feared his
coming. Caesar, who was now Praetor (judge), favored it, and earnestly
seconded the proposal of Metellus. Cato, who was also Tribune, ordered
Metellus to stop speaking, and snatched his manuscript from his
hand. The aristocrats drew their swords, and broke up the meeting.
Constitutional law was trampled under foot on all sides. The Senate was
riding rough-shod over all opponents. Metellus and Caesar were declared
deposed from their offices. The people, however, believed in Caesar. He
was followed to his home by crowds, who begged him to be their leader,
and make an example of the law-breakers in the Senate. But Caesar
refused. He would have nothing to do with lawlessness; he let his
opponents play that _role_, and awaited the results. The Senate soon saw
its mistake, and requested him to resume his official duties.
The next year (61) Caesar was sent to Farther Spain as Propraetor. He
had already left a favorable impression there as Quaestor. Portions of
the country were still unsubdued. Many of the mountain passes were held
by robbers, whose depredations caused much trouble. He completed the
subjugation of the peninsula, put down the brigands, reorganized the
government, and sent large sums of money to the treasury at Rome. His
administration was thorough and complete, and a just reward for it
would, he hoped, be the consulship.
Meanwhile Pompey had returned from the East. He landed at Brundisium in
December, 62, and proceeded with a large band of captured princes
and immense treasures to Rome, which he entered in triumph amidst the
greatest enthusiasm. By a special vote of the Senate he was permitted to
wear his triumphal robe in that body whenever he pleased.
Caesar returned from Spain in 60, with wealth and military fame. Though
feared and detested by the Senate, he was the favorite of the people,
and could depend upon their support. Pompey had the army behind him.
He received Caesar with pleasure, for he had been a friend in all his
career.
Caesar felt that, with the people and the army through Pompey on his
side, he only needed the capitalists to make his success sure. CRASSUS
was counted as the richest man at Rome. He was won over. These three
then formed what is known as the FIRST TRIUMVIRATE,--"a union of
shrewdness, renown, and riches," by which Caesar expected to rise to
great power, Pompey to retain his power, and Crassus to gain greater
wealth.