At this time there was a bitter rivalry between the Senate and the
equestrian order, or commercial class. From the former were chosen
the governors of the provinces, from the latter came the tax-gatherers
(_publicani_) and the money-brokers (_negotiatores_). It will help us to
understand better the condition of affairs, if we study the composition
of the Senate and the Equites.
The Senators, three hundred in number (later their number was increased
to six hundred), held their office for life. When vacancies occurred
from death, or occasionally from removal, they were filled by the
Censor, (Footnote: See the duties of Censor) who appointed a person that
had held one of the following offices: Dictator, Consul, Praetor, Curule
Aedile, or, after the time of Sulla, Quaestor. All persons who had held
these offices, or that of Tribune, were allowed to join in debate in the
Senate, but not to vote. No Senator could engage in business. Hence he
must be wealthy.
We saw in Chapter IV. that Roman citizens were divided into six classes
according to their property, and that these classes were subdivided into
one hundred and ninety-three other classes called centuries. About 225,
the number was increased to three hundred and seventy-three. Eighteen
of the centuries of the first class were called EQUITES, and must have
property worth twenty thousand dollars or more. This name was given to
them because at first they served in the army as horsemen, though in
later times the cavalry was composed only of allied troops. The Equites
were originally from the aristocracy alone, but, as the plebeians
increased in wealth, many of them became rich enough to be included in
this class.
There was no hostility between the Senate and the Equites until, in 123,
Gaius Gracchus passed the _Lex Judicaria_, which prescribed that the
jurors _(judices)_ should be chosen from the Equites, and not the
Senate. From this time dates the struggle between the two classes,
and the breach widened every year. On the one side were the nobles,
represented by the Senate; on the other side, the equestrian order.
Since the jurors were chosen from the latter, it had control of the
courts, and often made an unscrupulous use of its power, especially in
those courts which were established to try governors for extortion in
the management of provinces _(quaestiones rerum repetundarum)_. From
the Equites, too, were taken the tax-gatherers of the provinces. They
pillaged and robbed the people at will, and, if a governor had the
courage to interfere with them, a threat of prosecution was held over
his head. The average governor preferred to connive at their exactions;
the bolder ones paid with fines or exiles for their courage. Another
trouble was threatening the commonwealth. The Italian allies of Rome did
not possess the franchise belonging to a Roman citizen. For nearly two
centuries they had shared dangers and victories with the Romans; they
now eagerly demanded all their privileges.
In 91, MARCUS LIVIUS DRUSUS, the Tribune, took up the task of reform.
He was noble, wealthy, and popular, and he hoped to settle the
question peacefully and equitably. But his attempt to reform the
courts displeased the Equites, his agrarian and corn laws made him many
enemies, and his attempt to admit the Italians to the rights of Roman
citizenship aroused great opposition.
His laws were passed, but the Senate pronounced them null and void.
He was denounced in that body as a traitor, and was struck down by an
assassin in the same year.
The death of Drusus drove the Italians to despair. Eight nations entered
into a close alliance, chose CORFINIUM, in the Pelignian Apennines, as
their capital, and formed a Federal Republic, to which they gave the
name ITALIA. All Italians were to be citizens of Corfinium, and here was
to be the place of assembly and the Senate-House.
Rome, in the face of this danger, acted promptly and with resolution.
The Consuls, Lucius Julius Caesar and Publius Rutilius Lupus, both took
the field; with each were five lieutenants, among whom were Marius and
Sulla.
This war (90-88), called the SOCIAL WAR, i.e. the war with the allies
(_Socii_), was at first disastrous to Rome. The allies overran Campania,
defeated the Romans several times, and entered into negotiations with
the Northern Italians, whose fidelity began to waver.
It is not strange, therefore, that opinions at Rome began to be turned
in the direction of a more liberal policy. It was decided to make
concessions. Towards the close of the year 90, the Consul Caesar carried
the JULIAN LAW, by which the Roman franchise was extended to all who
had not yet revolted. The next year this law was supplemented by the
PLAUTIAN PAPIRIAN LAW, which allowed every citizen of an Italian town
the franchise, if he handed in his name to the Praetor at Rome within
sixty days. About the same time was passed another law, the CALPURNIAN,
which permitted Roman magistrates in the field to bestow the franchise
on all who wished it. These laws resulted in disorganizing the
rebellion. The Samnites and Lucanians held out the longest, but were
finally put down by Marius.
The end of the Social War brought no peace at Rome. The newly
enfranchised Italians were not fully satisfied. The Senate was torn
asunder by violent personal rivalries. There was no class not affected
by the wide-spread tightness in the money market. The treasury was
empty, and many capitalists became insolvent. War with Mithradates, King
of Pontus, had been declared, and both Marius and Sulla were eager to
have the command.
At this time (88) the TRIBUNE PUBLIUS SULPICIUS RUFUS brought forward
the following bills:--
1. That the command of the war against Mithradates be given to Marius.
2. That the new citizens should be distributed through all the tribes.
3. That any Senator who owed more than four hundred dollars be deprived
of his seat.
4. That those exiled on suspicion of having aided in the Italian revolt
be recalled.
In spite of the bitterest opposition, these bills were passed. But the
triumph of Sulpicius was of short duration. Sulla, who with his troops
had been encamping near Nola in Campania, marched upon the city, and for
the first time a Consul entered Rome at the head of his legions.