The first authentic history of Rome begins about 400. The city then
possessed, possibly, three hundred square miles of territory. The
number of tribes had been increased to twenty-five. Later it became
thirty-five.
In 391 a horde of Celtic barbarians crossed the Apennines into
Etruria and attacked CLUSIUM. Here a Celtic chief was slain by Roman
ambassadors, who, contrary to the sacred character of their mission,
were fighting in the ranks of the Etrurians. The Celts, in revenge,
marched upon Rome. The disastrous battle of the ALLIA, a small river
about eleven miles north of the city, was fought on July 18, 390. The
Romans were thoroughly defeated and their city lay at the mercy of the
foe. The Celts, however, delayed three days before marching upon Rome.
Thus the people had time to prepare the Capitol for a siege, which
lasted seven months, when by a large sum of money the barbarians were
induced to withdraw.
During this siege the records of the city's history were destroyed, and
we have no trustworthy data for events that happened previous to 390.
The city was quickly rebuilt and soon recovered from the blow. In 387
the lost territory adjacent to the Tiber was annexed, and military
colonies were planted at Sutrium and Nepete upon the Etruscan border, and
also at Circeii and Setia. (Footnote: These military colonies, of which
the Romans subsequently planted many, were outposts established to
protect conquered territory. A band of Roman citizens was armed and
equipped, as if for military purposes. They took with them their wives
and children, slaves and followers, and established a local government
similar to that of Rome. These colonists relinquished their rights as
Roman citizens and became Latins; hence the name LATIN COLONIES.) The
neighboring Latin town of TUSCULUM, which had always been a faithful
ally, was annexed to Rome.
The trying times of these years had caused numerous enemies to spring
up all around Rome; but she showed herself superior to them all, until
finally, in 353, she had subdued the whole of Southern Etruria, and
gained possession of the town of CAERE, with most of its territory. The
town was made a MUNICIPIUM, the first of its kind.
The inhabitants, being of foreign blood and language, were not allowed
the full rights of Roman citizenship, but were permitted to govern their
own city in local matters as they wished. Many towns were subsequently
made MUNICIPIA. Their inhabitants were called CIVES SINE SUFFRAGIO,
"citizens without suffrage."
During the next ten years (353-343) Rome subdued all the lowland
countries as far south as TARRACINA. To the north, across the Tiber, she
had acquired most of the territory belonging to VEII and CAPENA.
In 354 she formed her first connections beyond the Liris, by a treaty
with the SAMNITES, a race that had established itself in the mountainous
districts of Central Italy. This people, spreading over the southern
half of Italy, had in 423 captured the Etruscan city of CAPUA, and
three years later the Greek city of CUMAE. Since then they had been
practically masters of the whole of Campania.
After the treaty of 354 mentioned above, both the Romans and Samnites
had, independently of each other, been waging war upon the Volsci. The
Samnites went so far as to attack Teanum, a city of Northern Campania,
which appealed to Capua for aid. The Samnites at once appeared before
Capua, and she, unable to defend herself, asked aid of Rome.
Alarmed at the advances of the Samnites, Rome only awaited an excuse to
break her treaty. This was furnished by the Capuans surrendering their
city unconditionally to Rome, so that, in attacking the Samnites, she
would simply be defending her subjects.
Thus began the SAMNITE WARS, which lasted for over half a century with
varying success, and which were interrupted by two truces. It is usual
to divide them into three parts, the First, Second, and Third Samnite
Wars.
THE FIRST SAMNITE WAR (343-341).
The accounts of this war are so uncertain and confused that no clear
idea of its details can be given. It resulted in no material advantage
to either side, except that Rome retained Capua and made it a
_municipium_, annexing its territory to her own.
THE LATIN WAR (340-338).
The cities of the LATIN CONFEDERACY had been for a long time looking
with jealous eyes upon the rapid progress of Rome. Their own rights had
been disregarded, and they felt that they must now make a stand or lose
everything. They sent to Rome a proposition that one of the Consuls and
half of the Senate be Latins; but it was rejected. A war followed, in
the third year of which was fought the battle of Triganum, near Mount
Vesuvius. The Romans, with their Samnite allies, were victorious
through the efforts of the Consul, TITUS MANLIUS TORQUATUS, one of the
illustrious names of this still doubtful period. The remainder of the
operations was rather a series of expeditions against individual cities
than a general war.
In 338 all the Latins laid down their arms, and the war closed. The
Latin confederacy was at an end. Rome now was mistress. Four of
the Latin cities, TIBUR, PRAENESTE, CORA, and LAURENTUM, were left
independent, but all the rest of the towns were annexed to Rome. Their
territory became part of the _Ager Romanus_, and the inhabitants Roman
plebeians.
Besides acquiring Latium, Rome also annexed, as _municipia_, three more
towns, Fundi, Formiae, and Velitrae, a Volscian town.
LATIUM was now made to include all the country from the Tiber to the
Volturnus.
Rome about this time established several MARITIME (Roman) COLONIES,
which were similar to her MILITARY (Latin) COLONIES, except that the
colonists retained all their rights as Roman citizens, whereas the
military colonists relinquished these rights and became Latins. The
first of these colonies was ANTIUM (338); afterwards were established
TARRACINA (329), MINTURNAE, and SINUESSA (296). Others were afterwards
founded.
Later, when Antium was changed into a military colony, its navy was
destroyed, and the beaks (_rostra_) of its ships were taken to Rome, and
placed as ornaments on the speaker's stand opposite the Senate-House.
Hence the name ROSTRA.
At this time the FORUM, which had been used for trading purposes of all
kinds, was improved and beautified. It became a centre for political
discussions and financial proceedings. The bankers and brokers had their
offices here. Smaller _Fora_ were started near the river, as the _Forum
Boarium_ (cattle market) and the _Forum Holitorium_ (vegetable market).
Maenius, one of the Censors, was chiefly instrumental in bringing about
these improvements.
THE SECOND AND THIRD SAMNITE WARS (326-290).
The results of the First Samnite War and the Latin War were, as we have
seen, to break up the Latin confederacy, and enlarge the domain of Rome.
There were now in Italy three races aiming at the supremacy, the Romans,
the Samnites, and the Etruscans. The last of these was the weakest, and
had been declining ever since the capture by the Romans of Veii in 396,
and of Caere in 353.
In the contest which followed between Rome and the Samnites, the
combatants were very nearly matched. Rome had her power more compact and
concentrated, while the Samnites were superior in numbers, but were more
scattered. They were both equally brave.
During the first five years of the war (326-321), the Romans were
usually successful, and the Samnites were forced to sue for peace.
In this period Rome gained no new territory, but founded a number of
military posts in the enemy's country.
The peace lasted for about a year, when hostilities were again renewed.
By this time the Samnites had found a worthy leader in Gavius Pontius,
by whose skill and wisdom the fortune of war was turned against the
Romans for seven years (321-315). He allured the Romans into a small
plain, at each end of which was a defile (Furculae Caudinae). On
reaching this plain they found Pontius strongly posted to oppose them.
After a bloody but fruitless attempt to force him to retreat, the Romans
themselves were compelled to give way. But meanwhile Pontius had also
occupied the defile in their rear, and they were obliged to surrender.
A treaty was signed by the Consuls Titus Veturius and Spurius Postumius,
according to which peace was to be made, and everything restored to its
former condition.
Such was the affair at the Caudine Forks (321), one of the most
humiliating defeats that ever befell the Roman arms. The army was made
to pass under the yoke,--which was made of three spears, two stuck into
the ground parallel to each other and the third placed above them,--and
then suffered to depart.
Rome was filled with dismay at the news. The citizens dressed in
mourning, business and amusements were suspended, and every energy was
devoted to repairing the disaster. Compliance with the terms of the
treaty was refused, on the ground that no treaty was valid unless
sanctioned by a vote of the people. It was determined to deliver the
Consuls who had signed it to the enemy.
Pontius, indignant at the broken faith, refused to accept them, and the
war was renewed. It continued for seven years, when (310) the Samnites
were so thoroughly whipped by QUINTUS FABIUS, then Dictator, at LAKE
VADIMONIS in Etruria, that they could no longer make any effective
resistance, and at last (304) agreed to relinquish all their sea-coast,
their alliances and conquests, and acknowledge the supremacy of Rome.
During this war the Etruscans made their last single effort against the
Roman power. An expedition was sent in 311 to attack the military colony
of Sutrium, which had been founded seventy-six years before. The Consul
Quintus Fabius went to the rescue, raised the siege, drove the Etruscans
into the Ciminian forests, and there completely defeated them.
Six years intervened between the Second and the THIRD SAMNITE WAR
(298-290). This time was employed by the Samnites in endeavoring to
unite Italy against Rome. They were joined by the UMBRIANS, GAULS, and
ETRUSCANS. The LUCANIANS alone were with Rome.
The war was of short duration, and was practically decided by the
sanguinary battle of SENTINUM (295) in Umbria. The Samnites, led by
Gellius Egnatius, were routed by the Roman Consuls QUINTUS FABIUS
MAXIMUS and PUBLIUS DECIUS MUS.
In this battle the struggle was long and doubtful. The Samnites were
assisted by the Gauls, who were showing themselves more than a match
for the part of the Roman army opposed to them, and commanded by Decius.
Following the example of his illustrious father, the Consul vowed his
life to the Infernal Gods if victory were granted, and, rushing into the
midst of the enemy, was slain. (Footnote: It is said that the father
of Decius acted in a similar manner in a battle of the Latin war.) His
soldiers, rendered enthusiastic by his example, rallied and pushed back
the Gauls. The victory was now complete, for the Samnites were already
fleeing before that part of the army which was under Fabius.
The war dragged on for five years, when the Consul MANIUS CURIUS
DENTATUS finally crushed the Samnites, and also the SABINES, who had
recently joined them. The Samnites were allowed their independence,
and became allies of Rome. The Sabines were made Roman citizens (_sine
suffragio_), and their territory was annexed to the _Ager Romanus_. This
territory now reached across Italy from the Tuscan to the Adriatic
Sea, separating the Samnites and other nations on the south from the
Umbrians, Gauls, and Etruscans on the north.
In 283, at Lake Vadimonis, the Romans defeated the Senonian and Boian
Gauls, and founded the military colony of SENA GALLICA.