At the close of the dynasty of the Tarquins, the regal form of
government was abolished, and instead of one king who held office for
life, two officers, called CONSULS, were elected annually from the
PATRICIANS, each of whom possessed supreme power, and acted as a
salutary check upon the other; so that neither was likely to abuse his
power. This change took place towards the close of the sixth century
before Christ.
In times of great emergency a person called DICTATOR might be appointed
by one of the Consuls, who should have supreme authority; but his tenure
of office never exceeded six months, and he must be a patrician. He
exercised his authority only outside of the city walls. It was at
this time, about 500, that the COMITIA CENTURIATA came to be the more
important assembly, superseding in a great measure the COMITIA CURIATA.
We must remember that in this assembly all criminal cases were tried,
magistrates nominated, and laws adopted or rejected. We must not forget
that, since it was on a property basis, it was under the control of the
patricians, for the great mass of plebeians were poor. Still there were
many wealthy plebeians, and so far the assembly was a gain for this
party.
About this time the Senate, which heretofore had consisted solely of
Fathers of the families (_Patres_), admitted into its ranks some of the
richest of the landed plebeians, and called them CONSCRIPTI. (Footnote:
This is the origin of the phrase used by speakers addressing the Senate,
viz.: "_Patres (et) Consripti_") These, however, could take no part in
debates, nor could they hold magistracies.
In the Senate, thus constituted, the nomination of all magistrates made
in the Comitia Centuriata was confirmed or rejected. In this way it
controlled the election of the Consuls, whose duties, we must remember,
were those of generals and supreme judges, though every Roman citizen
had the privilege of appealing from their decision in cases which
involved life.
Two subordinate officers, chosen from the patricians, were appointed by
the Consuls. These officers, called QUAESTORES, managed the finances of
the state, under the direction of the Senate.
The wars in which the Romans had been engaged, during the century
preceding the establishment of the Republic, had impoverished the state
and crippled its commerce. This was felt by all classes, but especially
by the small landed plebeians whose fields had been devastated. They
were obliged to mortgage their property to pay the taxes, and, when
unable to meet the demands of their creditors, according to the laws
they could be imprisoned, or even put to death.
The rich land-owners, on the other hand, increased their wealth by
"farming" the public revenues; i.e. the state would let out to them,
for a stipulated sum, the privilege of collecting all import and other
duties. These, in turn (called in later times Publicans), would
extort all they could from the tax-payers, thus enriching themselves
unlawfully. So the hard times, the oppression of the tax-gatherer, and
the unjust law about debt, made the condition of the poor unendurable.
The military service, too, bore hard upon them. Many were obliged to
serve more than their due time, and in a rank lower than was just; for
the Consuls, who had charge of the levy of troops, were patricians, and
naturally favored their own party. Hence we see that the cavalry service
was at this time made up entirely of young patricians, while the older
ones were in the reserve corps, so that the brunt of military duty fell
on the plebeians.
This state of things could not last, and, as the opportunity for
rebelling against this unjust and cruel oppression was offered, the
plebeians were not slow in accepting it.
The city was at war with the neighboring Sabines, Aequians, and
Volscians, and needed extra men for defence. One of the Consuls
liberated all who were confined in prison for debt, and the danger was
averted. Upon the return of the army, however, those who had been set
free were again thrown into prison. The next year the prisoners were
again needed. At first they refused to obey, but were finally persuaded
by the Dictator. But after a well-earned victory, upon their return to
the city walls, the plebeians of the army deserted, and, marching to a
hill near by, occupied it, threatening to found a new city unless their
wrongs were redressed. This is called the First Secession of the Plebs,
and is said to have been in 494.
The patricians and richer plebeians saw that concessions must be made,
for the loss of these people would be ruin to Rome. Those in debt were
released from their obligations, and the plebeians received the right
to choose annually, from their own numbers, two officers called TRIBUNI
PLEBIS, who should look after their interests, and have the power of
VETOING any action taken by any magistrate in the city. This power,
however, was confined within the city walls, and could never be
exercised outside of them.
The person of the Tribunes was also made sacred, to prevent interference
with them while in discharge of their duties, and if any one attempted
to stop them he was committing a capital crime. Thus, if the Consuls or
Quaestors were inclined to press the law of debt to extremes, or to
be unjust in the levying of troops, the Tribunes could step in, and by
their VETO stop the matter at once.
This was an immense gain for the plebeians, and they were justified in
giving the name of SACRED MOUNT to the hill to which they had seceded.
The number of Tribunes was afterwards increased to five, and still later
to ten.