TURKEY
AND
THE ARMENIAN ATROCITIES
A REIGN OF TERROR.
FROM TARTAR HUTS TO CONSTANTINOPLE PALACES.
CENTURIES OF OPPRESSION--MOSLEM AND CHRISTIAN--SULTAN
AND PATRIARCH--BROKEN PLEDGES FOLLOWED
BY MASSACRE AND OUTRAGE.
THE RED CROSS TO THE RESCUE.
BY THE
REV. EDWIN MUNSELL BLISS,
Late of Constantinople,
Editor of ENCYCLOPÆDIA OF MISSIONS:
Assistant Editor of THE INDEPENDENT.
ASSISTED BY
The REV. CYRUS HAMLIN, D. D., Founder of Robert College:
PROF. E. A. GROSVENOR, of Amherst College;
REV. BENJAMIN LABAREE, D. D., late of Persia,
and Other Eminent Oriental Scholars;
also Several Eye-Witnesses of the Massacres.
WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY
MISS FRANCES E. WILLARD.
FULLY ILLUSTRATED.
HUBBARD PUBLISHING CO., PUBLISHERS,
PHILADELPHIA, PA.
Copyright, 1896, by M. J. COGHLAN.
[Illustration:
PATRIARCH OF CONSTANTINOPLE. The ecclesiastical head of the Armenians
is the Catholicos residing at Etchmiadzine, in the Caucasus.
Of the same rank are the Catholicos of Aghtamar (near Van) and
the Catholicos of Sis, in Cilicia. Next come the Patriarchs of
Constantinople and Jerusalem, the former taking precedence as the
civil head of the Armenians in Turkey.]
INTRODUCTION.
We need a new angle of vision on the martyrdoms in Armenia. Let us
suppose that we had never heard anything about them and that on next
Sunday morning, in our respective churches, our respective pastors
should come forward with a statement like the following:--
Near the foot of a famous mountain there lived 1500 years ago, in a
little country about 400 miles square, a people numbering, perhaps,
3,000,000. In the turmoil of the centuries they had been scattered
until their ancestral valleys and mountain slopes have largely
passed into other hands. They still preserve, however, the racial
characteristics of that early time, and look back with intense yearning
to that olden time and those familiar places.
In face, figure and bearing, they are remarkably attractive. It is
said that their personal resemblance to the supposed physical type of
our Lord is probably more striking than that of any other race. In the
simplicity of their faith and the earnestness of their character, these
people are reminders of the early Christian Church. The bravery of
their men and the chastity of their women are proverbial. They cherish
the Bible as the most precious of their possessions and guard it all
the more sacredly when to do so involves the hazard of their lives.
They are unarmed and do harm to none, they only seek to tend their
flocks, till their fields, and conduct their trade in quietness and
peace.
Their country is controlled by a rich and powerful potentate of
another race, who with his court and his army would be neither cruel
nor vindictive except for their religion. They are Mohammedans and
have been taught for centuries that a Christian slain was the surest
passport to the favor of God and the enjoyment of eternal happiness.
Under the insane spell of this awful fanaticism, they have come down
like wolves on the gentle Christian people under their sway, and within
the last year have slaughtered men, women and children without mercy,
not for any wrong that they have done, but only because they are
Christians. Their villages and homes have been burned to the ground
and such ingenuity of torture and outrage inflicted upon them as could
hardly have been excelled if the bottomless pit had vomited forth its
leading spirits to urge the battle on.
The cruelty towards priests and women, the two non-combatant classes,
has been bitterest of all. Because the priest represented the detested
religion of Christ, he has been not only slain but mutilated, and the
sign of the cross cut in his forehead by murderous swords, and because
Mohammedans believe before all things in the harem rather than the
home, a brutal soldiery has spared neither the wife, the mother, nor
the babe unborn. Outrages worse than death have been endured by women,
always preceded by the promise that they would be spared if they would
abjure their faith, but in no instance have they hesitated to face
their double agony rather than disclaim allegiance to the Cross.
Now, in the presence of such a spectacle as this, with the martyrdom
of a devoted nation going forward under their eyes, the men of
Christendom have stood by and watched these agonies; have seen a
crowd of gentle Christian women shut up in a church and undergoing
a night of outrage ending in murder, the streams of blood flowing
out under the church doors; they have stood by while Moslem savages
deliberately disemboweled Christian mothers and brought into a world
accursed, innocent babes which were taken on the points of bayonets and
sportively tossed to and fro; they have passively beheld the massacre
of fifty thousand Christian people in the slowly-rounded circle of a
year.
Suppose that this were said in every Christian pulpit next Sunday
morning, with what righteous anger and holy indignation would the
congregation rise up exclaiming: “Where are these outrages? Who are the
dastards that stand by watching the slow martyrdom of a nation whose
only fault is its loyalty to the Gospel that we profess?”
And then should come the answer that Nathan uttered in the face of
David: pointing to America, England, the Christian nations of the
continent of Europe, “Thou art the man!” It is you that are standing by
like the traitors of old and consenting to the death of those who in an
age of spiritual apathy are sealing with the blood of martyrdom their
holy allegiance to “the faith once delivered to the saints.”
This is the situation: Armenians are the nation; the Sultan and
his soldiers are the devil’s scourge; the Anglo-Saxon race is the
cold-hearted spectator.
In saying this I am not upbraiding any person high in power, not
singling out any nation as more guilty than the rest. For in this
crisis mere criticism would be futile. What we must have is action;
united, cogent and immediate; we must not stand upon the order of our
going, but go at once, drawn by the compulsion of what is best and
most enduring in our natures, even “the tie that binds” us to the
assertion and proof of a common humanity and a “like precious faith”
in Christ. We have waited a year, and now across the horrid front of
war gleams the white figure of a woman. Clara Barton, the angel of the
battlefield, takes upon herself the heavenly task of going to Turkey to
represent the forces of the Golden Rule and of the Home which is their
outcome.
In the long and bloody annals of the Sultan’s country, two figures
brighten the scene, two names breathe benediction--Florence Nightingale
and Clara Barton, the fairest flowers of English and American
Christianity. Women may well be grateful that their sex has placed in
the sky where the crescent is fading into darkness the two brightest
stars of hope that shall glow in history’s constellation.
Americans have given costly hostages to the Turk. No band of men and
women more heroic have lived since the Great Light shone forth out of
Jerusalem, than our Missionaries in the land of the harem.
The record of their danger, suffering and death is only second to that
of the beloved Armenians whose devotion has rewarded their heroic toil.
Their colleges and schools, churches and hospitals have passed under
the withering blight of the Mohammedan.
In the present desperate emergency, the work of Miss Kimball in the
devastated city of Van will be chronicled on the fairest pages where
the bravery of Christian women is described.
The record that follows is given us by a noble young American, the
son of Isaac G. Bliss, D. D., that statesman-like Missionary whose
name has been endeared to the Christian Church for well nigh half a
century by reason of his wise and unremitting labors. The appearance
of this book is opportune, and its moderation of tone will commend
it to all thoughtful readers. For we do not wish to hate the Turk
or impale him on the point of rapier-like epithets. He is what the
centuries have made him, and like Saul of Tarsus who became Paul of
Damascus, he “verily thinks that he doeth God service.” Superstition
and fanaticism have been in all ages the most deadly foes of the human
race. Under their withering breath the Armenians seem likely to be
swept out of existence. Surely such an illustration, surviving in a
century when “sweet reasonableness” and universal toleration have made
more rapid strides than in any that has preceded it, should nerve the
will of every Christian man and woman to defend our Mission and our
Missionaries, whose work alone can disinfect the land of the scimitar
from its awful taint, and disintegrate by means of education the public
opinion that prefers the harem to the home and the Koran of Mohammed to
the New Testament of Christ.
_En route in the Southern States,
January 15, 1896._
FRANCES E. WILLARD.
PREFACE.
The object of this book is not merely to set forth the situation in
Turkey as it is to-day, but to trace the influences that have produced
it. Those influences are very complex. They include the social
characteristics of the peoples of Turkey, the religious beliefs and
ecclesiastical customs that have grown up in the empire during the
past centuries, the political ambitions and jealousies of the European
Powers, and the personal qualities of the different men who have been
prominent in the control of affairs. Probably no chapter in history is
more kaleidoscopic in its character. To set forth its various phases,
the topical rather than the strictly historical form has been adopted.
The effort has been made to let each phase stand out as clearly as
possible, first in itself, and then in its relation to the other
phases. The contemporary historian is never logical. That remains for
those who, with longer range, have a better perspective.
The various histories of Turkey have been consulted, but special
acknowledgment must be made to “Turkey Old and New,” by Sutherland
Menzies, which more than any other traces the development of the
Eastern Question from the standpoint of the European Powers. “The Life
of Lord Stratford de Redcliffe,” by Stanley Lane Poole, “Turkish Life
in War Time,” by Henry O. Dwight, and Dr. Cyrus Hamlin’s books, “My
Life and Times” and “Among the Turks,” have been consulted with great
advantage. It is a privilege not less than a duty to acknowledge the
very efficient aid rendered by Dr. Cyrus Hamlin, Dr. Benjamin Labaree
and Professor E. A. Grosvenor. Dr. Hamlin’s vivid remembrance of the
picturesque phases of Turkish diplomacy during the reigns of Mahmud
II and Abd-ul-Medjid; Dr. Labaree’s scholarly as well as practical
knowledge of branches of the Eastern Church which to most are little
more than historic names; Professor Grosvenor’s intimate acquaintance
with, and sympathetic appreciation of, the Greek life and character,
have laid me under peculiar obligations to each. I must also express
my thanks to those who from the very center of the conflict have given
those sketches which describe so vividly the terror of the situation.
Some of the letters appear for the first time on these pages;
others have been already given to the world in the columns of _The
Independent_ and the daily press. Their authors I know well and esteem
most highly for their great ability and high character, which has been
most nobly manifest during the trying scenes of the past year. As I
write these lines word has come of the death of one and of the critical
condition of another. They have been urged to leave their posts, but
one and all they have refused, with the exception of a very few who, in
their own physical weakness, have felt that they could not strengthen
their associates. Turkey and Russia are banded together to force them
to leave; the former that they may not bear witness against the evil
done; the latter that they may not hinder the progress of that policy
of repression already applied to Evangelical thought throughout her
empire.
What is in the future no man can tell, but the growth of pure religion
in whatever form of church organization; the development of freedom
of thought; the attainment of civil liberty, and that not merely for
Armenian, but for Greek, Nestorian, Jacobite, and even for the Turk
himself, depends upon the continuance of the influences for a higher
life that have been at work during the past sixty years, and that
depends upon the missionaries being supported at their posts. Theirs is
no sectarian work. They stand as the friends of Gregorian Armenians,
Roman Catholic Chaldeans, Nestorians and Jacobites as well as of those
in closer affiliation with the Protestant Churches of Europe and
America. America should stand by them and demand their full protection.
It is our right by treaty; it is our right by the duty we owe humanity,
by the duty we owe to our tradition as a liberty loving nation. We have
no political ends to serve; we want not a square foot of the Sultan’s
domains; but we stand, as we have always stood, for freedom for the
oppressed, for the right of every man to worship his God in the light
of his own conscience.
EDWIN MUNSELL BLISS.
_New York City,
March 21st, 1896._
[Illustration: Red--District Where Massacres Occurred.]
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
THE TURKISH EMPIRE.
Geographical Extent--Topography--Physical
Characteristics--Products--Traveling and Transportation--Building 19
CHAPTER II.
POPULATION AND LANGUAGES.
Accurate Statements as to Population Impossible--No Census--Best
Available Estimates--Distribution--Most of the Races Described in
Other Chapters--Jews and Foreigners--General Characteristics--The
Languages--How Distributed--Peculiarities of the Turkish--Number
Spoken in the Seaboard Cities 37
CHAPTER III.
RELIGIONS.
Islam and Christianity--A Few Pagan Communities--Origin
of Mohammedanism--The Koran--The Traditions--Extent of
Islam--Present Condition--Effect upon the Turks--Contact with
Civilization--Sects--Oriental Christianity--Characteristics 51
CHAPTER IV.
THE TURKS.
Their Origin--Early History--General Characteristics--Good
Qualities--Kindness--Hospitality--Temperance--Honesty--Intellectual
Ability--Obedience to Rulers--Bravery--Bad
Characteristics--Indifference to
Suffering--Brutality--Degradation of Women--Sensuality--Official
Unreliability--Fatalism--Insolence--Indolence--General Summary 66
CHAPTER V.
THE KURDS.
Legend of the Serpents--Connected with the Medes--Tribal
Organization--Nomad Life--Saladin and the Crusaders--After the
Russo-Turkish War--The Hamidieh Cavalry--Brutal Treatment of
Christians--Arabs--Circassians and Other Moslem Subjects--The
Nusairiyeh--Yezidis and Druzes 85
CHAPTER VI.
THE ARMENIANS.
Their Origin--Early History--First Nation to Accept
Christianity--Dispersion Under Oppression--Change from
Agricultural to Commercial People--General Characteristics;
Loyalty to Nation and Religion--Industry--Morality--Intellectual
Ability--Shrewdness--Jealousy of One Another--Influence of Missions
and European Ideas--Growth of National Ambition--Armenians
in Russia--Autonomy--Armenians in Other Countries--Patriarch
Mattheos--Outlook for the Future 106
CHAPTER VII.
THE GREEKS.
Fidelity of the Oriental Churches--The Apostle Andrew--Concessions
by Mohammed II--Gennadios II--Suffering and Misery--Greek
Revolution--Growth of National Spirit--Hellenes or
Romaioi--Bulgarians in their Relation to the Greek Church 130
CHAPTER VIII.
OTHER ORIENTAL CHURCHES.
The Syrian Church Divided into Syrians, Chaldeans,
Nestorians, Jacobites, and some Roman Catholic Bodies--The
Jacobites--Patriarch of Antioch--Condition of Villagers--Jebel
Tur Region--Nestorians--Patriarch of Babylon--Badir Khan
Bey--Chaldeans--The Copts of Egypt--Maronites and Druzes 145
CHAPTER IX.
RISE AND DECLINE OF OTTOMAN POWER.
Capture of Constantinople--Victories of Mohammed II--The Sultans
Assume the Caliphate--Reign of Suleiman the Magnificent--Attack upon
Venice--Constant Strife over the Danubian Principalities--Internal
Disorganization--Weak Sultans and Powerful Viziers--Alliances with
Foreign Powers--Repeated Disasters--Weak Rule in Asia--Revolt in
Egypt and Syria--Condition at Commencement of present century 164
CHAPTER X.
TURKEY AND EUROPE.
First Intercourse--Alliance between Francis I and Suleiman the
Magnificent--Intrigues between France and Austria--The First
Treaty--Nature of Capitulations--Peculiar Favors Granted to the
French--Their Recognition as the Protectors of Christians--Entrance
of Other Powers--Louis XIV and His Ambassador--Influence of De
Brèves--Peace of Carlowitz--Turkey No Longer Dreaded in Europe 183
CHAPTER XI.
RUSSIA AND TURKEY.
Aggression of Peter the Great--Diminution and Renewal of French
Influence--The Contest over the Holy Places--Victory of Russian
Influence in Favor of the Greek Church--Russia’s Religious
Propaganda Among the Greeks--Rise of Phil-Hellenism--Dismemberment
Talked of--Effect of the French Revolution--The Russian Fleet in
the Dardanelles--The English Fleet at Constantinople--Peace of
Tilsit--Plan for Partition--Accession of Mahmud II 195
CHAPTER XII.
MAHMUD II.
A Disintegrating Empire--An Energetic Sultan--Napoleon
and Alexander--Lord Stratford de Redcliffe--Greek War
for Independence--Russia’s Perfidy--Destruction of the
Janissaries--Reforms Attempted--Mehemet Ali of Egypt--Accession of
Abd-ul-Medjid 210
CHAPTER XIII.
REFORM AND PROGRESS.
Reign of Abd-ul-Medjid--Influence of Lord Stratford de
Redcliffe--English Policy in Turkey--Hatti Sherif of Gulhané--A
Remarkable Document--Equal Rights for All Subjects of the
Sultan--Land Tax and Judicial Reform--General Situation of the
Country--Application of the Reforms 225
CHAPTER XIV.
TREATIES OF PARIS AND BERLIN.
Influence of Lord Stratford--The Holy Places--Crimean War--Treaty of
Paris--Abd-ul-Aziz--Extravagance--Influx of Europeans--Provincial
Government--Accession of Abd-ul-Hamid II--Russo-Turkish War--Treaty
of San Stephano--Treaty of Berlin--Cyprus Convention 238
CHAPTER XV.
CONDITION OF THE CHRISTIANS.
The Christians under Early Moslem Rule--Mohammed II--General
Oppression--Protection by French Government--Russian Intrigue--Power
of the Greek Church--Reforms under Mahmud II and Abd-ul-Medjid--The
Hatti Humayoun--General Improvement Throughout the Empire 259
CHAPTER XVI.
THE TURKISH GOVERNMENT.
True Moslem State Theocratic--Dual Form of the Present
Government--The Sublime Porte--Army and Navy--Internal
Administration--Financial Management--General
Corruption--Administration of Justice--Treatment of Christians--The
Ulema--The Palace Party--The Sultan 280
CHAPTER XVII.
PROTESTANT MISSIONS IN TURKEY.
Early History--Opposition of Ecclesiastics in the Oriental
Churches--Attitude of the Turkish Government--Work Among
Moslems--Development of Education--Societies at Work--The
American Board--Presbyterian Boards--American and British Bible
Societies--English Societies--General Statistics--Relations to the
Turkish Government--Character of the Missionaries 302
CHAPTER XVIII.
THE ARMENIAN QUESTION.
A Progressive Grand Vizier--Victory of the Reactionary
Party--Egypt and the Mahdi--Rise of the Armenian Question--Russian
Intrigue--Articles of the Berlin Treaty--Autonomy Desired--The
Huntchagist Committee--Placards in Asia Minor--Burning of American
Building at Marsovan--Numerous Arrests--Armenians Exiled--Coercive
Measures of the Government--American Citizens--Threats--Huntchagists
Disowned by the Nation--Young Turkey Party--Absolute Failure of the
Huntchagist Movement 324
CHAPTER XIX.
GENERAL SITUATION IN 1894.
Terrible Oppression--Exaggerated Reports--Truth Stranger Than
Fiction--Religious Liberty Infringed Upon--Oppressive School
Laws--Rigorous Censorship--General Effort of the Government to
Suppress Christian Development 345
CHAPTER XX.
THE SASSUN MASSACRE.
A Deliberate Plan of The Turkish Government--Kurdish Raids--Armenians
Defend Themselves--Kurds Reinforced by Regular Troops--Terrible
Scenes of Slaughter--Stories of Survivors 368
CHAPTER XXI.
POLITICS AND MASSACRE AT CONSTANTINOPLE.
Investigation at Sassun--Mr. Gladstone on the Situation--Disturbances
in Constantinople--Joint Notes by the Embassies--Plan of Reforms--New
English Government--Massacre in Constantinople--Decisive Action
of the Embassies--Signing of the Reforms--Subsequent Acts of
Defiance--Breach Between England and Russia--Collapse of English
Influence 384
CHAPTER XXII.
MASSACRES AT TREBIZOND AND ERZRUM.
Importance and General Prosperity of Both Cities--Threats by the
Turks--Terror Among the Armenians--Suddenness of the Attacks--Murder
and Pillage by Regular Soldiers, Under the Eye of Foreign
Consuls--Ferocity of the Turks--Testimony of Eye-Witnesses--Terrible
Scenes at the Burial of the Victims 406
CHAPTER XXIII.
MASSACRES IN HARPUT DISTRICT.
American Residences--First Indications--Specious Promises--Riot,
Murder and Pillage--A Dangerous Journey--Attempts at Defense--List
of Villages and Details of Massacres--Statement of a Turkish
Official--Armenians not Responsible--Turkish Dread of Reform--Tabular
Statement 427
CHAPTER XXIV.
AINTAB, MARASH AND URFA.
The Situation in Northern Syria--No Revolutionary Movement--Massacre
at Aintab--Kurdish Women--A Turkish Captain Helps the Pillage--A
Colonel Checks it--Caring for the Wounded--Two Attacks at
Marash--Destruction of American Houses--Brave Men in Zeitun--Story of
Massacres at Urfa 447
CHAPTER XXV.
CHARACTER OF THE MASSACRES.
Massacres at Sivas, Cesarea, Birejik, Bitlis, and the Region
of Mardin--Protection by the Turkish Government for the
Jacobites--General Survey--Place and Time of the Massacres--Victims
Exclusively Armenians--Effort to Destroy the Strength of the
Nation--Motive--Responsibility of the Turkish Government and of the
Sultan 464
CHAPTER XXVI.
RELIGIOUS PERSECUTION.
Motive of the Massacres--Primarily Political, then Religious--The
Religious Element Overpowering the Political--Dread of Christian
Domination--False Statements by the Turkish Government--Instances
of Persecution and Enforced Conversion to Islam--A Tremendous Moral
Disaster--Efforts of the Government to Suppress Reports 482
CHAPTER XXVII.
RELIEF WORK.
The General Situation--Absolute Destitution--Appeals to America and
England--Work in the Sassun Region--Van and Dr. Kimball--Appeals
Following the Greater Massacres--Clara Barton and the Red
Cross--Opposition of the Turks--Letter from Van--After the Massacre
in Harput--Suffering in the Villages--Appeal for Help 502
CHAPTER XXVIII.
PARTITION OF TURKEY.
Factors in the Problem--Turkey and Europe--Topography of the
Country--Distribution of Population--Countries Interested--Russia,
England, France, Austria, Italy, Germany, Greece, Bulgaria--Desire
for Territorial Aggrandizement--Mutual Jealousies--Possible
Solution--Turkish Factor Often Overlooked--Great Difficulties to be
met 528
CHAPTER XXIX.
AMERICA AND TURKEY.
Early Treaties--Some Prominent Ambassadors--American
Missionaries--Obedience to the Laws--Treaty Rights--Questions
of Importance--Indemnity at Harput and Marash--More Consuls
Needed--Naturalized Americans--Right of Domicile Threatened--Positive
Action Needed--Duty of America 542
CHAPTER XXX.
GENERAL SURVEY.
Statistics of Massacre and Pillage--Where Does the Responsibility
Rest?--The Turks; Fear, Ferocity, Outrage--The Armenians; Ambition,
Lack of Preparation, Unwisdom of Huntchagists--The European Powers;
Jealousy, Ambition, Cowardice--The Sultan; Alliance with Reactionary
Party, Difficult Position, Individual Care of Minutiæ--Latest
Development of Most Terrible Persecution 552
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAGE
PATRIARCH OF CONSTANTINOPLE _Frontispiece._
VIEW OF MOUNT ARARAT 17
GENERAL VIEW OF THE GARDENS OF VAN 18
A KURDISH ENCAMPMENT 35
TURKISH PEASANT FAMILY 36
THE HAMIDIEH MOSQUE 53
TURKISH DERVISH 54
TURKISH PEASANT 71
GROUP OF MOUNTAINEERS 72
KURDISH SHEIK 89
GROUP OF XEIBECKS 90
ARMENIAN WOMAN 107
AN EVANGELICAL ARMENIAN CHURCH 108
KURDISH MOUNTAIN VILLAGE 125
A TURKISH VILLAGE SHEIK 126
THE CITY OF BRUSA 143
LAND WALLS OF CONSTANTINOPLE 144
BRIDGE OF BOATS ACROSS THE LOWER TIGRIS 161
VILLAGE OF REED HUTS IN LOWER MESOPOTAMIA 162
A KHAN, OR CARAVANSARY 179
A DOME VILLAGE IN NORTHERN MESOPOTAMIA 180
GENERAL VIEW OF CONSTANTINOPLE 197
VIEW OF ADRIANOPLE 198
GROUP OF ARMENIAN YOUNG MEN 251
THE CITY OF MARSOVAN IN ASIA MINOR 252
SULTAN OF TURKEY 269
AUDIENCE AT THE PALACE 270
ROBERT COLLEGE 287
THE BOYS’ HIGH SCHOOL IN SMYRNA 288
CIRCASSIAN OFFICER IN THE SULTAN’S ARMY 305
SLAUGHTER OF THE ARMENIANS AT SASSUN 306
GATEWAY OF THE WAR DEPARTMENT AT CONSTANTINOPLE 359
THE CITY OF TREBIZOND 360
THE CITY OF HARPUT IN EASTERN TURKEY 377
THE CITY OF AINTAB 378
THE CITY OF GUMUSHKHANE 395
VIEW IN THE CITY OF TABRIZ 396
COUNCIL OF THE GOVERNMENT OF GREAT BRITAIN REGARDING
THE ARMENIAN QUESTION 413
SQUARE OF THE ATMEIDAN 414
BRITISH FLOTILLA 431
MASSACRES OF THE ARMENIANS 449
LOOTING IN STAMBOUL 467
MASSACRE IN STAMBOUL 485
IMPRISONING ARMENIANS 494
SCENE OF SLAUGHTER 510
AFTER THE SLAUGHTER 526
BURYING THE ARMENIANS 543
[Illustration:
VIEW OF MOUNT ARARAT. This is taken from a celebrated
painting, not from a photograph, but is, perhaps, even better than a
photographic view as it sets out the peculiar nature of the country. In
the foreground is a caravan of camels such as is found less and less
frequently, most of the merchandise being now carried upon mules or
horses, or in wagons.]
[Illustration:
GENERAL VIEW OF THE GARDENS OF VAN. The hill in the
background is the Acropolis, occupying the site of the ancient city,
which dates back beyond the time of Christ. The light trees in the
foreground are poplars, which are planted in numbers where there are
streams, to furnish timber for the houses.]
CHAPTER I.
THE TURKISH EMPIRE.
Geographical Extent--Topography--Physical
Characteristics--Products--Traveling and Transportation--Building.
The Turkish Empire at the beginning of 1896 included: in Europe,
Albania, Macedonia, and the southeastern portion of the Balkan
Peninsula; in Asia, Asia Minor, Eastern Turkey or Kurdistan,
Mesopotamia, Syria, and a comparatively small section of Southern
Arabia. In nominal subjection was the large African province of
Tripoli, while Egypt and Bulgaria were reckoned as tributary States.
The total area may be estimated as follows:
IMMEDIATE POSSESSIONS.
Europe 63,850 square miles.
Asia 729,170 ” ”
---------
Total 793,020
Add Tripoli 398,873 ” ”
---------
Total 1,191,893
TRIBUTARY STATES.
Bulgaria 37,860 ” ”
Egypt 400,000 ” ”
Island of Samos 210 ” ”
---------
Total 438,070
---------
Grand Total 1,629,963
A better idea of the extent will be gained from the statement that
the immediate possessions cover very nearly the same territory as the
United States east of the Mississippi, while the addition of Tripoli
carries the line to include Minnesota and Louisiana, and the entire
possessions correspond to the section east of a line drawn south from
the western boundary of the Dakotas and cutting Texas in two.
It is, however, by no means a compact country, as will readily be
seen by the map, and the different sections are as unlike to as they
are distant from each other. The difference between Albania and
Mesopotamia, Asia Minor and Egypt, is scarcely less great than that
between Maine and Honduras, Oregon and Cuba. This great diversity in
topography carries with it corresponding diversity in the general
characteristics of the people, and both must be kept in mind if the
situation, political and social, is to be understood.
Topographically the general characteristics of the Turkish Empire,
whether in Europe or Asia, are a great extent of coast line and a large
amount of mountainous country. With the exception of the Mesopotamia
plain, a portion of Northern Syria and the plateaus of Western Asia
Minor, the whole Empire is distinctly mountainous. In European Turkey
the mountains extend from Montenegro into Greece; and until within a
hundred miles of Constantinople, with the exception of the valley of
the Vardar, there is scarcely any plain at all. Asiatic Turkey may
be divided into four sections: Asia Minor, Eastern Turkey, Syria and
Mesopotamia. Asia Minor includes the country west of a line drawn
north from the Gulf of Iskanderun to the Black Sea; Eastern Turkey the
remainder eastward to the Persian border; Syria includes the section
south of the Taurus and east of the Mediterranean to the Euphrates; and
Mesopotamia covers the great valley between the Euphrates and Tigris
and the section between the Tigris and the Persian border as far south
as the Persian Gulf.
From the very eastern end of the Black Sea along its southern coast,
along the Sea of Marmora, the Aegean and the Mediterranean, extends a
range of mountains, broken only by occasional passes; while from the
Mediterranean through to the Persian border a line almost as sharp as
that of a seacoast separates the mountainous region known historically
as Armenia, more lately as Kurdistan or Eastern Turkey, from the level
of Mesopotamia. So also the Lebanon range, extending from this same
point of departure, the Gulf of Iskanderun, separates the narrow coast
line from the Syrian Desert and the Hauran.
The coast has almost no harbors worthy of the name. Constantinople,
with its Bosporus and Golden Horn, is famous; Smyrna has a good
harbor, but Trebizond, Samsun and Ineboli on the Black Sea; Adalia,
Mersine, Alexandretta, Beirut and Jaffa on the Mediterranean, are open
roadsteads. In European Turkey there are fairly good harbors at Kavala
and Salonica on the Aegean, but none on the coast of the Adriatic.
The mountain ranges have very few passes. The most important ones in
Asiatic Turkey are on the north from Trebizond to Erzrum, from Samsun
south to Marsovan and Sivas, and from Ineboli to Kastamuni and Angora;
and on the south from Mersine and Adana to Nidgeh and Cesarea, from
Marash to Malatia and Harput, and from Diarbekir to Harput. On the east
there are passes from Erzrum to Kars, from Van to Trebizond, from Mosul
by Rowandiz to Lake Urumia, and from Bagdad to Hamadan. There are of
course other roads, but they are so precipitous as to be most difficult
of passage. The western section of Asia Minor is mountainous, without
special ranges, and there are no passes of the same nature as those
that cross the northern and southern ranges of mountains. Still the
country is very rough and there are only a few roads easy of travel.
In such a country it is natural to expect that the scenery should
be fine, and the expectation is not disappointed. Along the Tigris
there are views unsurpassed, except perhaps among the high Alps or
the Himalayas, for grandeur. As the river cuts its way between lofty
precipices and catches glimpses through the valleys of snowclad
summits, one gets an idea of the strange effect it must have had upon
Xenophon and his ten thousand as they toiled along the path still
easily traced on the east bank. The approach to the city of Rowandiz
from Mosul and Arbela is through a gorge, where the road, which
winds for 2000 feet up a precipice, furnishes views equal to any in
Switzerland. The author, passing, here fired his gun expecting an echo,
but was disappointed and was just starting on when from far down the
cañon there came a faint sound. Nearer and nearer it came, hurled back
and forth from cliff to cliff, until the echo was almost deafening, and
he was satisfied.
A very different kind of scenery is that over the plains. The view
from Mardin, bounded by the Sinjar Hills, nearly 100 miles away, is one
never to be forgotten. The great Mesopotamia plain lies at one’s feet,
like a gorgeous carpet of many colors, and the villages like children’s
playthings dot it with miniature pictures of life. So too the views
over the Cesarea plain, from the slopes of the snowclad Argeus; over
the Harput plain, from the Deli Baba Pass near Erzrum, and from the
summits back of Trebizond and Samsun, where the Black Sea first breaks
on the view; and most unique perhaps of all, that from the citadel of
Van, with the gardens and lake in the foreground, and volcanic Sipan
Dagh looming up in the background. Of all the mountains Ararat is
certainly the most beautiful. From whatever direction it is seen its
symmetrical sides and regular summit appear perfectly approachable, yet
so difficult is the ascent that to the people it seems almost as if
God had forbidden its summit to be profaned. Very different from all
these is the region near Brusa, with its Bithynian Olympus, its lake of
Nicaea, and its vineyards, reminding one of Southern France. In some
future day when traveling is not only safe, but easy, searchers after
the beautiful as well as the grand, will find Turkey a favorite field
of travel.
Over the plateaus of Asia Minor and the great Mesopotamia plain,
passage is easy. Through the mountainous section of Eastern Turkey
it is almost as difficult in any direction as over the great ranges.
The Romans had built causeways in every direction, but in the later
Byzantine times, these had fallen into disuse, and the great pitfalls
occasioned by the dropping out of huge blocks of stone made them almost
impassable. In a few instances, the Turkish Sultans made some efforts
to repair these causeways, but they were seldom successful. The result
was that everything was carried on horses, mules or camels, and such
a thing as a cart or carriage was unknown. There have been various
attempts on the part of the Turkish government to develop a system
of carriage roads, especially within the past twenty years. Of these
there were five specially important ones designed to connect Bagdad
and Persia with the seacoast. One from Constantinople via Nicomedia,
Angora, Sivas and Diarbekir to Mardin, Mosul and Bagdad; one from
Samsun on the Black Sea via Amasia connecting with the first at Sivas;
one from Smyrna via Konieh and Cesarea also connecting with the other
at Sivas; one from Alexandretta via Aleppo and Urfa to Diarbekir on the
north, and on the south via Nisibin to Mosul connecting with the others
at Diarbekir and Mosul. On the north there was a road from Trebizond
via Erzrum and Van into Persia. In Syria the only roads of importance
are from Beirut and Khaifa to Damascus. At the present time there are
scarcely any roads worthy of the name anywhere in the empire, except
between Trebizond and Erzrum and between Beirut and Damascus.
There are a few railroads. The first to be built was from Smyrna to
Aidin. That was followed by one from Smyrna to Manisa, extended on to
Alashehir; then followed one from Constantinople to Nicomedia, since
extended somewhat on the way to Angora; one from Mersine to Adana, and
one from the coast to Brusa. It was the plan for all these to converge
into a great railway to Bagdad, but, like so many other enterprises,
they have proved unsuccessful. In European Turkey, owing largely to the
influence of Austria, there has been better success, and both Salonica
and Constantinople are connected by rail with Vienna and Paris.
The climate of the Turkish Empire is very varied. In European Turkey,
Western Asia Minor and Northern Eastern Turkey it is temperate; while
Syria and Mesopotamia are almost torrid in their heat. Undoubtedly
the lack of trees has much to do with the intense heat of the plains
of Northern Syria, and even of sections of Asia Minor. The rains have
washed the soil off the hills and mountains in many places, leaving
bare rock, the reflection from which is intense in summer, while in
winter the cold is almost equally unendurable. The snows throughout
Eastern Turkey are very severe, rendering the roads almost impassable
in winter, so that caravans are frequently detained for days and
weeks, and sometimes goods on their way from Erzrum and Van into
Persia are delayed for several months. In Western Asia Minor, there is
comparatively little snow, but the winter season is one of rain, and
the soil, being in the main clay, renders travel exceedingly difficult.
In Syria the intense heat of the plain may be escaped by going to
the higher slopes of Lebanon. Thus the inhabitants of Beirut have a
pleasant resort within a few hours’ ride. In Mesopotamia, however, this
opportunity does not exist, and almost the only relief from the intense
heat in Mosul and Bagdad, is found by taking refuge in cellars.
The whole empire is extraordinarily fertile. The great Mesopotamia
plain will bear the richest harvests with even the rudest form of
agriculture; so also the plateaus of Asia Minor and the valleys
of Macedonia. There is scarcely a level square mile in the whole
empire that does not yield excellent returns for very little labor.
Originally there were large forests. They have however almost entirely
disappeared, and the only sections of forest to-day are along the
shores of the Black Sea, in the region of Bitlis and between Marash
and the Gulf of Iskanderun. Elsewhere the country is desolate, and
the traveler is often directed on his way by landmarks of single
trees. Comparatively small portions of the empire are, however, under
cultivation. There are wide extended pasturages for herds and flocks,
but these do not by any means cover the entire land, and there are long
stretches without a sign of cultivation and with scarcely an inhabitant.
The products of the country are chiefly wheat, rice and barley. Cotton
is raised somewhat in Northern Syria and in Asia Minor, and there are
also large fields of poppies, the opium trade being quite extensive.
Tobacco is cultivated everywhere, and vegetables are much the same as
ours, with the exception of the potato, which is almost unknown. The
whole empire is rich in fruits of every kind, grapes, melons, figs,
olives, peaches, pears, oranges, pomegranates and dates. All are of the
best. The vineyards are extensive and in European Turkey and Western
Asiatic Turkey considerable wine is made, which is largely exported to
Europe and then re-exported bearing a French or Italian brand. Olive
groves are especially abundant along the shores of the Mediterranean,
and the fig orchards of Smyrna are well known. Dates are not found to
any great degree outside of Egypt.
The mineral wealth of Turkey is very great, but it is so thoroughly
undeveloped as to make its estimate very difficult. Along the shores
of the Black Sea and in some portions of the Taurus there is a great
deal of coal, but it is not mined and the extent of the deposit is
practically unknown. In Eastern Turkey there are important mines of
copper, silver and iron. These are worked with very rude methods and
with varying success, but the output is such as to indicate great
wealth, still undeveloped. There are also in Western Asia Minor mines
of baryta which have been worked to some extent. In European Turkey
there is considerable iron, and probably considerable in the mountains
of Western Turkey, but there are few if any mines.
The domestic animals of the empire are horses, mules, donkeys,
camels, sheep, buffaloes and dogs. There are also in certain sections
wild boar, deer and other game, but to a limited extent. The horses
vary from the fine Arab of the desert to the scrubby but enduring
pony of Syria. The ordinary horse used in caravans is a rather small
but powerful animal, sure-footed and easily adapting himself to the
rough roads and rather poor fodder. The use of donkeys and mules is
universal. The white donkey of Bagdad is almost as aristocratic an
animal as the Arab horse. Camels have gradually disappeared from the
North, but are found in the South, and are still occasionally sent out
in caravans from Smyrna. The cows are poor, small and of little value,
either for their milk or for use in farming. Agriculture is carried on
chiefly by the use of buffaloes. The animal to whose development most
attention has been given, is undoubtedly the horse, and next to that
the sheep. The Angora sheep and goats of Western Asia Minor are famous
all over the world, and in general the quality of wool and of mutton is
most excellent. The dogs are of many breeds, including fierce shepherd
dogs and fine greyhounds, but the most common is the mongrel cur of
the cities and towns. Fowls are to be found every where and in large
quantities, and there are pigeons and partridges in abundance.
The food of the people is chiefly the different preparations of
wheat and rice, and in meats they eat little but mutton and fowl;
beef is considered by most as unfit for food. They also use a great
deal of milk, chiefly of sheep or buffaloes. They are very fond of a
preparation of fermented milk, not unlike curds, generally eaten in the
semi-solid form, but sometimes mixed with water and made into a very
refreshing drink. A certain modification of this has been introduced
into this country and is widely known under the name of Madzoon.
The cooking is in the main very tasty, although the common people,
especially in the mountains and the southern plains, are content with a
very meager diet. The traveller who understands the ways of the country
can generally provide himself well, but he must carry some form of
provision with him. As is natural, the food to be found depends very
largely upon the nature of the country. In the heart of the Kurdish or
Taurus Mountains, there will often be little more than a coarse millet
bread, and perhaps milk, to be had; while in the cities and large
towns, as also on the great agricultural plains, almost anything can be
secured, and a good cook will provide a meal that the most fastidious
would heartily enjoy. The author has repeatedly enjoyed dinners that
would do credit to a New York Hotel for delicacy and richness of flavor.
Traveling and the carriage of merchandise is almost entirely by means
of horses, mules and camels. The use of wagons has been introduced to
a limited degree, but, except between Trebizond and Erzrum, it has
not become general. This is chiefly in consequence of the poor roads,
and the fact that even where there are stretches of good roads, they
are so short as to necessitate a change when the journey is to be
continued. For the mail and for travelers with little baggage, there
is a system of relay traveling. Horses may be changed at stations
from sixteen to thirty miles apart, and although seldom of the better
sort, they can be kept at a slow trot or uncertain gallop, so that a
speed of from four to six miles an hour can be maintained through the
day. The ordinary distance covered by a caravan, whether of travelers
or of merchandise, is from twenty-five to thirty miles a day. A post
rider will frequently, in Turkey, cover forty to fifty miles; and in
Persia, where the same system is employed, but the roads and horses
are better, seventy-five or eighty, even a hundred miles a day, are
not infrequently covered. The mail carriers, or Tartars as they are
called, ride day and night, stopping only for change of horses and
refreshments. One result of this general method of traveling is that
distances are measured by hours, not by miles, the hour varying
somewhat in different parts of the country. In Asia Minor, where horses
and mules are chiefly used, the hour is equivalent to from three to
four miles, but in Syria and Mesopotamia, where camels are more common,
the hour is seldom over three miles. Thus Erzrum is sixty hours from
Trebizond--180 miles; and Harput sixty hours from Sivas--240 miles;
but thirty hours from Marash to Alexandretta means no more than ninety
miles.
The country is very thoroughly covered with telegraph lines connecting
the principal cities, and the postal arrangements supply both the
cities and larger towns. Both are under the sole control of the
government, although one of the lines of telegraph, from Constantinople
to Bagdad, connecting with an extension to India, is owned by an
English Company. Turkey being a member of the Postal Union, letters
from any interior city can be forwarded to America at the regular
rate, but the internal rates are very high. Under the administration
of Abdul Aziz, and during the early part of the reign of Abdul Hamid,
both departments were, on the whole, fairly well conducted, but of
late years there has been no certainty of correct transmission either
of telegrams or letters, while papers frequently fail to reach their
destination.
In this connection a word should be said as to the means of business
communication. Constantinople and the seaboard cities are fairly well
supplied with banking facilities. The Imperial Ottoman Bank has also
a few branches in the interior, but for the most part the only method
of transmitting funds has been by sending coin through the mails.
In certain sections, this has been very hazardous on account of the
insecurity of the country, and as a result, internal trade has been
greatly hampered. The establishment of the American missions all over
the land has served in this matter greatly to the advantage of trade.
A system of drafts has been established by which the missionaries draw
on their treasurer in Constantinople and these drafts are sold in the
market, facilitating exchange greatly. The missionaries, however, are
very cautious, feeling that their position makes it unwise for them to
share to any great extent in general trade.
One thing that strikes the traveler in Turkey very forcibly is the
very sharp lines drawn between the cities, towns and villages and
the surrounding country. City walls have to a considerable extent
disappeared, though they remain in some of the more ancient places,
Diarbekir, Urfa, Erzrum, etc. Beyond the line of houses there are in
some instances, notably the city of Van, large sections of cultivated
land, garden, vineyard or wheat field. In other cases, as at Erzrum,
the city seems set down in the plain with no sort of relation to the
surrounding country. The same is true of the towns and villages. Some
are so completely imbedded in the gardens, that they appear much larger
than they really are, while others give no sign of their existence,
except as the village dog barks his signal of unwelcome to the traveler.
The general style of building varies with the section of country.
Along the seaboard, or within easy reach of it, the general appearance
of the houses reminds one of Europe. There is a frame of timber, with
a wall of board or rough brick or stone covered with stucco. Red brick
and dressed stone are also not uncommon. In the interior, however, the
general style is that of the Mexican adobe. Sun-dried brick furnishes
the chief material, sometimes whitewashed for more pretentious homes,
government houses, churches or mosques, but generally retaining the
color of mother earth. In parts of Asia Minor where a soft sandstone
abounds, there are brownstone fronts, rivalling in style some to be
found in our own cities. There is generally, however, some incongruity,
made manifest in a wooden beam supporting a carved window, or an
elegant doorway in the middle of an adobe wall. Diarbekir is famous
for its basalt walls, giving both city and houses a most forbidding
aspect. On the Mesopotamia plain, especially toward the south, reed
huts are numerous, while in Northern Syria the almost entire lack of
timber has occasioned the building of huts domed with sun-dried brick,
anticipating the principle of the Pantheon at Rome. In the mountains
of Kurdistan the villagers not infrequently burrow into the mountain
side, and even on the plains of Asia Minor advantage is taken of
rolling land to help in the making of the walls, and the traveler by
night need not be surprised if his horse breaks through the roof of
some unnoticed house. There are numerous instances, notably in Amasia
and Urfa and along the Tigris, of villages cut into precipices of rock,
while in other places the villagers burrow into the hills. In passing
from Mardin to Urfa once, the author came, toward evening, to the foot
of a hill, where the guide said he was to spend the night in an Arab
village. He looked around, but saw no signs of life. The guide went to
the summit of the hill, and shouted into what appeared a mere hole in
the ground. A few minutes after a man appeared through what had seemed
to be the entrance to a tomb, such as abounded in that region, and soon
the whole party were descending through a passageway into a large room,
used both as granary and living room by the villagers.
Such descriptions might go on indefinitely, but this will be
sufficient to indicate that throughout the empire the people have
made the most of the resources at their command, for their permanent
dwellings. Tent life is confined to the Bedouin Arabs and the summer
wanderings of the Kurds over the plains of Mesopotamia and Asia
Minor. It should be said, however, that within the past fifty years
there has been considerable advance in the style of building, chiefly
due undoubtedly to the influence of the missionary houses and the
evangelical chapels, and to-day the general appearance throughout the
entire country has greatly improved.
The arrangement within the houses also varies with the section of
country. In the interior cities and large towns, the ground floor is
taken up with court, stable, kitchen, storeroom and perhaps an audience
room, the living rooms being chiefly on the second floor. In the
villages, however, there are few houses with a second story, and often
the family share the one living room with their animals.
A word should be said as to the accommodation for travelers. This is
chiefly in the form of khans or caravansaries, situated in the cities
and on most of the caravan routes through the greater part of the
empire, at intervals of about thirty miles. They are as a rule stone
buildings, with a large open enclosure, surrounded by alcoves, closed
or open, according to the climate. In the north, where the winter
storms may be severe, there are stables frequently partly underground.
The alcoves are for the travelers, the open space for their loads
and the stables for the animals, but in case of severe weather the
stable becomes also the refuge for the traveler, whether merchant,
muleteer or official. In the large cities regular rent is charged,
but in the country there is simply a keeper who receives a small fee
for furnishing fuel and water, otherwise the place being free for all
comers. In some cases there is no keeper at all, the place being left
to go to ruin. Most of these buildings in the interior have been put up
as acts of merit by wealthy Turks, but with no regular income, and no
one to be responsible for them, they have in many places fallen sadly
into decay.
In the villages and even many of the larger towns where there are no
khans, the traveler is sent to what is known as the “guest room.” A
room, or in some instances, a house, is set apart both for travelers,
and as a meeting place, a sort of club for the villagers. Here they
meet in the evening to discuss the events of the day, much as Americans
gather at the postoffice or corner store. Some one is designated to
provide fire and coffee and the head of the village holds a sort of
court or assembly. Here also the traveler is welcomed, indeed has a
right, whether welcomed or not, to make his stay. The room as a rule
is oblong, with a fireplace at the end, and has a slightly raised
platform on either side. If the arrival be a foreigner or official, he
immediately takes the place of honor on the right near the fireplace
and all gather to show him courtesy. If an ordinary muleteer or
peasant, he must be content with a place near the door. Here also there
is no charge, the attendants being satisfied with what they receive for
the supply of food, etc. In case the village is too poor to boast a
guest room, the traveler must content himself with some private house
or room, which he generally finds no difficulty in securing. It will be
readily seen that the traveler in the interior must in the main provide
his own furniture and provision, unless he is able to put up with the
very simple fare of the villagers. Foreigners, and even natives of
the better class, carry their own bedding, cooking utensils and, to a
degree, their food.
The furniture of the houses is very simple, even in the cities, and
in the villages it is primitive to the last degree. Chairs, tables,
upright bedsteads, knives and forks are penetrating little by little
even to the towns, but still the great majority of the people roll
themselves in quilts for the night, sit on the floor around a platter
for their meals and use little more than spoons. A few copper kettles
serve for the cooking and goatskins for holding what little provisions
they keep. A story is told of a mountaineer in Eastern Turkey, who went
to visit some friends on the plain. When night came he was offered a
quilt or comfortable and a wool pillow. He accepted them, though with
rather rueful countenance, and laid down to sleep. Sleep, however,
refused to come. Alarmed by his tossings his friends asked him if he
were ill. No, perfectly well. But still he tossed on. Again they came
to him to know what was the matter. At last he blurted out, “I cannot
stand this quilt and pillow. Give me a piece of sacking to throw over
my head and let me lie on the floor.” Much against their will he
insisted and they yielded, and he slept the sleep of his own mountain
home.
[Illustration:
A KURDISH ENCAMPMENT. The black tents are those of Kurdish tribes
who spend the winter in the mountain villages and come down for the
spring and summer to feed their flocks on the plains. They are spoken
of in the Bible as the “tents of Kedar.”]
[Illustration:
TURKISH PEASANT FAMILY, from the interior of Western Asia Minor. The
family consists of the mother in the foreground, the son and his wife
and their two children, son and daughter. An excellent illustration
of the average Turkish peasantry of the somewhat better class, as
found in the villages of Asia Minor.]