+-------+------+------+------+-------+
| C. | H. | N. | O. | S. |
+-------+------+------+------+-------+
| 80.32 | 6.30 | 0.50 | 1.40 | 11.48 |
+-------+------+------+------+-------+
The following is a comparison of Trinidad and Venezuela (Bermudez)
asphalt:--
Refined Refined
Trinidad. Bermudez.
Specific gravity at 60 deg. F. 1.373 1.071
Bitumen soluble in carbon bisulphide. 61.507 % 92.22 %
Mineral matter (ash). 34.51 " 1.50 "
Non-bituminous organic matter. 3.983 " 1.28 "
Portion of total bitumen soluble in alcohol. 8.24 " 11.66 "
Portion of total bitumen soluble in ether. 80.01 " 81.63 "
Loss at 212 deg. F. 0.65 " 1.37 "
Loss at 400 deg. F. in ten hours. 7.98 " 17.80 "
Loss at 400 deg. on total bitumen. 12.811 " 18.308 "
Evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen at 410 deg. F. none at 437 deg. F.
Softening-point. 160 deg. F. " 113 deg. F.
Flowing-point. 192 deg. F. " 150 deg. F.
Asphalt in its purest forms is generally black or blackish brown in
colour, and is frequently brittle at ordinary temperatures. Apart from
its principal use in the manufacture of paving materials, it is largely
employed in building as a "damp-course" and as a water-excluding coating
for concrete floors, as well as in the manufacture of roofing-felt. It
also enters largely into the composition of black varnish. The material
chiefly used in the construction of asphalt roadways is an asphaltic or
bituminous limestone found in the Val de Travers, canton of Neuchatel;
in the neighbourhood of Seyssel, department of Ain; at Limmer, near the
city of Hanover; and elsewhere. The proportion of bitumen present in
asphalt rock usually ranges from 7 to 20%, but it is found that rock
containing more than 11% cannot be satisfactorily used for street
pavements, and it is accordingly customary to mix the richer and poorer
varieties in fine powder in such respective quantities that the
proportion of bitumen present is from 9 to 10%. The richer rock is
utilized as a source of asphalt "mastic," which is employed for
footpaths, floors, roofs, &c. Excellent foundations for steam-hammers,
dynamos and high-speed engines are made of asphaltic concrete.
(B. R.)
ASPHODEL (_Asphodelus_), a genus of the lily order (Liliaceae),
containing seven species in the Mediterranean region. The plants are
hardy herbaceous perennials with narrow tufted radical leaves and an
elongated stem bearing a handsome spike of white or yellow flowers.
_Asphodelus albus_ and _A. fistulosus_ have white flowers and grow from
1-1/2 to 2 ft. high; _A. ramosus_ is a larger plant, the large white
flowers of which have a reddish-brown line in the middle of each
segment. Bog-asphodel (_Narthecium ossifragum_), a member of the same
family, is a small herb common in boggy places in Britain, with rigid
narrow radical leaves and a stem bearing a raceme of small golden yellow
flowers.
In Greek legend the asphodel is the most famous of the plants connected
with the dead and the underworld. Homer describes it as covering the
great meadow ([Greek: asphodelos leimon]), the haunt of the dead (_Od._
xi. 539, 573; xxiv. 13). It was planted on graves, and is often
connected with Persephone, who appears crowned with a garland of
asphodels. Its general connexion with death is due no doubt to the
greyish colour of its leaves and its yellowish flowers, which suggest
the gloom of the underworld and the pallor of death. The roots were
eaten by the poorer Greeks; hence such food was thought good enough for
the shades (cf. Hesiod, _Works and Days_, 41; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxi.
17 [68]; Lucian, _De luctu_, 19). The asphodel was also supposed to be a
remedy for poisonous snake-bites and a specific against sorcery; it was
fatal to mice, but preserved pigs from disease. The Libyan nomads made
their huts of asphodel stalks (cf. Herod. iv. 190).
No satisfactory derivation of the word is suggested. The English word
"daffodil" is a perversion of "asphodel," formerly written "affodil."
The d may come from the French _fleur d'affodille_. It is no part of the
word philologically.
See Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_, s.v.; H.O. Lenz, _Botanik der
alten Griechen und Romer_ (1859); J. Murr, _Die Pflanzenwelt in der
griechischen Mythologie_ (1890).
ASPHYXIA (Gr. [Greek: a-] priv., [Greek: sphaexis], a pulse), a term in
medicine, literally signifying loss of pulsation, which is applied to
describe the arrestment of the function of respiration from some
hindrance to the entrance of air into the lungs. (See RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM: _Pathology_.)
ASPIC (French, from Lat. _aspis_), an asp or viper found in Egypt whose
bite is supposed to cause a swift and easy death, hence poetically a
term for any venomous snake. From association, perhaps, with the
coldness of the aspic (as in the French proverb, _froid comme un
aspic_), the word is used for a savoury jelly containing meat, fish or
eggs, &c. It is also the botanical name of the _Lavandula spica_, or
spikenard, from which a white, aromatic and highly inflammable oil is
distilled, called _huile d'aspic_.
ASPIDISTRA, a small genus of the lily order (Liliaceae), native of the
Himalayas, China and Japan. _Aspidistra lurida_ is a favourite
pot-plant, bearing large green or white-striped leaves on an underground
stem, and small dark purplish, cup-shaped flowers close to the ground.
ASPIROTRICHACEAE (O. Butschli), an order of Ciliate Infusoria,
characterized by an investment, general or partial, of nearly uniform
cilia, without any distinct adoral wreath, and one or two adoral endoral
undulating membranes. With the Gymnostomaceae it formed the Holotricha
of Stein.
ASPIROZ, MANUEL DE (1836-1905), Mexican statesman and diplomatist, was
born at Puebla, and educated at the university of Mexico, where he took
his degree in 1855. He took part in the war against the emperor
Maximilian, and in 1867, on the establishment of the republic, was
appointed assistant secretary of state for foreign affairs. In 1873 he
became Mexican consul at San Francisco, where he remained till his
election to the Senate in 1875. He was professor of jurisprudence at the
college of Puebla from 1883 to 1890, when he was again appointed
assistant secretary of foreign affairs. From 1899 till he died in 1905
he was Mexican ambassador to the United States. Among his writings may
be mentioned; _Codigo de extranjeria de los Estados-Unidos Mexicanos_
(1876), and _La liberdad civil como base del derecho internacional
privado_ (1896).
ASPROMONTE, a mountain of Calabria, Italy, rising behind Reggio di
Calabria, the west extremity of the Sila range. The highest point is
6420 ft. and the slopes are clad with forest. Here Garibaldi was wounded
and taken prisoner by the Italian troops under Pallavicini in 1862.
ASQUITH, HERBERT HENRY (1852- ), English statesman, son of Joseph
Dixon Asquith, was born at Morley, Yorkshire, on the 12th of September
1852. He came of a middle-class Yorkshire family of pronounced Liberal
and Nonconformist views, and was educated under Dr Edwin Abbott at the
City of London school, from which he went as a scholar to Balliol,
Oxford; there he had a distinguished career, taking a first-class in
classics, winning the Craven scholarship and being elected a fellow of
his college. He was president of the Union, and impressed all his
contemporaries with his intellectual ability, Dr Jowett himself
confidently predicting his signal success in any career he adopted. On
leaving Oxford he went to the bar, and as early as 1890 became a K.C. In
1887 he unsuccessfully defended Mr R.B. Cunninghame Graham and Mr John
Burns for their share in the riot in Trafalgar Square; and in 1889 he
was junior to Sir Charles (afterwards Lord) Russell as counsel for the
Irish Nationalists before the Parnell Commission--an association
afterwards bitterly commented upon by Mr T. Healy in the House of
Commons (March 30, 1908). But though he attained a fair practice at the
bar, and was recognized as a lawyer of unusual mental distinction and
clarity, his forensic success was not nearly so conspicuous as that of
some of his contemporaries. His ambitions lay rather in the direction of
the House of Commons. He had taken a prominent part in politics as a
Liberal since his university days, especially in work for the Eighty
Club, and in 1886 was elected member of parliament for East Fife, a seat
which he retained in subsequent elections. Mr Gladstone was attracted by
his vigorous ability as a speaker, and his evidence of sound political
judgment; and in August 1892, though comparatively unknown to the
general public, he was selected to move the vote of want of confidence
which overthrew Lord Salisbury's government, and was made home secretary
in the new Liberal ministry. At the Home Office he proved his capacity
as an administrator; he was the first to appoint women as factory
inspectors, and he was responsible for opening Trafalgar Square to
Labour demonstrations; but he firmly refused to sanction the proposed
amnesty for the dynamiters, and he was violently abused by extremists on
account of the shooting of two men by the military at the strike riot at
Featherstone in August 1893. It was he who coined the phrase
(Birmingham, 1894) as to the government's "ploughing the sands" in their
endeavour to pass Liberal legislation with a hostile House of Lords. His
Employers' Liability Bill 1893 was lost because the government refused
to accept the Lords' amendment as to "contracting-out." His suspensory
bill, with a view to the disestablishment of the church in Wales, was
abortive (1895), but it served to recommend him to the Welsh
Nationalists as well as to the disestablishment party in England and
Scotland. During his three years of office he more than confirmed the
high opinion formed of his abilities.
The Liberal defeat in 1895 left him out of office for eleven years. He
had married Miss Helen Melland in 1877, and was left with a family when
she died in 1891; in 1894, however, he had married again, his second
wife being the accomplished Miss Margaret ("Margot") Tennant, daughter
of the wealthy ironmaster, Sir Charles Tennant, Bart., a lady well known
in London society as a member of the coterie known as "Souls," and
commonly identified as the original of Mr E.F. Benson's _Dodo_ (1893).
On leaving the Home Office in 1895, Mr Asquith decided to return to his
work at the bar, a course which excited much comment, since it was
unprecedented that a minister who had exercised judicial functions in
that capacity should take up again the position of an advocate; but it
was obvious that to maintain the tradition was difficult in the case of
a man who had no sufficient independent means. During the years of
Unionist ascendancy Mr Asquith divided his energies between his legal
work and politics; but his adhesion to Lord Rosebery (q.v.) as a Liberal
Imperialist at the time of the Boer War, while it strengthened his
position in the eyes of the public, put him in some difficulty with his
own party, led as it was by Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman (q.v.), who was
identified with the "pro-Boer" policy. He was one of the founders of the
Liberal League, and his courageous definiteness of view and intellectual
vigour marked him out as Lord Rosebery's chief lieutenant if that
statesman should ever return to power. He thus became identified with
the Roseberyite attitude towards Irish Home Rule; and, while he
continued to uphold the Gladstonian policy in theory, in practice the
Irish Nationalists felt that very little could be expected from his
advocacy. In spite of his Imperialist views, however, he did much to
smooth over the party difficulties, and when the tariff-reform movement
began in 1903, he seized the opportunity for rallying the Liberals to
the banner of free-trade and championing the "orthodox" English
political economy, on which indeed he had been a lecturer in his younger
days. During the critical years of Mr Chamberlain's crusade (1903-1906)
he made himself the chief spokesman of the Liberal party, delivering a
series of speeches in answer to those of the tariff-reform leader; and
his persistent following and answering of Mr Chamberlain had undoubted
effect. He also made useful party capital out of the necessity for
financial retrenchment, owing to the large increase in public
expenditure, maintained by the Unionist government even after the Boer
War was over; and his mastery of statistical detail and argument made
his appointment as chancellor of the exchequer part of the natural order
of things when in December 1905 Mr Balfour resigned and Sir Henry
Campbell-Bannerman (q.v.) became prime minister.
During Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's premiership, Mr Asquith gradually
rose in political importance, and in 1907 the prime minister's
ill-health resulted in much of the leadership in the Commons devolving
on the chancellor of the exchequer. At first the party as a whole had
regarded him somewhat coldly. And his unbending common-sense, and
sobriety of criticism in matters which deeply interested the less
academic Radicals who were enthusiasts for extreme courses, would have
made the parliamentary situation difficult but for the exceptional
popularity of the prime minister. In the autumn of 1907, however, as the
latter's retention of office became more and more improbable, it became
evident that no other possible successor had equal qualifications. The
session of 1908 opened with Mr Asquith acting avowedly as the prime
minister's deputy, and the course of business was itself of a nature to
emphasize his claims. After two rather humdrum budgets he was pledged to
inaugurate a system of old-age pensions (forming the chief feature of
the budget of 1908, personally introduced by him at the beginning of
May), and his speech in April on the Licensing Bill was a triumph of
clear exposition, though later in the year, after passing the Commons,
it was thrown out by the Lords. On the 5th of April it was announced
that Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman had resigned and Mr Asquith been sent
for by the king. As the latter was staying at Biarritz, the
unprecedented course was followed of Mr Asquith journeying there for the
purpose, and on the 8th he resigned the chancellorship of the exchequer
and kissed hands as prime minister. The names of the new cabinet were
announced on the 13th. The new appointments were: Lord Tweedmouth as
lord president of the council (instead of the admiralty); Lord Crewe as
colonial secretary (instead of lord president of the council); Mr D.
Lloyd George, chancellor of the exchequer (transferred from the Board of
Trade); Mr R. McKenna, first lord of the admiralty (instead of minister
of education); Mr Winston Churchill, president of the Board of Trade;
and Mr Walter Runciman, minister of education. Lord Elgin ceased to be
colonial secretary, but Lord Loreburn (lord chancellor), Lord Ripon
(lord privy seal), Mr H. Gladstone (Home Office), Sir E. Grey (foreign
affairs), Mr Haldane (War Office), Mr Sinclair (secretary for Scotland;
created in 1909 Lord Pentland), Mr Burns (Local Government Board), Lord
Carrington (Board of Agriculture), Mr Birrell (Irish secretary), Mr S.
Buxton (postmaster-general), Mr L. Harcourt (commissioner of works), Mr
John Morley (India) and Sir Henry Fowler (duchy of Lancaster) retained
their offices, the two latter being created peers. The Budget (see LLOYD
GEORGE) was the sole feature of political interest in 1909, and its
rejection in December by the Lords led to the general election of
January 1910, which left the Liberals and Unionists practically equal,
with the Labour and Irish parties dominating the situation (L. 275, U.
273, Lab. 40, I. 82). Mr Asquith was in a difficult position, but the
ministry remained in office; and he had developed a concentration of
forces with a view to attacking the veto of the House of Lords (see
PARLIAMENT), when the death of the king in May caused a suspension of
hostilities. A conference between the leaders on both sides was
arranged, to discuss whether any compromise was possible, and
controversy was postponed to an autumn session. (H. Ch.)
ASS (O.E. _assa_; Lat. _asinus_), a common name (the synonym "donkey" is
supposed to be derived either by analogy from "monkey," or from the
Christian name Duncan; cf. Neddy, Jack, Dicky, &c.) for different
varieties of the sub-genus _Asinus_, belonging to the horse tribe, and
especially for the domestic ass; it differs from the horse in its
smaller size, long ears, the character of its tail, fur and markings,
and its proverbial dulness and obstinacy. The ancient Egyptians
symbolized an ignorant person by the head and ears of an ass, and the
Romans thought it a bad omen to meet one. In the middle ages the Germans
of Westphalia made the ass the symbol of St Thomas, the incredulous
apostle; the boy who was last to enter school on St Thomas' day was
called the "Ass Thomas" (Gubernatis's _Zoological Mythology_, i. 362).
The foolishness and obstinacy of the ass has caused the name to be
transferred metaphorically to human beings; and the fifth proposition of
Book i. of Euclid is known as the _Pons Asinorum_, bridge of asses.
ASS, FEAST OF THE, formerly a festival in northern France, primarily in
commemoration of the biblical flight into Egypt, and usually held on the
14th of January. A girl with a baby at her breast and seated on an ass
splendidly caparisoned was led through the town to the church, and there
placed at the gospel side of the altar while mass was said. The ceremony
degenerated into a burlesque in which the ass of the flight became
confused with Balaam's ass. So scandalous became the popular revels
associated with it, that the celebration was prohibited by the church in
the 15th century. (See FOOLS, FEAST OF.)
ASSAB, a bay and port on the African shore of the Red Sea, 60 m. N. of
the strait of Bab-el Mandeb. Assab Bay was the first territory acquired
by Italy in Africa. Bought from the sultan of Raheita in 1870, it was
not occupied until 1880. (See ERITREA, and ITALY: _History_.)
ASSAM, a former province of British India, which was amalgamated in 1905
with "Eastern Bengal and Assam" (q.v.). Area 56,243 sq. m.; pop. (1901)
6,126,343. The province of Assam lies on the N.E. border of Bengal, on
the extreme frontier of the Indian empire, with Bhutan and Tibet beyond
it on the N., and Burma and Manipur on the E. It comprises the valleys
of the Brahmaputra and Surma rivers, together with the mountainous
watershed which intervenes between them. It is situated between 24 deg.
0' and 28 deg. 17' N. lat., and between 89 deg. 46' and 97 deg. 5' E.
long. It is bounded on the N. by the eastern section of the great
Himalayan range, the frontier tribes from west to east being
successively Bhutias, Akas, Daphlas, Miris, Abors and Mishmis; on the
N.E. by the Mishmi hills, which sweep round the head of the Brahmaputra
valley; on the E. by the unexplored mountains that mark the frontier of
Burma, by the hills occupied by the independent Naga tribes and by the
state of Manipur; on the S. by the Lushai hills, the state of Hill
Tippera, and the Bengal district of Tippera; and on the W. by the Bengal
districts of Mymensingh and Rangpur, the state of Kuch Behar and
Jalpaiguri district.
_Natural Divisions._--Assam is naturally divided into three distinct
tracts, the Brahmaputra valley, the Surma valley and the hill ranges
between the two. The Brahmaputra valley is an alluvial plain, about 450
m. in length, with an average breadth of 50 m., lying almost east and
west. To the north is the main chain of the Himalayas, the lower ranges
of which rise abruptly from the plain; to the south is the great
elevated plateau or succession of plateaus known as the Assam range. The
various portions of this range are called by the names of the tribes who
inhabit them--the Garo, the Khasi, the Jaintia, the North Cachar and the
Naga hills. The range as a whole is joined at its eastern extremity by
the Patkai to the Himalayan system, and by the mountains of Manipur to
the Arakan Yoma. The highest points in the range are Nokrek peak (4600
ft.) in the Garo hills, Shillong peak (6450 ft.) in the Khasi-Jaintia
hills, and Japva peak (nearly 10,000 ft.) in the Naga hills. South of
the range comes the third division of the province, the Surma valley,
comprising the two districts of Cachar and Sylhet. The Surma valley is
much smaller than the Brahmaputra valley, covering only 7506 against
24,283 sq. m.; its mean elevation is much lower and its rivers are more
sluggish.
_Physical Aspects._--Assam is a fertile series of valleys, with the
great channel of the Brahmaputra (literally, the _Son of Brahma_)
flowing down its middle, and an infinite number of tributaries and
watercourses pouring into it from the mountains on either side. The
Brahmaputra spreads out in a sheet of water several miles broad during
the rainy season, and in its course through Assam forms a number of
islands in its bed. Rising in the Tibetan plateau, far to the north of
the Himalayas, and skirting round their eastern passes not far from
the Yang-tsze-kiang and the great river of Cambodia, it enters Assam
by a series of waterfalls and rapids, amid vast boulders and
accumulations of rocks. The gorge, situated in Lakhimpur district,
through which the southernmost branch of the Brahmaputra enters, has
from time immemorial been held in reverence by the Hindus. It is
called the Brahmakunda or Parasuramkunda; and although the journey to
it is both difficult and dangerous, it is annually visited by
thousands of devotees. After a rapid course westwards down the whole
length of the Assam valley, the Brahmaputra turns sharply to the
south, spreading itself over the alluvial districts of the Bengal
delta, and, after several changes of name, ends its course of 1800 m.
in the Bay of Bengal. Its first tributaries in Assam, after crossing
the frontier, are the Kundil and the Digaru, flowing from the Mishmi
hills on the north, and the Tengapani and Dihing, which take their
rise on the Singpho hills to the south-east. Shortly afterwards it
receives the Dihang, flowing from the north-east; but its principal
confluent is the Dihong, which, deriving its origin, under the name of
the Tsangpo, from a spot in the vicinity of the source of the Sutlej,
flows in a direction precisely opposite to that river, and traversing
the table-land of Tibet, at the back of the great Himalaya range,
falls into the Brahmaputra in 27 deg. 48' N. lat., 95 deg. 26' E.
long., after a course of nearly 1000 m. Doubts were long entertained
whether the Dihong could be justly regarded as the continuation of the
Tsangpo, but these were practically set at rest by the voyage of F.J.
Needham in 1886. Below the confluence, the united stream flows in a
south-westerly direction, forming the boundary between the districts
of Lakhimpur and Darrang, situated on its northern bank, and those of
Sibsagar and Nowgong on the south; and finally bisecting Kamrup, it
crosses over the frontier of the province and passes into Bengal. In
its course it receives on the left side the Dihing, a river having its
rise at the south-eastern angle of the province; and lower down, on
the opposite side, it parts with a considerable offset termed the Buri
Lohir, which, however, reunites with the Brahmaputra 60 m. below the
point of divergence, bearing with it the additional waters of the
Subansiri, flowing from Tibet. A second offset, under the name of the
Kalang river, rejoins the parent stream a short distance above the
town of Gauhati. The remaining rivers are too numerous to be
particularized. The streams of the south are not rapid, and have no
considerable current until May or June. Among the islands formed by
the intersection and confluence of the rivers is Majuli, or the Great
Island, as it is called by way of pre-eminence. This island extends 55
m. in length by about 10 in breadth, and is formed by the Brahmaputra
on the south-east and the Buri Lohit river on the north-west. In the
upper part of the valley, towards the gorge where the Brahmaputra
enters, the country is varied and picturesque, walled in on the north
and east by the Himalayas, and thickly wooded from the base to the
snow-line. On either bank of the Brahmaputra a long narrow strip of
plain rises almost imperceptibly to the foot of the hills. Gigantic
reeds and grasses occupy the low lands near the banks of the great
river; expanses of fertile rice-land come next; a little higher up,
dotted with villages encircled by groves of bamboos and fruit trees of
great size and beauty, the dark forests succeed, covering the interior
table-land and mountains. The country in the vicinity of the large
rivers is flat, and impenetrable from dense tangled jungle, with the
exception of some very low-lying tracts which are either permanent
marshes or are covered with water during the rains. Jungle will not
grow on these depressions, and they are covered either with water,
reeds, high grasses or rice cultivation. On or near such open spaces
are collected all the villages. As the traveller proceeds farther down
the valley, the country gradually opens out into wide plains. In the
western district of Kamrup the country forms one great expanse, with a
few elevated tracts here and there, varying from 200 to 800 ft. in
height.
_Soils._--The soil is exceedingly rich and well adapted to all kinds
of agricultural purposes, and for the most part is composed of a rich
black loam reposing on a grey sandy clay, though occasionally it
exhibits a light yellow clayey texture. The land may be divided into
three great classes. The first division is composed of hills, the
largest group within the valley being that of the Mikir Mountains,
which stand out upon the plain. Another set of hills project into the
valley at Gauhati. But these latter are rather prolongations of spurs
from the Khasi chain than isolated groups belonging to the plains. The
other hills are all isolated and of small extent. The second division
of the lands is the well-raised part of the valley whose level lies
above the ordinary inundations of the Brahmaputra. The channels of
some of the hill streams, however, are of so little depth that the
highest lands in their neighbourhood are liable to sudden floods. On
the north bank of the great river, lands of this sort run down the
whole length of the valley, except where they are interrupted by the
beds of the hill streams. The breadth of these plains is in some
places very trifling, whilst in others they comprise a tract of many
miles, according to the number and the height of the rocks or hills
that protect them from the aberrations of the river. The alluvial
deposits of the Brahmaputra and of its tributary streams may be
considered as the third general division of lands in Assam. These
lands are very extensive, and present every degree of fertility and
elevation, from the vast _chars_ of pure sand, subject to annual
inundations, to the firm islands, so raised by drift-sand and the
accumulated remains of rank vegetable matter, as no longer to be
liable to flood. The rapidity with which wastes, composed entirely of
sand newly washed forward by the current during floods, become
converted into rich pasture is astonishing. As the freshets begin to
lessen and retire into the deeper channels, the currents form natural
embankments on their edges, preventing the return of a small portion
of water which is thus left stagnant on the sands, and exposed to the
action of the sun's rays. It slowly evaporates, leaving a thin crust
of animal and vegetable matter. This is soon impregnated with the
seeds of the _Saccharum spontaneum_ and other grasses that have been
partly brought by the winds and partly deposited by the water. Such
places are frequented by numerous flocks of aquatic birds, which
resort thither in search of fish and mollusca. As vegetation begins to
appear, herds of wild elephants and buffaloes are attracted by the
supply of food and the solitude of the newly-formed land, and in their
turn contribute to manure the soil.
_Geology._--Geographically the Assam hills lie in the angle between
the Himalayas and the Burmese ranges, but geologically they belong to
neither. The older rocks are like those of Bengal, and the newer beds
show no sign of either the Himalayan or the Burmese folding--on the
top of the plateau they are nearly horizontal, but along the southern
margin they are bent sharply downwards in a simple monoclinal fold.
The greater part of the mass is composed of gneiss and schists. The
Sylhet traps near the southern margin are correlated with the Rajmahal
traps of Bengal. The older rocks are overlaid unconformably by
Cretaceous beds, consisting chiefly of sandstones with seams of coal,
the whole series thinning rapidly towards the north and thus
indicating the neighbourhood of the old shore-line. The fossils are
very similar to those of the South Indian Cretaceous, but very
different from those of the corresponding beds in the Nerbudda valley.
The overlying Tertiary series includes nummulitic beds and valuable
seams of coal.
The border ranges of the east and south of Assam belong to the Burmese
system of mountain chains (see BURMA), and consist largely of Tertiary
beds, including the great coal seams of Upper Assam. The Assam valley
is covered by the alluvial deposits of the Brahmaputra.
Of the mineral productions by far the most valuable is coal. Compared
with the Gondwana coal of the peninsula of India the Tertiary coal
seams of Assam are remarkable for their purity and their extraordinary
thickness. The "Thick Seam" of Margherita, in Upper Assam, averages 50
ft., and in some places reaches as much as 80 ft. The average
percentage of ash in 27 assays of Assam coal was 3.8 as against 16.3
in 17 assays of Raniganj coal. The coal seams are commonly associated
with petroleum springs. Gold is found in the alluvial deposits, but
the results of exploration have not been very promising.
_Earthquakes_.--Assam is liable to earthquakes. There was a severe
earthquake in Cachar on the 10th of January 1869, a severe shock in
Shillong and Gauhati in September 1875, and one in Silchar in October
1882; but by far the severest shock known is that which occurred on
the evening of 12th June 1897. The area of this seismic disturbance
extended over north-eastern India, from Manipur to Sikkim; but the
focus was in the Khasi and Garo hills. In the station of Shillong
every masonry building was levelled to the ground. Throughout the
country bridges were shattered, roads were broken up like ploughed
fields, and the beds of rivers were dislocated. In the hills there
were terrible landslips, which wrecked the little Cherrapunji railway
and caused 600 deaths. The total mortality recorded was 1542,
including two Europeans at Shillong. The levels of the country were so
affected that the towns of Goalpara and Barpeta became almost
uninhabitable during the rains.
_Fauna._--The zoology of Assam presents some interesting features.
Wild elephants abound and commit many depredations, entering villages
in large herds, and consuming everything suitable to their tastes.
Many are caught by means of female elephants previously tamed, and
trained to decoy males into the snares prepared for subjecting them to
captivity. A considerable number are tamed and exported from Assam
every year. Many are killed every year in the forests for the sake of
the ivory which they furnish. The government _keddah_ establishment
from Dacca captures large numbers of elephants in the province, and
the right of hunting is also sold by auction to private bidders. The
annual catch of the latter averages about two hundred. The rhinoceros
is found in the denser parts of the forests and generally in swampy
places. This animal is hunted and killed for its skin and its horn.
The skin affords the material for the best shields. The horn is sacred
in the eyes of the natives. Contrary to the usual belief, it is stated
that, if caught young, the rhinoceros is easily tamed and becomes
strongly attached to his keeper. Tigers abound, and though many are
annually destroyed for the sake of the government reward, their
numbers seem scarcely, if at all, to diminish. Leopards and bears are
numerous; and the sand-badger, the _Arctonyx collaris_ of Cuvier, a
small animal somewhat resembling a bear, but having the snout, eyes
and tail of a hog, is found. Among the most formidable animals known
is the wild buffalo or _gaur_ which is of great size, strength and
fierceness. The fox and the jackal exist, and the wild hog is very
abundant. Goats, deer of various kinds, hares, and two or three
species of antelope are found, as are monkeys in great variety. The
porcupine, the squirrel, the civet cat, the ichneumon and the otter
are common. The birds are too various to admit of enumeration. Wild
game is plentiful; pheasants, partridges, snipe and water-fowl of many
descriptions make the country a tempting field for the sportsman.
Vultures and other birds of prey are met with. Crocodiles (commonly
called alligators) swarm in all parts of the Brahmaputra, and are very
destructive to the fish, of which hundreds of varieties are found, and
which supply a valuable article of food. The most destructive of the
_ferae naturae_, as regards human life, are, however, the snakes. Of
these, several poisonous species exist, including the cobra and karait
(_Naja tripudians_ and _Bungarus caeruleus_). The bite of a
fairly-grown healthy serpent of either of these species is deadly; and
it is ascertained that more deaths occur from snake-bite than from all
the other wild beasts put together. Among the non-poisonous serpents
the python ranks first. This is an enormous boa-constrictor of great
length and weight, which drops upon his prey from the branch of a
tree, or steals upon it in the thick grass. He kills his victim by
rolling himself round the body till he breaks its ribs, or suffocates
it by one irresistible convolution round its throat. He seldom or
never attacks human beings unless in self-defence, and loss of life
from this cause is scarcely ever reported.
_Agriculture._--The principal and almost the only food-grain of the
plains portion of the province is rice. The production of this staple
is carried on generally under the same conditions as in Bengal; but
the times of sowing and reaping and the names given to the several
crops vary much in different parts of the province. In 1901-1902 out
of a total cultivated area of 1,736,000 acres, there were 1,194,000
acres under rice. In addition jute is grown to a considerable extent
in Goalpara and Sylhet; cotton is grown in large quantities along the
slopes of the Assam range. Rubber is grown in government plantations
and is also brought in by the hill tribes; while lac, mustard and
potatoes are also produced.
_Tea Plantations._--The most important article of commerce produced in
Assam is tea. The rice crop covers a very great proportion of the
cultivated land, but it is used for local consumption, and the
Brahmaputra valley does not produce enough for its own consumption,
large quantities being imported for the coolies. The tea plantations
are the one great source of wealth to the province, and the
necessities of tea cultivation are the chief stimulants to the
development of Assam. The plant was discovered in 1823 by Mr Robert
Bruce, who had proceeded thither on a mercantile exploration. The
country, however, then formed part of the Burmese dominions. But war
with this monarchy shortly afterwards broke out, and a brother of the
first discoverer, happening to be appointed to the command of a
division of gunboats employed in some part of the operations, followed
up the pursuit of the subject, and obtained several hundred plants and
a considerable quantity of seed. Some specimens were ultimately
forwarded to the superintendent of the botanic garden at Calcutta. In
1832 Captain F. Jenkins was deputed by the governor-general of India,
Lord William Bentinck, to report upon the resources of the country,
and the tea plant was brought to his especial notice by Mr Bruce; in
1834 a minute was recorded by the governor-general on the subject, in
which it is stated that his attention had been called to it in 1827
before his departure from England. In accordance with the views of
that minute, a committee was appointed to prosecute inquiries, and to
promote the cultivation of the plant. Communications were opened with
China with a view to obtain fresh plants and seeds, and a deputation,
composed of gentlemen versed in botanical studies, was despatched to
Assam. Some seeds were obtained from China; but they proved to be of
small importance, as it was clearly ascertained by the members of the
Assam deputation that both the black and the green tea plants were
indigenous here, and might be multiplied to any extent; another result
of the Chinese mission, that of procuring persons skilled in the
cultivation and manufacture of black tea, was of more material
benefit. Subsequently, under Lord Auckland, a further supply of
Chinese cultivators and manufacturers was obtained--men well
acquainted with the processes necessary for the production of green
tea, as the former set were with those requisite for black. In 1838
the first twelve chests of tea from Assam were received in England.
They had been injured in some degree on the passage, but on samples
being submitted to brokers, and others of long experience and tried
judgment, the reports were highly favourable. It was never, however,
the intention of government to carry on the trade, but to resign it to
private adventure as soon as the experimental course could be fairly
completed. Mercantile associations for the culture and manufacture of
tea in Assam began to be formed as early as 1839; and in 1849 the
government disposed of their establishment, and relinquished the
manufacture to the ordinary operation of commercial enterprise. In
1851 the crop of the principal company was estimated to produce
280,000 lb. Since then the enterprise has rapidly developed. Tea is
now cultivated in all the plains district of the provinces. When the
industry was first established, the land which was supposed to be best
for the plant was hill or undulating ground; but now it has been found
in the Surma valley that with good drainage the heaviest crops of tea
can be raised from low-lying land, even such as formerly supported
rice cultivation. At the close of the year 1905 there were 942 gardens
in all, with 422,335 acres, and employing 464,912 coolies. The
majority of gardens are owned by Europeans, 405,486 acres belonging to
them as against 16,849 to Indians. The total out-turn for the province
in 1905 was 193,556,047 lb. Between 1893 and 1898 there was a great
extension of tea cultivation, with the result that the industry began
to suffer from the congestion that follows over-production. Also to
meet the requirements of the industry, an enormous number of coolies
had to be brought into the province from other parts of India, and in
recent years the supply of labour has begun to fall off, causing a
rise in the cost of production. For these reasons there was a crisis
in the tea industry of Assam, which was relieved to some extent by the
reduction of the English duty on tea in 1906.
_Tea-Garden Coolies._--The labour required on the tea gardens is
almost entirely imported, as the natives of the province are too
prosperous to do such work. During the decade 1891-1901, 596,856
coolies were imported, or about a tenth of the total population of the
province. The importation of coolies is controlled by an elaborate
system of legislation, which provides for the registration of
contracts, the medical inspection of coolies during the journey, and
supervision over rates of pay, &c., on the gardens. The first labour
act was passed in 1863, and since then the law on the subject has been
changed by successive enactments. The measure now in force is called
Act VI. of 1901. Under this act the maximum term of the labour
contract is fixed at four years, and a minimum monthly wage is laid
down, the payment of which, however, is contingent on the completion
of a daily task by the labourer. Labourers under contract deserting
are liable to fine and imprisonment, and, subject to certain
restrictions, may be arrested without warrant by their employers. In
addition to the labourers engaged under this act, a large number are
employed under contract enforceable by Act XIII, of 1859, which
provides penalties for breach of the contract, but does not allow of
the arrest of deserters without warrant. Neither does this act
regulate in any way the terms of the contract, nor contain any special
provisions for the protection of the labourer. Many labourers on the
conclusion of their first engagement under Act VI. of 1901 enter into
renewed contracts under Act XIII. of 1859. In 1905 there were in all
664,296 labourers, and 24,209 fresh importations, of whom 62% chose
the old act.
_Railways._--The Assam-Bengal railway runs from the seaport of
Chittagong to the Surma valley, and thence across the hills to
Dibrugarh, at the head of the Brahmaputra valley, with a branch to
Gauhati lower down the Brahmaputra. The hill section of this line was
found exceedingly difficult of construction, and extensive damage was
done by the earthquake of 1897; but it is now complete. This railway
is financed by the government, though worked by a company, and
therefore ranks as a state line. At the end of 1904 its open mileage
was 576 m. There are several short lines of light railway or tramway
in the province. The most important is the Dibru-Sadiya railway, at
the head of the Brahmaputra valley, with a branch to the coal-fields.
_Trade_.-The external trade of Assam is conducted partly by steamer,
partly by native boat, and to a small extent by rail. In the
Brahmaputra valley steamers carry as much as 86% of the exports, and
94% of the imports. In the Surma valley native boats carry about 43%
of both. In 1904-1905 the total exports were valued at 726 lakhs of
rupees. The chief items were tea, rice in the husk, oil-seeds,
tea-seed, timber, coal and jute. The imports were valued at 457 lakhs
of rupees. The chief items were cotton piece-goods, rice not in the
husk, sugar, grain and pulse, salt, iron and steel, tobacco, cotton
twist and yarn, and brass and copper. No less than two-thirds of the
total trade is conducted with Calcutta. The trans-frontier trade is
insignificant; and most of it is conducted with the Bengal state of
Hill Tippera. The trade through Chittagong is increasing owing to the
opening of the hill-section of the Assam-Bengal railway, which gives
direct communication between the districts of Upper Assam and the port
of Chittagong, and the incorporation of that port in the new province
of Eastern Bengal and Assam.
_Inhabitants._--The total population of Assam, according to the census
of 1901, was 6,126,343, of whom 3,429,099 were Hindus, 1,581,317
Mahommedans and 1,068,334 Animists. The number of foreigners in the
population due to immigration by the tea-garden coolies was 775,844. But
in spite of this immigration the rate of increase in the population was
only 5.9% in the decade, and with the immigrants deducted 1.36%. Amongst
native-born Assamese during the decade there was a serious decrease in
Nowgong and some other districts, due to _kalaazar_ and other diseases.
The Assamese are an interesting race, of distinct origin from the
neighbouring Bengalis. A large proportion of them derive their origin
from tribes who came from the Himalayan ranges, from Burma or from the
Chinese frontier. The most important of these are the Ahoms or Ahams, an
offshoot of the Shan race of northern Burma. They were the last
conquerors of Assam before the Burmese, and they long preserved their
ancient traditions, habits and institutions. Hinduism first made its
encroachments among their kings and nobility. Several generations ago
they gave up eating beef, and they are now completely Hinduized, except
in a few remote recesses of Assam. Hinduism has also impressed its
language upon the province, and the vernacular Assamese possesses a
close affinity to Bengali, with the substitution of _s_ for the Bengali
_ch_, of a guttural _h_ for the Bengali _h_ or _sh_, and a few other
dialectic changes. Indeed, so close was the resemblance that for a time
Bengali was used as the court and official language of the province
under British rule. But with the development of the country the Assamese
tongue asserted its claims to be treated as a distinct vernacular, and a
resolution of government (1873) re-established it as the language of
official life and public business.
The Assam peasant, living in a half-populated province, and surrounded
by surplus land, is indolent, good-natured and, on the whole,
prosperous. He raises sufficient food for his wants with very little
labour, and, with the exception of a few religious ceremonies, he has no
demand made upon him for money, saving the light rental of his fields.
Under the peaceful influences of British rule, he has completely lost
his ancient warlike instincts, and forgotten his predatory habits. In
complexion he is a shade or two fairer than the Bengali. His person is
in general short and robust, but devoid of the grace and flexibility of
the Hindu. A flat face, with high cheek-bones, presents a physiognomy
resembling the Chinese, and suggests no idea of beauty. His hair is
abundant, black, lank and coarse, but the beard is scanty, and usually
plucked out, which gives him an effeminate appearance. The women form a
striking contrast to the men; there is more of feminine beauty in them
than is commonly seen in the women of Bengal, with a form and feature
somewhat approaching the European. The habits of life of the Assamese
peasantry are pre-eminently domestic. Great respect is paid to old age;
when parents are no longer capable of labour they are supported by their
children, and scarcely any one is allowed to become a burden to the
public. They have also in general a very tender regard for their
offspring, and are generous and kind to their relations. They are
hospitable to people of their own caste, but to no others. The use of
opium is very general.
_Hill Tribes._--The hill and frontier tribes of Assam include the Nagas,
Singphos, Daphlas, Miris, Khamtis, Mishmis, Abors, &c., nearly all of
whom, excepting the Nagas, are found near the frontiers of Lakhimpur
district. The principal of these, in point of numbers, are the Nagas,
who inhabit the hills and forests along the eastern and south-eastern
frontier of Assam. They reside partly in the British district of the
Naga hills and partly in independent territory under the political
control of the deputy-commissioner of the adjoining districts. They
cultivate rice, cotton, yams and Indian corn, and prepare salt from the
brine springs in their hills. The different tribes of Nagas are
independent of and unconnected with one another, and are often at war
with each other. The Singphos are another of the main population of the
same race, who occupy in force the hilly country between the Patkai and
Chindwin rivers, and are nominally subject to Burma. The Akas, Daphlas,
Miris, Abors, Mishmis and Khamtis are described under separate headings.
Under regulation V. of 1873, an inner line has been laid down in certain
districts, up to which the protection of British authority is
guaranteed, and beyond which, except by special permission, it is not
lawful for British subjects to go. This inner line has been laid down in
Darrang towards the Bhutias, Akas and Daphlas; in Lakhimper towards the
Daphlas, Miris, Abors, Mishmis, Khamtis, Singphos and Nagas; and in
Sibsagar towards the Nagas. The inner line formerly maintained along the
Lushai border has since 1895 been allowed to fall into desuetude, but
Lushais visiting Cachar are required to take out passes from the
superintendent of the Lushai hills. The line is marked at intervals by
frontier posts held by military police and commanding the roads of
access to the tract beyond; and any person from the plains who has
received permission to cross the line has to present his pass at these
posts.
_History._--Assam was the province of Bengal which remained most
stubbornly outside the limits of the Mogul empire and of the Mahommedan
polity in India. Indeed, although frequently overrun by Mussulman
armies, and its western districts annexed to the Mahommedan vice-royalty
of Bengal, the province maintained an uncertain independence till its
invasion by the Burmese towards the end of the 18th century, and its
final cession to the British in 1826. It seems to have been originally
included, along with the greater part of north-eastern Bengal, in the
old Hindu territory of Kamrup. Its early legends point to great
religious revolutions between the rival rites of Krishna and Siva as a
source of dynastic changes. Its roll of kings extends deep into
prehistoric times, but the first rajah capable of indentification
flourished about the year 76 A.D. Kamrup, the Pragjotishpur of the
ancient Hindus, was the capital of a legendary king Narak, whose son
Bhagadatta distinguished himself in the great war of the _Mahabharata_.
When Hsuan Tsang visited the country in A.D. 640, a prince named Kumar
Bhaskara Barman was on the throne. The people are described as being of
small stature with dark yellow complexions; they were fierce in
appearance, but upright and studious. Hinduism was the state religion,
and the number of Buddhists was very small. The soil was deep and
fertile, and the towns were surrounded by moats with water brought from
rivers or banked-up lakes. Subsequently we read of Pal rulers in Assam.
It is supposed that these kings were Buddhist and belonged to the Pal
dynasty of Bengal. Although the whole of Kamrup appears from time to
time to have been united into one kingdom under some unusually powerful
monarch, it was more often split up into numerous petty states; and for
several centuries the Koch, the Ahom and the Chutia powers contested for
the Assam valley. In the early part of the 13th century the Ahoms or
Ahams, from northern Burma and the Chinese frontiers, poured into the
eastern districts of Assam, founded a kingdom, and held it firmly for
several centuries. The Ahoms were Shans from the ancient Shan kingdom of
Pong. Their manners, customs, religion and language were, and for a long
time continued to be, different from those of the Hindus; but they found
themselves compelled to respect the superior civilization of this race,
and slowly adopted its customs and language. The conversion of their
king Chuchengpha to Hinduism took place in the year A.D. 1655, and all
the Ahoms of Assam gradually followed his example. In medieval history,
the Assamese were known to the Mussulman population as a warlike,
predatory race, who sailed down the Brahmaputra in fleets of innumerable
canoes, plundered the rich districts of the delta, and retired in safety
to their forests and swamps. As the Mahommedan power consolidated itself
in Bengal, repeated expeditions were sent out against these river
pirates of the north-east. The physical difficulties which an invading
force had to contend with in Assam, however, prevented anything like a
regular subjugation of the country; and after repeated efforts, the
Mussulmans contented themselves with occupying the western districts at
the mouth of the Assam valley. The following details will suffice for
the history of a struggle in which no great political object was
attained, and which left the Assamese still the same wild and piratical
people as when their fleets of canoes first sallied forth against the
Bengal delta. In 1638, during the reign of the emperor Shah Jahan, the
Assamese descended the Brahmaputra, and pillaged the country round the
city of Dacca; they were expelled by the governor of Bengal, who
retaliated upon the plunderers by ravaging Assam. During the civil wars
between the sons of Shah Jahan, the king of Assam renewed his predatory
incursions into Bengal; upon the termination of the contest, Aurangzeb
determined to avenge these repeated insults, and despatched a
considerable force for the regular invasion of the Assamese territory
(1660-1662). His general, Mir Jumla, defeated the rajah, who fled to the
mountains, and most of the chiefs made their submission to the
conqueror. But the rains set in with unusual violence, and Mir Jumla's
army was almost annihilated by famine and sickness. Thus terminated the
last expedition against Assam by the Mahommedans, whose fortunes in this
country were never prosperous. A writer of the Mahommedan faith
says:--"Whenever an invading army has entered their territories, the
Assamese have sheltered themselves in strong posts, and have distressed
the enemy by stratagems, surprises and alarms, and by cutting off their
provisions. If these means failed, they have declined a battle in the
field, but have carried the peasants into the mountains, burned the
grain and left the country desert. But when the rainy season has set in
upon the advancing enemy, they have watched their opportunity to make
excursions and vent their rage; the famished invaders have either become
their prisoners or been put to death. In this manner powerful and
numerous armies have been sunk in that whirlpool of destruction, and not
a soul has escaped." The same writer states that the country was
spacious, populous and hard to be penetrated; that it abounded in
dangers; that the paths and roads were beset with difficulties; and that
the obstacles to conquest were more than could be expressed. The
inhabitants, he says, were enterprising, well-armed and always prepared
for battle. Moreover, they had lofty forts, numerously garrisoned and
plentifully provided with warlike stores; and the approach to them was
opposed by thick and dangerous jungles, and broad and boisterous rivers.
The difficulties in the way of successful invasion are of course not
understated, as it was the object of the writer to exalt the prowess and
perseverance of the faithful. He accounts for their temporary success by
recording that "the Mussulman hordes experienced the comfort of fighting
for their religion, and the blessings of it reverted to the sovereignty
of his just and pious majesty." The short-lived triumph of the
Mussulmans might, however, have warranted a less ambitious tone. About
the middle of the 17th century the chief became a convert to Hinduism.
By what mode the conversion was effected does not clearly appear, but
whatever were the means employed, it seems that the decline of the
country commenced about the same period. Internal dissensions, invasion
and disturbances of every kind convulsed the province, and neither
prince nor people enjoyed security. Late in the 18th century some
interference took place on the part of the British government, then
conducted by Lord Cornwallis; but the successor of that nobleman, Sir
John Shore, adopting the non-intervention policy, withdrew the British
force, and abandoned the country to its fate. Its condition encouraged
the Burmese to depose the rajah, and to make Assam a dependency of Ava.
The extension of their encroachments on a portion of the territory of
the East India Company compelled the British government to take decisive
steps for its own protection. Hence arose the series of hostilities with
Ava known in Indian history as the first Burmese War, on the termination
of which by treaty in February 1826, Assam remained a British
possession. In 1832 that portion of the province denominated Upper Assam
was formed into an independent native state, and conferred upon
Purandhar Singh, the ex-rajah of the country; but the administration of
this chief proved unsatisfactory, and in 1838 his principality was
reunited with the British dominions. After a period of successful
administration and internal development, under the lieutenant-governor
of Bengal, it was erected into a separate chief-commissionership in
1874.
In 1886 the eastern Dwars were annexed from Bhutan; and in 1874 the
district of Goalpara, the eastern Dwars and the Garo hills were
incorporated in Assam. In 1898 the southern Lushai hills were
transferred from Bengal to Assam, and the north and south Lushai hills
were amalgamated as a district of Assam, and placed under the
superintendent of the Lushai hills. Frontier troubles occasionally occur
with the Akas, Daphlas, Abors and Mishmis along the northern border,
arising out of raids from the independent territory into British
districts. In October 1905 the whole province of Assam was incorporated
in the new province of Eastern Bengal and Assam.
See E.A. Gait, _The History of Assam_ (1906).
ASSAMESE, the Indo-Aryan language spoken in the Assam valley. In 1901
the number of its speakers was 1,350,846. It is closely related to
Bengali and Oriya, forming with them and with Bihari the Eastern Group
of the Indo-Aryan vernaculars. For further particulars see BENGALI.
ASSAROTTI, OTTAVIO GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1753-1829), the founder of schools
for the education of deaf-mutes in Italy, was born at Genoa in 1753.
After qualifying himself for the church, he entered the society of the
Pietists, "Scuole Pie," who devoted themselves to the training of the
young. His superior learning caused him to be appointed to lecture on
theology to the students of the order. In 1801 he heard of the Abbe
Sicard's training of deaf-mutes in Paris, and resolved to try something
similar in Italy. He began with one pupil, and had by degrees collected
a small number round him, when, in 1805, Napoleon, hearing of his
endeavours, ordered a convent to be given him for a school-house, and
funds for supporting twelve scholars to be taken from the convent
revenues. This order was scarcely attended to till 1811, when it was
renewed, and in the following year Assarotti, with a considerable number
of pupils, took possession of the new school. Here he continued, with
the exception of a short interval in 1814, till his death in 1829. A
pension, which had been awarded him by the king of Sardinia, he
bequeathed to his scholars.
ASSARY, or ASSARION, a Roman copper coin, the "farthing" of Matthew x.
29.
ASSASSIN (properly _Hashishin_, from _Hashish_, the opiate made from the
juice of hemp leaves), a general term for a secret murderer, originally
the name of a branch of the Shiite sect (see SHIITES), known as
Isma'ilites, founded by Hassan (ibn) Sabbah at the end of the 11th
century, and from that time active in Syria and Persia until crushed in
the 13th century by the Mongols under Hulaku (Hulagu) in Persia, and by
the Mameluke Bibars in Syria. The father of Hassan Sabbah, a native of
Khorasan, and a Shiite, had been frequently compelled to profess Sunnite
orthodoxy, and from prudential motives had sent his son to study under
an orthodox doctor at Nishapur. Here Hassan made the acquaintance of
Nizam-ul-Mulk, afterwards vizier of the sultan Malik-Shah (see SELJUKS).
During the reign of Alp-Arslan he remained in obscurity, and then
appeared at the court of Malik-Shah, where he was at first kindly
received by his old friend the vizier. Hassan, who was a man of great
ability, tried to supplant him in the favour of the sultan, but was
outwitted and compelled to take his departure from Persia. He went to
Egypt (1078-79), and, on account of his high reputation, was received
with great honour by the lodge at Cairo. He soon stood so high in the
caliph Mostansir's favour as to excite against him the jealousy of the
chief general, and a cause of open enmity soon arose. The caliph had
nominated first one and then another of his sons as his successor, and
in consequence a party division took place among the leading men.
Hassan, who adopted the cause of Nizar, the eldest son, found his
enemies too strong for him, and was forced to leave Egypt. After many
adventures he reached Aleppo and Damascus, and after a sojourn there,
settled near Kuhistan (Kohistan). He gradually spread his peculiar
modification of Isma'ilite doctrine, and, having collected a
considerable number of followers, formed them into a secret society. In
1090 he obtained, by stratagem, the strong mountain fortress of Alamut
in Persia, and, removing there with his followers, settled as chief of
the famous society afterwards called the Assassins.
The speculative principles of this body were identical with those of the
Isma'ilites, but their external policy was marked by one peculiar and
distinctive feature--the employment of secret "assassination" against
all enemies. This practice was introduced by Hassan, and formed the
essential characteristic of the sect. In organization they closely
resembled the western lodge at Cairo. At the head was the supreme ruler,
the _Sheik-al-Jabal_ (_Jebel_), i.e. Chief, or, as it is commonly
translated, Old Man of the Mountains. Under him were three
_Da'i-al-Kirbal_, or, as they may be called, grand priors, who ruled the
three provinces over which the sheik's power extended. Next came the
body of _Da'is_, or priors, who were fully initiated into all the secret
doctrines, and were the emissaries of the faith. Fourth were the
_Refiqs_, associates or fellows, who were in process of initiation, and
who ultimately advanced to the dignity of _da'is_. Fifth came the most
distinctive class, the _Fedais_ (i.e. the devoted ones), who were the
guards or assassins proper. These were all young men, and from their
ranks were selected the agents for any deed of blood. They were kept
uninitiated, and the blindest obedience was exacted from and yielded by
them. When the sheik required the services of any of them, the selected
_fedais_ were intoxicated with the _hashish_. When in this state they
were introduced into the splendid gardens of the sheik, and surrounded
with every sensual pleasure. Such a foretaste of paradise, only to be
granted by their supreme ruler, made them eager to obey his slightest
command; their lives they counted as nothing, and would resign them at a
word from him. Finally, the sixth and seventh orders were the _Lasiqs_,
or novices, and the common people. Hassan well knew the efficacy of
established law and custom in securing the obedience of a mass of
people; accordingly, upon all but the initiated, the observances of
Islam were rigidly enforced. As for the initiated, they knew the
worthlessness of positive religion and morality; they believed in
nothing, and scoffed at the practices of the faithful.
The Assassins soon began to make their power felt. One of their first
victims was Hassan's former friend, Nizam-ul-Mulk, whose son also died
under the dagger of a secret murderer. The death by poison of the sultan
Malik-Shah was likewise ascribed to this dreaded society, and
contributed to increase their evil fame. Sultan Sinjar, his successor,
made war upon them, but he was soon glad to come to terms with enemies
against whose operations no precaution seemed available. After a long
and prosperous rule Hassan died at an advanced age in 1124. He had
previously slain both his sons, one on suspicion of having been
concerned in the murder of a _da'i_ at Kuhistan, the other for drinking
wine, and he was therefore compelled to name as his successor his chief
_da'i_, Kia-Busurg-Omid.
During the fourteen years' reign of this second leader, the Assassins
were frequently unfortunate in the open field, and their castles were
taken and plundered; but they acquired a stronghold in Syria, while
their numerous murders made them an object of dread to the neighbouring
princes, and spread abroad their evil renown. A long series of
distinguished men perished under the daggers of the _fedais_; even the
most sacred dignity was not spared. The caliph Mostarshid was
assassinated in his tent, and not long after, the caliph Rashid suffered
a similar fate. Busurg-Omid was succeeded by his son Mahommed I., who,
during the long period of twenty-five years, ruthlessly carried out his
predecessor's principles. In his time Massiat became the chief seat of
the Syrian branch of the society. Mahommed's abilities were not great,
and the affections of the people were drawn towards his son Hassan, a
youth of great learning, skilled in all the wisdom of the initiated, and
popularly believed to be the promised Imam become visible on earth. The
old sheik prevented any attempt at insurrection by slaying 250 of
Hassan's adherents, and the son was glad to make submission. When,
however, he attained the throne, he began to put his views into effect.
On the 17th of the month Ramadan, 1164, he assembled the people and
disclosed to them the secret doctrines of the initiated; he announced
that the doctrines of Islam were now abolished, that the people might
give themselves up to feasting and joy. Soon after, he announced that he
was the promised Imam, the caliph of God upon earth. To substantiate
these claims he gave out that he was not the son of Mahommed, but was
descended from Nizar, son of the Egyptian caliph Mostansir, and a lineal
descendant of Isma'il. After a short reign of four years Hassan was
assassinated by his brother-in-law, and his son Mahommed II. succeeded.
One of his first acts was to slay his father's murderer, with all his
family and relatives; and his long rule, extending over a period of
forty-six years, was marked by many similar deeds of cruelty. He had to
contend with many powerful enemies, especially with the great Atabeg
sultan Nureddin, and his more celebrated successor, Saladin, who had
gained possession of Egypt after the death of the last Fatimite caliph,
and against whom even secret assassination seemed powerless. During his
reign, also, the Syrian branch of the society, under their _da'i_,
Sinan, made themselves independent, and remained so ever afterwards. It
was with this Syrian branch that the Crusaders made acquaintance; and it
appears to have been their emissaries who slew Count Raymund of Tripoli
and Conrad of Montferrat.
Mahommed II. died from the effects of poison, administered, it is
believed, by his son, Jelaleddin Hassan III., who succeeded. He restored
the old form of doctrine--secret principles for the initiated, and Islam
for the people--and his general piety and orthodoxy procured for him the
name of the new Mussulman. During his reign of twelve years no
assassinations occurred, and he obtained a high reputation among the
neighbouring princes. Like his father, he was removed by poison, and his
son, 'Ala-ed-din Mahommed III., a child of nine years of age, weak in
mind and body, was placed on the throne. Under his rule the mild
principles of his father were deserted, and a fresh course of
assassination entered on. In 1255, after a reign of thirty years,
'Ala-ed-din was slain, with the connivance of his son, Rukneddin, the
last ruler of the Assassins. In the following year Hulaku (Hulagu),
brother of the Tatar, Mangu Khan, invaded the hill country of Persia,
took Alamut and many other castles, and captured Rukneddin (see
MONGOLS). He treated him kindly, and, at his own request, sent him under
escort to Mangu. On the way, Rukneddin treacherously incited the
inhabitants of Kirdkuh to resist the Tatars. This breach of good faith
was severely punished by the khan, who ordered Rukneddin to be put to
death, and sent a messenger to Hulaku (Hulagu) commanding him to slay
all his captives. About 12,000 of the Assassins were massacred, and
their power in Persia was completely broken. The Syrian branch
flourished for some years longer, till Bibars, the Mameluke sultan of
Egypt, ravaged their country and nearly extirpated them. Small bodies of
them lingered about the mountains of Syria, and are believed still to
exist there. Doctrines somewhat similar to theirs are still to be met
with in north Syria.
See J. von Hammer, _Geschichte der Assassinen_ (1818); S. de Sacy,
_Memoires de l'lnstitut_, iv. (1818), who discusses the etymology
fully; _Calcutta Review_, vols. lv., lvi.; A. Jourdain in Michaud's
_Histoire des Croisades_, ii. pp. 465-484, and trans. of the Persian
historian Mirkhond in _Notices et extraits des manuscrits_, xiii. pp.
143 sq.; cf. R. Dozy, _Essai sur l'histoire de l'Islamisme_ (Leiden
and Paris, 1879); ch. ix. (G. W. T.)
ASSAULT (from Lat. _ad_, to or on, and _saltare_, to leap), in English
law, "an attempt or offer with force or violence to do corporal hurt to
another, as by striking at another with a stick or other weapon, or
without a weapon, though the party misses his aim." Notwithstanding
ancient opinions to the contrary, it is now settled that mere words, be
they ever so provoking, will not constitute an assault. Coupled with the
attempt or threat to inflict corporal injury, there must in all cases be
the means of carrying the threat into effect. A _battery_ is more than a
threat or attempt to injure the person of another; the injury must have
been inflicted, but it makes no difference however small it may be, as
the law does not "draw the line between degrees of violence," but
"totally prohibits the first and lowest stage of it." Every battery
includes an assault. A common assault is a misdemeanour, and is
punishable by imprisonment with or without hard labour to the extent of
one year, and if it occasions bodily harm, with penal servitude for
three years, or imprisonment to the extent of two years, with or without
hard labour. There are various different kinds of assaults which are
provided against by particular enactments of parliament, such as the
Offences against the Person Act 1861, the Prevention of Crimes Act 1871,
&c.; and there are also certain aggravated assaults for which the
punishment is severer than for common assault, as an assault with intent
to murder, with intent to commit a rape, &c. In certain cases an assault
and battery is sometimes justifiable, as in the case where a person in
authority, as a parent or schoolmaster, inflicts moderate punishment
upon a child, or in certain cases of self-defence, or in defence of
one's goods and chattels. An assault may be both a tort and a crime,
giving a civil action for damages to the person injured, as well as
being the subject of a criminal prosecution.
_United States._--The general principles applicable throughout the
United States are the same as in England. Riding a horse threateningly
near a person; or riding a bicycle against another (_Mercer v. Corbin_,
117 Indiana Rep. 450); waking one from sleep to present a milk bill
(_Richmond v. Fiske_, 160 Mass. 34), are assaults. A minor is liable for
damages for an assault (_Hildreth v. Hancock_, 156 Illinois Rep. 618).
In Texas it has been held that an assault with a knife is not
necessarily an aggravated assault (_Warren v. State_, 3 S.W. 240), and
an axe is not necessarily a "deadly weapon" with which to assault
(_Gladney v. State_, 12 S.W. 868), and the State must prove that it
would be likely to produce death or serious bodily injury (_Melton v.
State_, 17 S.W. 257). Neither a pistol nor brass knuckles are
necessarily deadly weapons; the State must show their size or manner of
use in making the assault (_Ballard v. State_, 13 S.W. 674; _Miles v.
State_, 5 S.W. 250). But in 1903 a pistol was held by the Texas Supreme
Court to be a deadly weapon if not used simply as a club (_Lockland v.
State_, 73 S.W. 1054), and the same court held in 1904 that a pistol is
a deadly weapon (_Pace v. State_, 79 S.W. 531), and so the assault was
an aggravated assault. In North Carolina it has been held that an axe is
_ex vi termini_ a "deadly weapon" (_State v. Shields_, 110 N.C. 49).
ASSAYE, a village of Hyderabad or the Nizam's Dominions, in southern
India, just beyond the Berar frontier. The place is celebrated as the
site of a battle fought on the 23rd of September 1803 between the
combined Mahratta forces Under Sindhia and the rajah of Berar and the
British under Major-General Wellesley, afterwards the duke of
Wellington. The Mahratta force consisted of 50,000 men, supported by 100
pieces of cannon served by French artillerymen, and entrenched in a
strong position. Against this the English had but a force of 4500 men,
which, however, after a severe struggle, gained the most complete
victory that ever crowned British valour in India. Of the enemy 12,000
were killed and wounded; and General Wellesley lost 1657--one-third of
his little force--killed and wounded. Assaye is 261 m. north-west of
Hyderabad.
ASSAYING. To "assay" (or "essay"; Fr. _essayer_) is in general to try,
or attempt, so to make trial or test. In a restricted sense the term
assaying is applied in metallurgy to the determination of the amount of
gold or silver in ores or alloys; in this article, however, it will be
used in a wider technical signification, and will include a description
of the methods for the quantitative determination of those elements in
ores which affect their value in metallurgical operations. It would be
impossible to give in detail here all the precautions necessary for the
successful use of the methods, and the descriptions will therefore be
confined to the principles involved and the general manner in which they
are applied to secure the desired results.
_Gold and Silver._--Ores containing gold or silver are almost invariably
assayed in the dry way; that is, by fusion with appropriate fluxes and
ultimate separation of the elements in the metallic form. One of the
customs which has grown out of our peculiar system of weights is the
form of statement of the results of such an assay. Instead of expressing
the amounts of gold and silver in percentages of the weight of ore, they
are expressed in ounces to the ton, the ounce being the troy ounce and
the ton that of 2000 avoirdupois pounds. To simplify calculation and to
enable the assayer to use the metric system of weights employed in all
chemical calculations, the "assay ton" ("A.T." = 29.166 grammes) has
been devised, which bears the same relation to the ton of 2000 lb.
avoirdupois that one milligram does to the troy ounce; when one assay
ton of ore is used, each milligram of gold or silver found represents
one ounce to the ton.
The assay of an ore for gold or silver consists of two operations. In
the first the gold or silver is made to combine or alloy with metallic
lead, the other constituents of the ore being separated from the lead as
slag. In the second, the lead button containing the gold or silver is
cupelled and the resulting gold or silver button is weighed. The first
is conducted in one of two ways, known respectively as the crucible
method and the scorification method. The crucible method is generally
used for ores containing gold in small amounts and for certain classes
of silver ores. The amount of ore taken for assay is generally one-half
"A.T.," but in very low-grade ores one, two, and sometimes even four
"A.T.s" are used. In the scorification method one-tenth of an "A.T." is
the amount commonly taken. While in both methods the same result is
sought, the means employed are quite different. In the scorification
method the ore is mixed in the scorifier (a shallow dish of burned clay)
with from ten to twenty times its weight of granulated metallic lead
(test lead) and a little borax glass, and heated in a muffle, the front
of which is at first closed. When the lead melts and begins to oxidize,
the lead oxide, or so-called litharge, combines with or dissolves the
non-metallic and readily oxidizable constituents of the ore, while the
gold and silver alloy with the lead. As the slag thus formed flows off
to the sides of the scorifier, the assay clears and the melted metallic
lead forms an "eye" in the middle. The door of the muffle is then opened
and the current of air which is drawn over the scorifier rapidly
oxidizes the lead, while the melted litharge gradually closes over the
metal. When the "eye" has quite disappeared the door is closed and the
temperature raised to make the slag very liquid. The scorifier is taken
from the muffle in a pair of tongs and the contents poured into a mould,
the lead forming a button in the bottom while the slag floats on top.
When cold, the contents of the mould are taken out and the lead button
hammered into the form of a cube, the slag, which is glassy and brittle,
separating readily from the metal, which is then ready for cupellation.
In the crucible method the ore is mixed with from once to twice its
weight of flux, which varies in composition, but of which the following
may be taken as a type:--
Sodium bicarbonate . . . 8 parts.
Potassium carbonate . . . 3 "
Powdered borax . . . . . 4 "
Flour . . . . . . . . . . 1 "
Litharge . . . . . . . . 9 "
The mixture is charged into a round clay crucible from 100 mm. to 125
mm. high, and heated either in a muffle or in a crucible furnace at a
gradually increasing heat for forty or fifty minutes. At the expiration
of this time, when the charge should be perfectly liquid and in a
tranquil state of fusion, the crucible is removed from the furnace and
the contents are poured into a mould. The resulting lead button hammered
into shape and carefully cleansed from slag is ready for the cupel. If
the button is too large for cupellation, or if it is hard, it may be
scorified either alone or mixed with test lead before cupellation. The
character and amount of the flux necessarily depend upon the character
of the ore, the object being to concentrate in the lead button all the
gold and silver while dissolving and carrying off in the slag the other
constituents of the ore. Under the most favourable conditions there is a
slight loss of gold and silver in the fusion, the scorification and the
cupellation, both by absorption in the slag and by actual volatilization
and absorption in the cupel. In ores containing much copper, this metal
is largely concentrated in the lead button, making it hard, and
necessitating repeated scorifications and, in some cases, a preliminary
removal of the copper by solution of the ore in nitric acid. This leaves
the gold in the insoluble residue, which is filtered off, and the silver
in the solution is thrown down by hydrochloric acid. The resulting
precipitate of silver chloride is filtered, and the residue and the
precipitate are scorified together. Ores containing much arsenic or
sulphur are generally roasted at a low heat and the assay is made on the
roasted material.
The process of cupellation is briefly as follows:--The gold alloy is
fused with a quantity of lead, and a little silver if silver is already
present. The resulting alloy, which is called the _lead button_, is then
submitted to fusion on a very porous support, made of bone-ash, and
called a _cupel_. The fusion being effected in a current of air, the
lead oxidizes. The heat is sufficient to keep the resulting lead oxide
fused, and the porous cupel has the property of absorbing melted lead
oxide without taking up any of the metallic globule, exactly in the same
way that blotting-paper will absorb water whilst it will not touch a
globule of mercury. The heat being continued, and the current of air
always passing over the surface of the melted lead button, and the lead
oxide being sucked up by the cupel as fast as it is formed, the metallic
globule rapidly diminishes in size until at last all the lead has been
got rid of. Now, if this were the only action, little good would have
been gained, for we should simply have put lead into the gold alloy, and
then taken it out again; but another action goes on whilst the lead is
oxidizing in the current of air. Other metals, except the silver and
gold, also oxidize, and are carried by the melted litharge into the
cupel. If the lead is therefore rightly proportioned to the standard of
alloy, the resulting button will consist of only gold and silver, and
these are separated by the operation of _parting_, which consists in
boiling the alloy (after rolling it to a thin plate) in strong nitric
acid, which dissolves the silver and leaves the gold as a coherent
sponge. To effect this parting properly, the proportion of silver to
gold should be as 3 to 1. The operation by which the alloy is brought to
this standard is termed _quartation_ or _inquartation_, and consists in
fusing the alloy in a cupel with lead and the quantity of fine silver or
fine gold necessary to bring it to the desired composition.
_Lead._--The "dry" or fire assay for lead is largely used for the
valuation of lead ores, although it is being gradually replaced by
volumetric methods. One part of the ore is mixed with from three to five
parts of a flux of the following composition:--
Potassium carbonate . . . . . 40.6 %
Sodium bicarbonate . . . . . 31.3 "
Borax . . . . . . . . . 15.6 "
Flour . . . . . . . . . 12.5 "
The mixture is charged into a clay crucible and heated for twenty
minutes at a good red heat. When the mixture has been in a tranquil
state of fusion for a few minutes it is poured into a mould. When cold,
the button is hammered, cleaned carefully from slag, and weighed. The
proportion is calculated from the amount of ore used, and the result is
expressed in parts in a hundred or percentage of the ore. Various
impurities, such as copper, antimony and sulphur, go into the lead
button, so that the result is generally too high. The most accurate
method for the determination of lead in ores is the gravimetric method,
in which it is weighed as lead sulphate after the various impurities
have been separated. Nearly all lead ores contain more or less sulphur;
and as in the process of solution in nitric acid this is oxidized to
sulphuric acid which unites with the lead to form the very insoluble
lead sulphate, it is simpler to add sulphuric acid to convert all the
lead into sulphate and then evaporate until the nitric acid is expelled.
The salts of iron, copper, &c., are then dissolved in water and filtered
from the insoluble silica, lead sulphate, and calcium sulphate, which
are washed with dilute sulphuric acid. The insoluble matter is treated
with a hot solution of alkaline ammonium acetate, which dissolves the
lead sulphate, the other materials being separated by filtration. The
lead sulphate, re-precipitated in the filtrate by an excess of sulphuric
acid and alcohol, is then filtered on an asbestos felt in a Gooch
crucible, washed with dilute sulphuric acid and alcohol, ignited, and
weighed. Lead sulphate contains 68.30% of metallic lead.
There are several volumetric methods for assaying lead ores, but the
best known is that based on the precipitation of lead by ammonium
molybdate in an acetic acid solution. The lead sulphate, obtained as
described above and dissolved in ammonium acetate, is acidulated with
acetic acid diluted with hot water and heated to boiling-point. A
standardized solution of ammonium molybdate is then added from a
burette. As long as the solution contains lead, the addition of the
molybdate solution causes a precipitation of white lead molybdate. An
excess of the precipitant is shown by a drop of the solution imparting a
yellow colour to a solution of tannin, prepared by dissolving one part
of tannin in 300 of water; drops of this solution are placed on a white
porcelain plate, and as the precipitant is added to the lead solution a
drop of the latter is removed from time to time on a glass stirring-rod
and added to one of the drops on the porcelain plate. The appearance of
a yellow colour shows that all the lead has been precipitated and that
the solution contains an excess of molybdate. From the reading of the
burette the lead is calculated. The molybdate solution should be of such
a strength that 1 cc. will precipitate 0.01 gramme of lead. It is
standardized by dissolving a weighed amount of lead sulphate in ammonium
acetate and proceeding as described above.
_Zinc._--Chemically the ores of zinc consist of the silicates,
carbonates, oxides, and sulphides of zinc associated with other metals,
some of which complicate the methods of assay. The most modern and the
most generally accepted method is volumetric, and is based on the
reaction between zinc chloride and potassium ferrocyanide, by which
insoluble zinc ferrocyanide and soluble potassium chloride are formed;
the presence of the slightest excess of potassium ferrocyanide is shown
by a brownish tint being imparted by the solution to a drop of uranium
nitrate. The ore (0.5 gramme) is digested with a mixture of potassium
nitrate and nitric acid. A saturated solution of potassium chlorate in
strong nitric acid is added, and the mass evaporated to dryness. It is
then heated with a mixture of ammonium chloride and ammonia, filtered
and washed with a hot dilute solution of the same mixture. The filtrate
diluted to 200 cc. is carefully neutralized with hydrochloric acid, and
excess of 6 cc. of the strong acid is added, and the solution saturated
with hydrogen sulphide, which precipitates the copper and cadmium,
metals which would otherwise interfere. Without filtering, the standard
solution is added from a burette, and from time to time a drop of the
solution is removed on the glass stirring-rod and added to a drop or two
of a strong solution of uranium nitrate, previously placed on a white
porcelain plate. The appearance of a brown tint in one of these tests
shows the end of the reaction. When cadmium is not present the copper
may be precipitated by boiling the acidulated ammoniacal solution with
test lead and titrating, as before described, without removing the lead
and copper from the solution. The ferrocyanide solution is standardized
by dissolving 1 gramme of pure zinc in 6 cc. of hydrochloric acid,
adding ammonium chloride, and titrating as before. This method is
modified in practice by the character of the ores, carbonates and
silicates free from sulphides being decomposed by hydrochloric acid,
with the addition of a little nitric acid.
_Copper._--The fire assay for copper ores was abandoned years ago and
the electrolytic method took its place; this in turn is now largely
replaced by volumetric methods. In the electrolytic method from 0.5 to 5
grammes of ore are treated in a flask or beaker, with a mixture of 10
cc. of nitric and 10 cc. of sulphuric acid, until thoroughly decomposed.
When this liquid is cold it is diluted with cold water, heated until all
the soluble salts are dissolved, transferred to a tall, narrow beaker,
and diluted to about 150 cc. The electrodes are attached to a frame
connected with the battery and the beaker is placed on a stool, which
can be raised so that the electrodes are immersed in the liquid and
reach the bottom of the beaker. The electrodes consist of two cylinders
of platinum (placed one inside the other) about 75 mm. high, the smaller
of the two 37 mm. and the larger 50 mm. in diameter, both pierced with
10 to 12 holes 5 mm. in diameter, evenly distributed over the surfaces
to facilitate diffusion of the liquids. The surfaces of the cylinders
are roughened with a sand blast to increase the areas and make the
deposited metals adhere more firmly. Each cylinder has a platinum wire
fused to the upper circumference to connect with a clamp from which a
wire leads to the proper pole of the battery. The smaller cylinder is
generally the negative electrode on which the copper is deposited. The
framework carrying the clamps is arranged so that a number of
determinations may be made at one time, the wires from the clamps
running from a rheostat, so arranged that currents of any strength may
be used simultaneously. The cylinder, having been carefully weighed, is
placed in position, the beaker containing the solution is adjusted, and
the current passed until all the copper is precipitated. This generally
requires from two to twelve hours. The cylinders are then removed from
the solution and washed with distilled water, the one holding the
deposited copper being washed with alcohol, dried and weighed; the
increase in weight represents the copper contents of the ore. The
deposited copper should be firmly adherent and bright rosy red in
colour. Silver, arsenic and cadmium, if present, are precipitated with
the copper and affect the accuracy of the results; they should be
removed by special methods.
Volumetric methods are more expeditious and require less apparatus. The
potassium cyanide method is based on the fact that, when potassium
cyanide is added to an ammoniacal solution of a salt of copper, the
insoluble copper cyanide is formed, the end of the reaction being
indicated by the disappearance of the blue colour of the solution. One
gramme of the ore is treated in a flask with a mixture of nitric and
sulphuric acids and evaporated until all the nitric acid is expelled.
After cooling a little, water is added, and then a few grammes of
aluminium foil free from copper. On this foil the copper in the solution
is all precipitated by electrolytic action in a few minutes, and the
aluminium is dissolved by the addition of an excess of sulphuric acid.
Water is added, and as soon as the gangue and copper particles have
settled the clear solution is decanted, and the residue washed several
times in the same way. The copper is then dissolved in 5 cc. of nitric
acid; if silver is present a drop or two of hydrochloric acid is added,
the solution diluted to about 50 cc., and filtered. To the filtrate (or,
if no silver is present, to the diluted nitric acid solution) 10 cc. of
ammonia are added, and a standard solution of potassium cyanide is run
in from a burette until the blue colour has nearly disappeared. The
solution is filtered to get rid of the precipitate, and the titration is
finished in the nearly clear nitrate, which should be always about 200
cc. in volume. The titration is complete when the blue colour is so
faint that it is almost imperceptible after the flask has been
vigorously shaken. The potassium cyanide solution is standardized by
dissolving 0.5 gramme of pure copper in 5 cc. of nitric acid, diluting,
adding 10 cc. of ammonia, and titrating exactly as described above.
When potassium iodide is added to a solution of cupric acetate, the
reaction Cu(C2H3O2)2 + 2KI = CuI + 2K(C2H3O2) + I takes place; that is,
for each atom of copper one atom of iodine is liberated. If a solution
of sodium thiosulphate (hyposulphite) is added to this solution,
hydriodic acid, sodium iodide and tetrathionate are formed; and if a
little starch solution has been added, the end of the reaction is
indicated by the disappearance of the blue colour, due to the iodide of
starch. The amount of iodine liberated is therefore a measure of the
copper in the solution, and when the sodium thiosulphate has been
carefully standardized the method is extremely accurate. The ore is
treated as described in the cyanide method until the copper precipitated
by the aluminium foil has been washed and dissolved in 5 cc. of nitric
acid; then 0.25 gramme of potassium chlorate is added, and the solution
boiled nearly dry to oxidize any arsenic present to arsenic acid. The
solution is cooled, 50 cc. water added, then 5 cc. ammonia, and the
solution is boiled for five minutes. Next 5 cc. of glacial acetic acid
are added, the solution cooled, and 5 cc. of a solution of potassium
iodide (300 grammes to the litre) and the standard solution of sodium
thiosulphate run in from a burette until the brown colour has nearly
disappeared. A few drops of starch solution are then added, and when the
blue colour has nearly vanished a drop or two of methyl orange makes the
end reaction very sharp. The thiosulphate solution is standardized by
dissolving 0.3 to 0.5 gramme of pure copper in 3 cc. of nitric acid,
adding 50 cc. of water and 5 cc. of ammonia, and titrating as above
after the addition of 5 cc. of glacial acetic acid and 5 cc. of the
potassium iodide solution.
_Iron._--The methods used in the assay for iron are volumetric, and are
all based on the property possessed by certain reagents of oxidizing
iron from the ferrous to the ferric state. Two salts are in common use
for this purpose, potassium permanganate and potassium bichromate. It is
necessary in the first place, after the ore is in solution, to reduce
all the iron to the ferrous condition; then the carefully standardized
solution of the oxidizing reagent is added until all the iron is in the
ferric state, the volume of the standard solution used being the measure
of the iron contained in the ore. The end of the reaction when potassium
permanganate is employed is known by the change in colour of the
solution. As the solution of potassium permanganate, which is deep red
in colour, is dropped into the colourless iron solution, it is quickly
decolorized while the iron solution gradually assumes a yellowish tinge,
the first drop of the permanganate solution in excess giving it a pink
tint. With potassium bichromate solution, which is yellow, the iron
solution becomes green from the chromium chloride or sulphate formed,
and the end of the reaction is determined by removing a drop of the
solution on the stirring-rod and adding it to a drop of a dilute
solution of potassium ferricyanide on a white tile. So long as the
solution contains a ferrous salt, the drop on the tile changes to blue;
hence the absence of a blue coloration indicates the complete oxidation
of all the ferrous salt and the end of the reaction. One gramme of ore
is usually taken for assay and treated in a small flask or beaker with
10 cc. of hydrochloric acid. All the iron in the ore generally dissolves
upon heating, and a white residue is left. Occasionally this residue
contains a small amount of iron in a difficultly soluble form; in that
case the solution is slightly diluted with water and filtered into a
larger flask. The residue in the filter is ignited and fused with a
little sodium carbonate and nitrate, or with sodium peroxide. The
product is treated with water, filtered, and the residue dissolved in
hydrochloric acid and added to the main solution. This solution, which
should not exceed 50 cc. or 75 cc. in volume, contains the iron in the
ferric state and is ready for reduction.
In the reduction by metallic zinc, about 3 grammes of granulated or
foliated zinc are placed in the flask, which is closed with a small
funnel; when the iron is reduced, add 10 cc. of sulphuric acid, and as
soon as all the zinc is dissolved the solution is ready for titration.
In the reduction by stannous chloride the solution of the ore in the
flask is heated to boiling, and a strong solution of stannous chloride
is added until the solution is completely decolorized; then 60 cc. of a
solution of mercuric chloride (50 grammes to the litre) are run in and
the contents of the flask poured into a dish containing 600 cc. of water
and 60 cc. of a solution containing 200 grammes of manganous sulphate, 1
litre of phosphoric acid (1.3 sp. gr.), 400 cc. of sulphuric acid, and
1600 cc. of water. The solution is then ready for titration with the
standard permanganate solution.
The permanganate or bichromate solution is standardized by dissolving
0.5 of a gramme of pure iron wire in a flask, in hydrochloric acid,
oxidizing it with a little potassium chlorate, boiling off all traces of
chlorine, deoxidizing by one of the methods described above, and
titrating with the solution. As the wire always contains impurities, the
absolute amount of iron in the wire must be determined and the
correction made accordingly. Pure oxalic acid may also be used, which,
in the presence of sulphuric acid, is oxidized by the standard solution
according to the reaction:--
5(H2C2O42H2O) + 3H2SO4 + 2KMnO4 = 10CO2 + 2MnSO4 + K2SO4 + 18H2O.