ARUNDEL, THOMAS ASSAB
ARUNDEL (town) ASSAM
ARUNDELL OF WARDOUR ASSAMESE
ARUSIANUS MESSIUS ASSAROTTI, OTTAVIO GIOVANNI BATTISTA
ARVAL BROTHERS ASSARY
ARVALS ASSASSIN
ARVERNI ASSAULT
ARYAN ASSAYE
ARYA SAMAJ ASSAYING
ARYTENOID ASSEGAI
ARZAMAS ASSELIJN, HANS
AS ASSEMANI
ASA ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL
ASAFETIDA ASSEN
ASAF-UD-DOWLAH ASSER
ASAPH ASSESSMENT
ASBESTOS ASSESSOR
ASBJORNSEN, PETER CHRISTEN ASSETS
ASBURY, FRANCIS ASSIDEANS
ASBURY PARK ASSIGNATS
ASCALON ASSIGNMENT
ASCANIUS ASSINIBOIA
ASCENSION ASSINIBOIN
ASCENSION, FEAST OF THE ASSISE
ASCETICISM ASSISI
ASCHAFFENBURG ASSIUT
ASCHAM, ROGER ASSIZE
ASCHERSLEBEN ASSMANNSHAUSEN
ASCIANO ASSOCIATE
ASCITANS ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS
ASCITES ASSONANCE
ASCLEPIADES (Greek physician) ASSUAN
ASCLEPIADES (of Samos) ASSUMPSIT
ASCLEPIODOTUS ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF
ASCOLI, GRAZIADIO ISAIA ASSUR (land of Assyria)
ASCOLI PICENO ASSUR (capital of Assyria)
ASCONIUS PEDIANUS, QUINTUS ASSUR (god of Assyria)
ASCOT ASSUR-BANI-PAL
ASCUS ASSUS
ASELLI, GASPARO ASSYRIA
ASGILL, JOHN AST, GEORG ANTON FRIEDRICH
ASH ASTARA
A'SHA ASTARABAD
ASHANTI ASTARTE
ASH'ARI ASTELL, MARY
ASHBOURNE ASTER
ASHBURNHAM, JOHN ASTERIA
ASHBURTON, ALEXANDER BARING ASTERID
ASHBURTON, JOHN DUNNING ASTERISK
ASHBURTON (river) ASTERIUS (of Cappadocia)
ASHBURTON (town) ASTERIUS (bishop of Amasia)
ASHBY, TURNER ASTHMA
ASHBY-DE-LA-ZOUCH ASTI
A-SHE-HO ASTLEY, JACOB ASTLEY
ASHER ASTLEY, SIR JOHN DUGDALE
'ASHER BEN-YEHIEL ASTON, ANTHONY
ASHEVILLE ASTON MANOR
ASHFORD ASTOR, JOHN JACOB
'ASHI ASTORGA, EMANUELE D'
ASHINGTON ASTORGA (city)
'ASHKENAZI, SEBI ASTORIA
ASHLAND (Kentucky, U.S.A.) ASTRAEA
ASHLAND (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.) ASTRAGAL
ASHLAND (Virginia, U.S.A.) ASTRAKHAN (government of Russia)
ASHLAND (Wisconsin, U.S.A.) ASTRAKHAN (town of Russia)
ASHLAR ASTROLABE
ASHLEY, WILLIAM JAMES ASTROLOGY
ASHMOLE, ELIAS ASTRONOMY
ASHRAF ASTROPALIA
ASHREF ASTROPHYSICS
ASHTABULA ASTRUC, JEAN
ASHTON-IN-MAKERFIELD ASTURA
ASHTON-UNDER-LYNE ASTURIAS
ASH WEDNESDAY ASTYAGES
ASHWELL, LENA ASTYLAR
ASIA (continent) ASUNCION
ASIA (Roman province) ASVINS
ASIA MINOR ASYLUM
ASIENTO ASYLUM, RIGHT OF
ASIR ATACAMA
ASISIUM ATACAMA, DESERT OF
ASKABAD ATACAMITE
ASKAULES ATAHUALLPA
ASKE, ROBERT ATALANTA
ASKEW, ANNE ATARGATIS
ASMA'I ATAULPHUS
ASMARA ATAVISM
ASMODEUS ATBARA
ASMONEUS ATCHISON
ASNIERES ATE
ASOKA ATELLA
ASOLO ATELLANAE FABULAE
ASOR ATESTE
ASP ATH
ASPARAGINE ATHABASCA
ASPARAGUS ATHALARIC
ASPASIA ATHALIAH
ASPASIUS ATHAMAS
ASPEN ATHANAGILD
ASPENDUS ATHANARIC
ASPER, AEMILIUS ATHANASIUS
ASPER, HANS ATHAPASCAN
ASPERGES ATHARVA VEDA
ASPERN-ESSLING ATHEISM
ASPHALT ATHELM
ASPHODEL ATHELNEY
ASPHYXIA ATHENA
ASPIC ATHENAEUM
ASPIDISTRA ATHENAEUS
ASPIROTRICHACEAE ATHENAGORAS
ASPIROZ, MANUEL DE ATHENODORUS
ASPROMONTE ATHENRY
ASQUITH, HERBERT HENRY ATHENS (Greece)
ASS ATHENS (Georgia, U.S.A.)
ASS, FEAST OF THE ATHENS (Ohio, U.S.A.)
ARUNDEL, THOMAS (1353-1414), archbishop of Canterbury, was the third son
of Richard Fitzalan, earl of Arundel and Warenne, by his second wife,
Eleanor, daughter of Henry Plantagenet, earl of Lancaster. His family
was an old and influential one, and when Thomas entered the church his
preferment was rapid. In 1373 he became archdeacon of Taunton, and in
April 1374 was consecrated bishop of Ely. During the early years of the
reign of King Richard II. he was associated with the party led by
Thomas, duke of Gloucester, Henry, earl of Derby, afterwards King Henry
IV., and his own brother Richard, earl of Arundel, and in 1386 he was
sent with Gloucester to Eltham to persuade Richard to return to
parliament. This mission was successful, and Arundel was made lord
chancellor in place of Michael de la Pole, duke of Suffolk, and assisted
to make peace between the king and the supporters of the commission of
regency. In April 1388 he was made archbishop of York, and, when Richard
declared himself of age in 1389, he gave up the office of chancellor, to
which, however, he returned in 1391. During his second tenure of this
office he removed the courts of justice from London to York, but they
were soon brought back to the metropolis. In September 1396 he was
translated from York to Canterbury, and again resigned the office of
chancellor. He began his new rule by a vigorous attempt to assert his
rights, warned the citizens of London not to withhold tithes, and
decided appeals from the judgments of his suffragans during a thorough
visitation of his province. In November 1396 he had officiated at the
marriage of Richard and Isabella, daughter of Charles VI., king of
France, and his fall was the sequel of the king's sudden attack upon the
lords appellant in 1397. After the arrest of Gloucester, Warwick and
Arundel, the archbishop was impeached by the Commons with the king's
consent, although Richard, who had not yet revealed his hostility, held
out hopes of safety to him. He was charged with assisting to procure the
commission of regency in derogation of the royal authority, and sentence
of banishment was passed, forty days being given him during which to
leave the realm. Towards the end of 1397 he started for Rome, and Pope
Boniface IX., at the urgent request of the king, translated him to the
see of St Andrews, a step which the pope afterwards confessed he
repented bitterly. This translation virtually deprived Arundel of all
authority, as St Andrews did not acknowledge Boniface. He then became
associated with Henry of Lancaster, but did not return to England before
1399, and the account which Froissart gives telling how he was sent by
the Londoners to urge Henry to come and assume the crown is thought to
refer to his nephew and namesake, Thomas, earl of Arundel. Landing with
Henry at Ravenspur, he accompanied him to the west. He took his place at
once as archbishop of Canterbury, witnessed the abdication of Richard in
the Tower of London, led the new king, Henry IV., to his throne in
presence of the peers, and crowned him on the 13th of October 1399.
The main work of his later years was the defence of the church, and the
suppression of heresy. To put down the Lollards, he called a meeting of
the clergy, pressed on the statute _de haeretico comburendo_, and passed
sentence of degradation upon William Sawtrey. He resisted the attempt of
the parliament of 1404 to disendow the church, but failed to induce
Henry to pardon Archbishop Scrope in 1405. In 1407 he became chancellor
for the fourth time, and in 1408 summoned a council at Oxford, which
drew up constitutions against the Lollards. These he published in
January 1409, and among them was one forbidding the translation of the
Bible into English without the consent of the bishop of the diocese, or
of a provincial synod. In 1411 he went on an embassy abroad, and in 1412
became chancellor again, his return to power being accompanied by a
change in the foreign policy of Henry IV. In 1397 he had sought to
vindicate his right of visitation over the university of Oxford, but the
dispute remained unsettled until 1411 when a bull was issued by Pope
John XXIII. recalling one issued by Pope Boniface IX., which had
exempted the university from the archbishop's authority. In 1413 he took
a leading part in the proceedings against Sir John Oldcastle, Lord
Cobham, and in the following year he died on the 19th of February, and
was buried at Canterbury. A legend of a later age tells how, just before
his death, he was struck dumb for preventing the preaching of the word
of God.
The chief authorities are T. Walsingham, _Historia Anglicana_, ed. by
H.T. Riley (London, 1863-1864); _Eulogium historiarum sive temporis_,
ed. by F.S. Haydon (London, 1858-1863); the Monk of Evesham, _Historia
vitae et regni Ricardi II._, ed. by T. Hearne (Oxford, 1729); W.F.
Hook, _Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury_, vol. iv. (London,
1860-1876).
ARUNDEL, a market town and municipal borough in the Chichester
parliamentary division of Sussex, England, 58 m. S.S.W. from London by
the London, Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. (1901) 2739. It is
pleasantly situated on the slope of a hill above the river Arun, which
is navigable for small vessels to Littlehampton at the mouth, 6 m.
south. From the summit of the hill rises Arundel Castle, which guarded
the passage along the river through the hills. For its connexion with
the title of earl of Arundel see ARUNDEL, EARLDOM OF. A castle existed
in the time of King Alfred, and at the time of the Conquest it was
rebuilt by Roger de Montgomerie, but it was taken from his son, who
rebelled against the reigning monarch, Henry I. In 1397 it was the scene
of a conspiracy organized by the earl of Arundel, archbishop of
Canterbury and duke of Gloucester, to dethrone Richard II. and murder
the lords of his council, a plot which was discovered before it could be
carried into execution. During the civil wars of the 17th century, the
stronghold was frequently assaulted by the contending parties, and
consequently greatly damaged; but it was restored by Charles, 11th duke
of Norfolk (d. 1815), who made it what it now is, one of the most
splendid baronial mansions in England. Extensive reconstruction, in the
style of the 13th century, was undertaken towards the close of the 19th
century. The town, according to the whimsical etymology shown on the
corporation seal, takes its name from _hirondelle_ (a swallow). The town
hall is a castellated building, presented to the corporation by the duke
of Norfolk. The church of St Nicholas, founded about 1375, is
Perpendicular with a low tower rising from the centre. In the north
aisle of the chancel there are several ancient monuments of the earls of
Arundel. The church is otherwise remarkable for its reredos and iron
work. The chancel is the property of the duke of Norfolk and is screened
from the rest of the building, although in 1880 this exercise of right
by the owner was made the subject of an action at law and subsequent
appeal. The Roman Catholic church of St Philip Neri was built by the
duke of Norfolk (1873). Some remains of a _Maison Dieu_, or hospital,
erected in the time of Richard II., still exist. The borough is under a
mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 2053 acres.
The first mention of Arundel (Harundell) comes as early as 877, when
it was left by King Alfred in his will to his nephew Aethelm. In the
time of Edward the Confessor the town seems to have consisted of the
mill and a fortification or earthwork which was probably thrown up by
Alfred as a defence against the Danes; but it had increased in
importance before the Conquest, and appears in Domesday as a thriving
borough and port. It was granted by the Conqueror to Roger de
Montgomery, who built the castle on the site of the ancient earthwork.
From very early times markets were held within the borough on Thursday
and Saturday, and in 1285 Richard Fitzalan, earl of Arundel, obtained
a grant of two annual fairs on the 14th of May and the 17th of
December. The borough returned two members to parliament from 1302 to
1832 when the Reform Act reduced the membership to one; in 1868 it was
disfranchised altogether. There are no early charters extant, but in
1586 Elizabeth acknowledged the right of the mayor and burgesses to be
a body corporate and to hold a court for pleas under forty shillings,
two weekly markets and four annual fairs--which rights they claimed to
have exercised from time immemorial. James II. confirmed in 1688 a
charter given two years before, and incorporated the borough under the
title of a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 burgesses. The town was half
destroyed by fire in 1338, but was soon rebuilt. Arundel was formerly
a thriving seaport, and in 1813 was connected by canal with London.
See M.A. Tierney, _The History and Antiquities of the Castle and Town
of Arundel_ (London, 1834); _Victoria County History--Sussex._
ARUNDELL OF WARDOUR, THOMAS ARUNDELL, 1ST BARON (c. 1562-1639), son of
Sir Mathew Arundell of Wardour Castle in Wiltshire, a member of the
ancient family of Arundells of Lanherne in Cornwall, and of Margaret,
daughter of Sir Henry Willoughby, was born about 1562. In 1579 he was
personally recommended by Queen Elizabeth to the emperor Rudolph II. He
greatly distinguished himself while serving with the imperial troops
against the Turks in Hungary, and at the siege of Gran or Esztergom on
the 13th of August 1595, he captured the enemy's banner with his own
hand. He was created by Rudolph II. a count of the Holy Roman Empire in
December 1595, and returned to England after suffering shipwreck and
barely preserving his life in January 1596. His assumption of the
foreign title created great jealousy among the English peers, who were
wont to give a precedence by courtesy to foreign nobles, and he incurred
the resentment of his father, who objected to his superior rank and
promptly disinherited him. The queen, moreover, was seriously
displeased, declared that "as chaste wives should have no glances but
for their own spouses, so should faithful subjects keep their eyes at
home and not gaze upon foreign crowns," and committed him to the Fleet
immediately on his arrival, while she addressed a long letter of
remonstrance on the subject to the emperor. Arundell remained under
arrest till April, when he was liberated after an examination. In April
1597, however, he was again confined, but declared innocent of any
charge save that of "practising to contrive the justification of his
vain title with Ministers beyond the seas." In December he was liberated
and placed under the care of his father, but next year he was again
arrested and accused of a conspiracy against the government. His
petitions for a licence to undertake an expedition by sea, wherein he
declared "his end was honour which some base minds call ambition," were
refused, but in 1599 he was apparently again restored to favour. On the
4th of May 1605 he was created by James I. Baron Arundell of Wardour,
but fell again under temporary suspicion at the time of the Gunpowder
Plot. In 1623 he once more got into trouble by championing the cause of
the recusants, of whom he was himself one, on the occasion of the visit
of the Spanish envoys, and he was committed to custody, and in 1625 all
the arms were removed by the government from Wardour Castle. After the
accession of Charles I. he was pardoned, and attended the sittings of
the House of Lords. He was indicted in the king's bench about the year
1627 for not paying some contribution, and in 1632 he was accused of
harbouring a priest. In 1637 he was declared exempt from the recusancy
laws by the king's order, but in 1639 he again petitioned for relief.
The same year he paid L500 in lieu of attending the king at York. He
died on the 7th of November 1639. Arundell was an earnest Roman
Catholic, but the suspicions of the government as to his loyalty were
probably unfounded and stifled a career destined by nature for
successful adventure. He married (1) Mary, daughter of Henry
Wriothesley, 2nd earl of Southampton, by whom besides other children he
had Thomas, who succeeded him as 2nd baron; and (2) Anne, daughter of
Miles Philipson, by whom he had several daughters.
HENRY ARUNDELL, 3rd Baron Arundell of Wardour (c. 1607-1694), son of
Thomas, 2nd baron, and of Blanche, daughter of Edward, earl of
Worcester, was born on the 21st of July 1607, and succeeded on his
father's death in 1643 to the family title and estates. A strong
royalist and Roman Catholic, he supported the king's cause, and
distinguished himself in 1644 by the recapture of his castle at Wardour
from the parliamentarians, who had taken it in the previous year in
spite of his mother's brave defence of the place. In 1648 he was one of
the delinquents exempted from pardon in the proposals sent to Charles in
the Isle of Wight. His estates had been confiscated, but he was
permitted about 1653 to compound for them in the sum of L35,000. In
1652, in consequence of his being second at a duel in which one of the
combatants was killed, he was arrested, and tried in 1653; he pleaded
his peerage, but the privilege was disallowed as the House of Lords had
been abolished. At the Restoration he regained possession of the family
estates, and in 1663 was made master of the horse to Henrietta Maria. He
was one of the few admitted to the king's confidence concerning the
projects for the restoration of the Roman Catholic religion and the
alliance with France. In 1669 he took part in the secret council
assembled by Charles II., and in October was sent to France, ostensibly
for the funeral of Henrietta Maria, but in reality to negotiate with
Louis XIV. the agreement which took shape in 1670 in the treaties of
Dover (see CHARLES II.). In 1676 he was privy to James's negotiations
with Rome through Coleman. He was accused in 1678 by Titus Oates of
participation in the popish plot, and was one of the five Roman Catholic
peers arrested and imprisoned in the Tower in October, found guilty by
the Middlesex grand jury of high treason, and impeached subsequently by
the parliament. Lord Stafford was found guilty and executed in December
1680, but after the perpetration of this injustice the proceedings were
interrupted, and the three surviving peers were released on bail on the
12th of February 1684. On the 22nd of May 1685, after James II.'s
accession, the charge was annulled, and on the 1st of June 1685 they
obtained their full liberty. In February 1686, with other Roman
Catholics, Arundell urged upon the king the removal of his mistress,
Lady Dorchester, on account of her strong Protestantism. In spite of his
religion he was made a privy councillor in August 1686, and keeper of
the privy seal in 1687, being excused from taking the oaths by the
king's dispensation. He presented the thanks of the Roman Catholics to
James in June 1687 for the declaration of indulgence. His public career
ended with the abdication of the king, and he retired to Breamore, the
family residence since the destruction of Wardour Castle. He died on the
28th of December 1694. He was the author of five religious poems said to
be composed during his confinement in the Tower in 1679, published the
same year and reprinted in _A Collection of Eighty-six Loyal Poems_ in
1685. His piety and benevolence to his unfortunate co-religionists were
conspicuous. Evelyn calls him "very good company" and he was a noted
sportsman, the Quorn pack being descended from his pack of hounds at
Breamore. He married Cecily, daughter of Sir Henry Compton, by whom
besides other children he had Thomas, who succeeded him as 4th baron.
The barony is still held in the Arundell family, which has never ceased
to be Roman Catholic. The 14th baron (b. 1859) was a direct descendent
of the 6th.
ARUSIANUS MESSIUS, or MESSUS, Latin grammarian, flourished in the 4th
century A.D. He was the author of a small extant work _Exempla
Elocutionum_, dedicated to Olybrius and Probinus, consuls for the year
395. It contains an alphabetical list, chiefly of verbs admitting more
than one construction, with examples from each of the four writers,
Virgil, Sallust, Terence and Cicero. Cassiodorus, the only writer who
mentions Arusianus, refers to it by the term Quadriga.
See Keil, _Grammatici Latini_, vii.; Suringar, _Historia Critica
Scholiastarum Latinorum_ (1834-1835); Van der Hoeven, _Specimen
Literarium_ (1845).
ARVAL BROTHERS (Fratres Arvales), in Roman antiquities, a college or
priesthood, consisting of twelve members, elected for life from the
highest ranks in Rome, and always apparently, during the empire,
including the emperor. Their chief duty was to offer annually public
sacrifice for the fertility of the fields (Varro, _L. L_. v. 85). It is
generally held that the college was founded by Romulus (see ACCA
LARENTIA). This legend probably arose from the connexion of Acca
Larentia, as _mater Larum_, with the Lares who had a part in the
religious ceremonies of the Arvales. But apart from this, there is proof
of the high antiquity of the college, which was said to have been older
than Rome itself, in the verbal forms of the song with which, down to
late times, a part of the ceremonies was accompanied, and which is still
preserved. It is clear also that, while the members were themselves
always persons of distinction, the duties of their office were held in
high respect. And yet it is singular that no mention of them occurs in
Cicero or Livy, and that altogether literary allusions to them are very
scarce. On the other hand, we possess a long series of the _acta_ or
minutes of their proceedings, drawn up by themselves, and inscribed on
stone. Excavations, commenced in the 16th century and continued to the
19th, in the grove of the Dea Dia about 5 m. from Rome, have yielded 96
of these records from A.D. 14 to 241. The brotherhood appears to have
languished in obscurity during the republic, and to have been revived by
Augustus. In his time the college consisted of a master (_magister_), a
vice-master (_promagister_), a _flamen_, and a _praetor_, with eight
ordinary members, attended by various servants, and in particular by
four chorus boys, sons of senators, having both parents alive. Each wore
a wreath of corn, a white fillet and the praetexta. The election of
members was by co-optation on the motion of the president, who, with a
flamen, was himself elected for one year. The great annual festival
which they had to conduct was held in honour of the anonymous Dea Dia,
who was probably identical with Ceres. It occupied three days in May.
The ceremony of the first day took place in Rome itself, in the house of
the magister or his deputy, or on the Palatine in the temple of the
emperors, where at sunrise fruits and incense were offered to the
goddess. A sumptuous banquet took place, followed by a distribution of
doles and garlands. On the second and principal day of the festival the
ceremonies were conducted in the grove of the Dea Dia. They included a
dance in the temple of the goddess, at which the song of the brotherhood
was sung, in language so antiquated that it was hardly intelligible (see
the text and translation in Mommsen, _Hist, of Rome_, bk. i. ch. xv.)
even to Romans of the time of Augustus, who regarded it as the oldest
existing document in their mother-tongue. Especial mention should be
made of the ceremony of purifying the grove, which was held to be
defiled by the felling of trees, the breaking of a bough or the presence
of any iron tools, such as those used by the lapidary who engraved the
records of the proceedings on stone. The song and dance were followed by
the election of officers for the next year, a banquet and races. On the
third day the sacrifice took place in Rome, and was of the same nature
as that offered on the first day. The Arvales also offered sacrifice and
solemn vows on behalf of the imperial family on the 3rd of January and
on other extraordinary occasions. The brotherhood is said to have lasted
till the time of Theodosius. The British Museum contains a bust of
Marcus Aurelius in the dress of a Frater Arvalis.
Marini, _Atti e Monumenti de' Fratri Arvali_ (1795); Hoffmann, _Die
A._ (1858): Oldenberg, _De Sacris Fratrum A_. (1875); Bergk, _Das Lied
der Arvalbruder_ (1856); Breal, "Le Chant des Arvals" in _Mem. de la
Soc. de Linguistique_ (1881); Edon, _Nouvelle Etude sur le Chant
Lemural_ (1884); _Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_, vi. 2023-2119;
Henzen, _Acta Fratrum Arvalium_ (1874).
ARVALS, ARVELS or ARTHELS (O. Norse _Arfr_, inheritance, and _ol_, A.S.
Ale, a banquet), primarily the funeral dinner, and later, especially in
the north of England, a thin, light, sweet cake, spiced with cinnamon
and nutmeg, served to the poor at such feasts. The funeral meal was
called the Arvel-dinner. The custom seems to have been to hold on such
occasions an informal inquest, when the corpse was publicly exposed, to
exculpate the heir and those entitled to the property of the dead from
all accusations of foul play.
ARVERNI, the name of an ancient Gaulish tribe in the Auvergne, which
still bears its name. It resisted Caesar longer than most of Gaul; when
once vanquished it adopted Roman civilization readily. Its tribal deity,
the god of the mountain, the Puy de Dome, rechristened in Roman phrase
Mercurius Dumias, was famous far beyond its territory. Part of his
temple has been excavated recently.
ARYAN, a term which has been used in a confusing variety of
significations by different philologists. By Max Muller especially it
was employed as a convenient short term for the whole body of languages
more commonly known as Indo-European (q.v.) or Indo-Germanic. In the
same way Max Muller used Aryas as a general term for the speakers of
such languages, as in his book published in 1888, _Biographies of Words
and the Home of the Aryas_. "Aryas are those who speak Aryan languages,
whatever their colour, whatever their blood. In calling them Aryas we
predicate nothing of them except that the grammar of their language is
Aryan" (p. 245). It is to be observed, therefore, that Max Muller is
careful to avoid any ethnological signification. The Aryas are those who
speak Aryan without regard to the question whether Aryan is their
_hereditary_ language or not. As he says still more definitely elsewhere
in the same work (p. 120), "I have declared again and again that if I
say Aryas, I mean neither blood nor bones, nor hair nor skull; I mean
simply those who speak an Aryan language. The same applies to Hindus,
Greeks, Romans Germans, Celts and Slaves. When I speak of them I commit
myself to no anatomical characteristics. The blue-eyed and fair-haired
Scandinavians may have been conquerors or conquered, they may have
adopted the language of their darker lords or their subjects, or vice
versa. I assert nothing beyond their language when I call them Hindus,
Greeks, Romans, Germans, Celts and Slaves; and in that sense, and in
that sense only, do I say that even the blackest Hindus represent an
earlier stage of Aryan speech and thought than the fairest
Scandinavians.... To me an ethnologist who speaks of Aryan race, Aryan
blood, Aryan eyes and hair, is as great a sinner as a linguist who
speaks of a dolichocephalic dictionary or a brachycephalic grammar."
From the popularity of Max Muller's works on comparative philology this
is the use of the word which is most familiar to the general public. The
arguments in support of this use are set forth by him in the latter part
of lecture vi. of the _Lectures on the Science of Language_ (first
series) and as an appendix to chap. vii. of the final edition (i. pp. 291
ff.). The Sanskrit usage of the word is fully illustrated by him from the
early Sanskrit writings in the article "Aryan" in the ninth edition of
this encyclopaedia. From the earliest occurrences of the word it is clear
that it was used as a national name not only in India but also in Bactria
and Persia (in Sanskrit _arya_- and _arya_, in Zend _airya_-, in Old
Persian _ariya_-). That it is in any way connected with a Sanskrit word
for earth, _ira_, as Max Muller asserts, is far from certain. As Spiegel
remarks (_Die arische Periode_, p. 105), though it is easy enough to
connect the word with a root _ar_-, there are several roots of that form
which have different meanings, and there is no certain criterion whereby
to decide to which of them it is related. Nor are the other connexions
for the word outside this group free from doubt. It is, however, certain
that the connexion with _Erin_ (Ireland), which Pictet in his article
"Iren and Arier" (Kuhn and Schleicher's _Beitrage_, i. 1858, pp. 81 ff.)
sought to establish, is impossible (Whitley Stokes in Max Muller's
_Lectures_, 1891, i. pp. 299 f.), though the word may have the same
origin as the _Ario_- of names like _Ariovistus_, which is found in both
Celtic and Germanic words (Uhlenbeck, _Kurzgefasstes etymologisches
Worterbuch der altindischen Sprache_, s.v.). The name of Armenia (Old
Persian _Armina_-), which has often been connected, is of uncertain
origin. Within Sanskrit itself probably two words have to be
distinguished: (1) _arya_, the origin of Aryan, from which the usual term
_arya_ is a derivative; (2) _arya_, which frequently appears in the _Rig
Veda_ as an epithet of deities. In many passages, however, _aryas_ may
equally well be the genitive of _ari_, which is explained as "active,
devoted, pious." Even in this word probably two originally separate words
have to be distinguished, for the further meanings which Grassmann in his
dictionary to the _Rig Veda_ attaches to it, viz. "greedy" (for treasure
and for battle), "godless," "enemy," seem more appropriately to be
derived from the same source as the Greek [Greek: eri-s], "strife." The
word _arya_- is not found as a national name in the _Rig Veda_, but
appears in the _Vajasaneyi-sainhita_, where it is explained by Mahidhara
as _Vaisya_-, a cultivator or a man of the third among the original four
classes of the population. So in the _Atharva Veda_ (iv. 20. 4; xix. 62.
1) it is contrasted with the Sudra or fourth class (Spiegel, _Arische
Periode_, p. 102). In the _Avesta, airya_- is found both as adjective and
substantive in the sense of Aryan, but no light is thrown upon the
history of the word. Darius describes himself in an inscription as of
Aryan stock, _Daraya[h]va[h]us ariya[h]civ[r]a[h]_. In the _Avesta_ the
derivative _airyana_- is also found in the sense of Aryan. In both India
and Persia a word is found (Skt. _aryaman_-; Zend _airyahman_-) which is
apparently of the same origin. In both Sanskrit and Zend it means
something like "comrade" or "bosom friend," but in Zend is used of the
priestly or highest class. In Sanskrit, besides this use in which it is
contrasted with the _Dasa_ or _Dasyu_, the enemies, the earlier
inhabitants, the word is often used for the bridegroom's spokesman, and
in both languages is also employed as the name of a divine being. In the
_Rig Veda, Aryaman_- as a deity is most frequently coupled with Mitra and
Varuna (Grassmann, _Worterbuch_, s.v.); in Zend, according to Bartholomae
(_Altiranisches Worterbuch_, s.v.), from the earliest literature, the
Gathas, there is nothing definite to be learnt regarding _Airyaman_.
Whatever the origin of _arya_-, however, it is clear that it is a word
with dignified associations, by which the peoples belonging to the
Eastern section of the Indo-Europeans were proud to call themselves. It
is now used uniformly by scholars to indicate the Eastern branch as a
whole, a compound, _Indo-Aryan_, being employed for that part of the
Eastern branch which settled in India to distinguish them from the
Iranians (_Iran_ is of the same origin), who remained in Bactria and
Persia, while _Aryo-Indian_ is sometimes employed to distinguish the
Indian people of this stock from the Dravidian and other stocks which
also inhabit parts of the Indian peninsula. Of the stages in the
occupation of the Iranian table-land by the Aryan people nothing is
known, the people themselves having apparently no tradition of a time
when they did not hold these territories (Spiegel, _Arische Periode_, p.
319). Though the Hindus have no tradition of their invasion of India, it
is certain that they are not an indigenous people, and, if they are not,
it is clear that they could have come in no other direction save from
the other side of the Hindu Kush. At the period of their earliest
literature, which may be assigned roughly to about 1000 B.C., they were
still settled in the valley of the Indus, and at this time the
separation probably had not long taken place, the Eastern portion of the
stock having pushed their way along the Kabul valley into the open
country of the Indus. According to Professor E.W. Hopkins (_India Old
and New_, 1901, p. 31) the _Rig Veda_ was composed in the district about
Umballa. He argues that the people must have been then to the west of
the great rivers, otherwise the dawn could not be addressed as one who
"in shining light, before the wind arises, comes gleaming over the
waters, making good paths." The vocabulary is still largely the same;
whole sentences can be transliterated from one language to the other
merely by making regular phonetic changes and without the variation of a
single word (for examples see Bartholomae, _Handbuch der altiranischen
Dialekte_, 1883, p. v.; Williams Jackson, _Avesta Grammar_, 1892, pp.
xxxi. f.; _Grundriss der iranischen Philologie_, 1895, i. p. 1). It is
noteworthy that it is those who remain behind whose language has
undergone most change.
By four well-marked characteristics the Aryan group is easily
distinguishable from the other Indo-European languages. (1) By the
confusion of original _e_ and _o_, both long and short, with the
original long and short _a_ sound; (2) the short schwa-sound [schwa] is
represented here, and in this group only, by _i_ (_pita_, "father," as
compared with [Greek: pataer], &c.); (3) original _s_ after _i_, _u_ and
some consonants becomes s; (4) the genitive plural of stems ending in a
vowel has a suffix-_nam_ borrowed by analogy from the stems ending in
_-n_ (Skt. _asvanam_, "of horses"; Zend _aspanam_; Old Persian
_aspanam_). The distinctions between Sanskrit and Iranian are also
clear, (1) The Aryan voiced aspirates _gh, dh, bh_, which survive in
Sanskrit, are confused in Iranian with original _g, d, b_, and further
changes take place in the language of the later parts of the Avesta; (2)
the Aryan breathed aspirates _kh, th, ph_, except in combination with
certain consonants, become spirants in Iranian; (3) Aryan _s_ becomes
_h_ initially before vowels in Iranian and also in certain cases
medially, Iranian in these respects resembling Greek (cf. Skt. _sapta_;
Zend _hapta_; Gr. [Greek: hepta], "seven"); (4) in Zend there are many
vowel changes which it does not share with Old Persian. Some of these
arise from the umlaut or epenthesis which is so prevalent, and which we
have already seen in _airya_- as compared with the Skt. _arya_. In other
respects the languages are remarkably alike, the only striking
difference being in the numeral "one"--Skt. _eka_-; Zend _aeva_-; Old
Persian _aiva_-, where the Iranian group has the same stem as that seen
in the Greek [Greek: oi(f)o-s], "alone."
For the subdivisions of the two groups see the articles on PERSIA:
_Language_, and INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES. Dr Grierson has shown in his
monograph on "The Pisaca Languages of North-Western India" (Royal
Asiatic Society, 1906) that there is good reason for regarding various
dialects of the north-western frontier (Kafiristan, Chitral, Gilgit,
Dardistan) as a separate group descended from Aryan but independent of
either Sanskrit or Iranian.
The history of the separation of the Aryan from the other Indo-European
languages is not yet clear (see INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES). Various
attempts have been made, with little success, to identify fragments of
unknown languages in cuneiform inscriptions with members of this group.
The investigation has entered a new and more favourable stage as the
result of the discoveries made by German excavators at Boghaz Keui (said
to be identical with Herodotus' Pteria in Cappadocia), where treaties
between the king of the Hittites and the king of Mitanni, in the
beginning of the 14th century B.C., seem almost certainly to contain the
names of the gods Mitra, Varuna and Indra, which belong to the early
Aryan mythology (H. Winckler, _Mitteilungen der deutschen
Orientgesellschaft_, No. 35; E. Meyer, _Sitzungsberichte der Berliner
Akademie_, 1908, pp. 14 ff.; _Zeitschrift fur vergleichende
Sprachforschung_, 42, 1908, pp. 24 ff.). Still further light is to be
expected when the vast collections of the German expedition to Turfan
(Turkestan) have been sifted. Up to 1909 only a preliminary account had
been given of Tocharish, a hitherto unknown Indo-European language,
which is reported to be in some respects more akin to the Western groups
than to Aryan. But further investigation is still required (see E. Sieg
and W. Siegling, "Tocharisch, die Sprache der Indoskythen," in
_Sitzungsberichte der Berl. Akad._ (July 1908, pp. 915 ff.). (P. Gi.)
ARYA SAMAJ, a Hindu religious association with reforming tendencies,
which was founded by a Guzerati Brahman named Dayanand Saraswati. This
man was born of a Saivite family about 1825, but in early manhood grew
dissatisfied with idol-worship. He undertook many pilgrim-ages and
studied the Vedic philosophy in the hope of solving the old problem of
the Buddha,--how to alleviate human misery and attain final liberation.
About 1866, when he had begun to teach and to gather disciples, he first
saw the Christian scriptures, which he vehemently assailed, and the _Rig
Veda_, which he correspondingly exalted, though in the conception which
he ultimately formed of God the former was much more influential than
the latter. Dayanand's treatment of the Vedas was peculiar, and
consisted of reading into them his own beliefs and modern scientific
discoveries. Thus he explains the _Yajna_ (sacrificial cult) as "the
entertainment of the learned in proportion to their worth, the business
of manufacture, the experiment and application of chemistry, physics and
the arts of peace; the instruction of the people, the purification of
the air, the nourishment of vegetables by the employment of the
principles of meteorology, called _Agni-Notri_ in Sanskrit." He denied
that the _Vedas_ warranted the caste system, but wished to retain the
four grades as orders of learning to which admission should be won by
examination.
These views naturally met with scanty acceptance among the Brahmans to
whom he introduced them, and Dayanand turned to the masses and
established _Samajes_ in various parts of India, the first being at
Bombay in 1875. He chose the epithet Arya as being more dignified than
the slightly contemptuous term Hindu. After a successful series of
tours, during which he debated publicly with orthodox pundits and with
Christian missionaries, he died at Ajmere in 1883.
The Arya Samaj is not an eclectic system like the Brahma Samaj, which
strives to find the common basis underlying all the great religions, and
its narrower scope and corresponding intensity of conviction have won it
a greater strength. It seemed to meet the feeling of many educated
natives whose faith in current Hinduism was undermined, but who were
predisposed against any foreign religious influence. Their patriotic
ardour gladly seized on "a view of the original faith of India that
seemed to harmonize with all the discoveries of modern science and the
ethics of European civilization," and they cheerfully supported their
leader's strange polemic with the agnostic and rationalist literature of
Europe. By 1890 their numbers had increased to 40,000, by 1900 to over
92,000. Divisions had, however, set in, especially a cleavage into the
_Ghasi_ or vegetarian, and the _Mansi_ or flesh-eating sections. To the
latter belong those Rajputs who though generally in sympathy with the
movement declined to adhere to the tenet of the _Samaj_ which forbade
the destruction of animal life and the consumption of animal food. The
age of admission to the Samaj is eighteen, and members are expected to
contribute to its funds at least 1% of their income.