CEYLONESE CANOES--PERUVIAN BALSAS--THE FLOATING WINDLASS OF THE
COROMANDEL FISHERMEN.
The canoes of Ceylon, as far as I remember, are not described by any
writer, nor have I met with any professional men who are aware of
their peculiar construction, and of the advantages of the extremely
elegant principle upon which they are contrived, though capable, I am
persuaded, of being applied to various purposes of navigation.
Among the lesser circumstances which appear to form characteristic
points of distinction between country and country may be mentioned the
head-dress of the men, and the form and rig of their boats. An
endless variety of turbans, sheep-skin caps, and conical bonnets,
distinguish the Asiatics from the "Toppee Wallas" or hat-wearers of
Europe; and a still greater variety exists amongst the boats of
different nations. My purpose, just now, however, is to speak of boats
and canoes alone; and it is really most curious to observe, that their
size, form, cut of sails, description of oar and rudder, length of
mast and so on, are not always entirely regulated by the peculiar
climate of the locality, but made to depend on a caprice which it is
difficult to account for. The boats of some countries are so extremely
unstable, and altogether without bearings, that the smallest weight on
one side more than on the other upsets them. This applies to the
canoes of the North American Indian, which require considerable
practice, even in the smoothest water, to keep them upright; and yet
the Indians cross immense lakes in them, although the surface of those
vast sheets of fresh water is often as rough as that of any salt sea.
The waves, it is true, are not so long and high; but they are very
awkward to deal with, from their abruptness, and the rapidity with
which they get up when a breeze sets in.
On those parts of the coast of the United States where the seasons are
alternately very fine and very rough, our ingenious friends, the
Americans, have contrived a set of pilot-boats, which are the delight
of every sailor. This description of vessel, as the name implies, must
always be at sea, as it is impossible to tell when her services may be
required by ships steering in for the harbour's mouth. Accordingly,
the Baltimore clippers and the New York pilots defy the elements in a
style which it requires a long apprenticeship to the difficulties and
discomforts of a wintry navigation, in a stormy latitude, duly to
appreciate. In the fine weather, smooth water, and light winds of
summer, these pilot-boats skim over the surface with the ease and
swiftness of a swallow, apparently just touching the water with their
prettily formed hulls, which seem too small to bear the immense load
of snow-white canvas swelling above them, and shooting them along as
if by magic, when every other vessel is lost in the calm, and when
even taunt-masted ships can barely catch a breath of air to fill their
sky-sails and royal studding-sails. They are truly "water-witches;"
for, while they look so delicate and fragile that one feels at first
as if the most moderate breeze must brush them from the face of the
ocean, and scatter to the winds all their gay drapery, they can and do
defy, as a matter of habit and choice, the most furious gales with
which the rugged "sea-board" of America is visited in February and
March.
I have seen a pilot-boat off New York, in the morning, in a calm, with
all her sails set, lying asleep on the water, which had subsided into
such perfect stillness that we could count the seam of each cloth in
the mirror beneath her, and it became difficult to tell which was the
reflected image, which the true vessel. And yet, within a few hours, I
have observed the same boat, with only her close-reefed foresail
set--no one visible on her decks--and the sea running mountains high,
threatening to swallow her up. Nevertheless, the beautiful craft rose
as buoyantly on the back of the waves as any duck, and, moreover,
glanced along their surface, and kept so good a wind, that, ere long,
she shot ahead, and weathered our ship. Before the day was done, she
could scarcely be distinguished from the mast-head to windward, though
we had been labouring in the interval under every sail we could safely
carry.
The balsas of Peru, the catamarans and masullah boats of the
Coromandel coast, and the flying proas of the South Sea Islands, have
all been described before, and their respective merits dwelt upon, by
Cook, Vancouver, Ulloa, and others. Each in its way, and on its
proper spot, seems to possess qualities which it is difficult to
communicate to vessels similarly constructed at a distance. The boats
of each country, indeed, may be said to possess a peculiar language,
understood only by the natives of the countries to which they belong;
and truly, the manner in which the vessels of some regions behave,
under the guidance of their respective masters, seems almost to imply
that the boats themselves are gifted with animal intelligence. At all
events, their performance never fails to excite the highest
professional admiration of those whom experience has rendered familiar
with the difficulties to be overcome.
Long acquaintance with the local tides, winds, currents, and other
circumstances of the pilotage, and the constant pressure of necessity,
enable the inhabitants of each particular spot to acquire such
masterly command over their machinery, that no new-comer, however well
provided, or however skilful generally, can expect to cope with them.
Hence it arises, that boats of a man-of-war are found almost
invariably inferior, in some respects, to those of the port at which
she touches. The effect of seeking to adapt our boats to any one
particular place would be to render them less serviceable upon the
whole. After remaining some time at a place, we might succeed in
occasionally outsailing or outrowing the natives; but what sort of a
figure would our boats cut at the next point to which the ship might
be ordered--say a thousand miles farther from, or nearer to, the
equator, where all the circumstances would be totally different. We
should have to change again and again, losing time at each place, and
probably not gaining, after all, any of the real advantages which the
natives long resident on the spot alone know the art of applying to
practice.
The hull or body of the Ceylonese canoe is formed, like that of
Robinson Crusoe's, out of the trunk of a single tree, wrought in its
middle part into a perfectly smooth cylinder, but slightly flattened
and turned up at both ends, which are made exactly alike. It is
hollowed out in the usual way, but not cut so much open at top as we
see in other canoes, for considerably more than half of the outside
part of the cylinder or barrel is left entire, with only a narrow
slit, eight or ten inches wide, above. If such a vessel were placed in
the water, it would possess very little stability, even when not
loaded with any weight on its upper edges. But there is built upon it
a set of wooden upper works, in the shape of a long trough, extending
from end to end; and the top-heaviness of this addition to the hull
would instantly overturn the vessel, unless some device were applied
to preserve its upright position. This purpose is accomplished by
means of an out-rigger on one side, consisting of two curved poles, or
slender but tough spars, laid across the canoe at right-angles to its
length, and extending to the distance of twelve, fifteen, or even
twenty feet, where they join a small log of buoyant wood, about half
as long as the canoe, and lying parallel to it, with both its ends
turned up like the toe of a slipper, to prevent its dipping into the
waves. The inner ends of these transverse poles are securely bound by
thongs to the raised gunwales of the canoe. The out-rigger, which is
always kept to windward, acting by its weight at the end of so long a
lever, prevents the vessel from turning over by the pressure of the
sail; or, should the wind shift suddenly, so as to bring the sail
aback, the buoyancy of the floating log would prevent the canoe from
upsetting on that side by retaining the out-rigger horizontal. The
mast, which is very taunt, or lofty, supports a lug-sail of immense
size, and is stepped exactly in midships, that is, at the same
distance from both ends of the canoe. The yard, also, is slung
precisely in the middle; and while the tack of the sail is made fast
at one extremity of the hull, the opposite corner, or clew, to which
the sheet is attached, hauls aft to the other end. Shrouds extend from
the mast-head to the gunwale of the canoe; besides which, slender
backstays are carried to the extremity of the out-rigger; and these
ropes, by reason of their great spread, give such powerful support to
the mast, though loaded with a prodigious sail, that a very slender
spar is sufficient.
The method of working the sails of these canoes is as follows. They
proceed in one direction as far as may be deemed convenient, and then,
without going about, or turning completely round as we do, they merely
change the stern of the canoe into the head, by shifting the tack of
the sail over to leeward, and so converting it into the sheet--while
the other clew, being shifted up to windward, becomes the tack. As
soon as these changes have been made, away spins the little fairy bark
on her new course, but always keeping the same side, or that on which
the out-rigger is placed to windward. It will be easily understood
that the pressure of the sail has a tendency to lift the weight at the
extremity of the out-rigger above the surface of the water. In sailing
along, therefore, the log just skims the tops of the waves, but
scarcely ever buries itself in them, so that little or no interruption
to the velocity of the canoe is caused by the out-rigger. When the
breeze freshens so much as to lift the weight higher than the natives
like, one, and sometimes two of them, walk out on the horizontal
spars, so as to add their weight to that of the out-rigger. In order
to enable them to accomplish this purpose in safety, a "man rope,"
about breast high, extends over each of the spars from the mast to the
backstays.
But of all the ingenious native contrivances for turning small means
to good account, one of the most curious, and, under certain
circumstances, perhaps the most useful, is the balsa, or raft of South
America, or, as it is called on some part of the coast, the catamaran.
The simplest form of the raft, or balsa, is that of five, seven, or
nine large beams of very light wood, from fifty to sixty feet long,
arranged side by side, with the longest spar placed in the centre.
These logs are firmly held together by cross-bars, lashings, and stout
planking near the ends. They vary from fifteen to twenty, and even
thirty feet in width. I have seen some at Guayaquil of an immense
size, formed of logs as large as a frigate's foremast. These are
intended for conveying goods to Paita, and other places along-shore.
The balsa generally carries only one large sail, which is hoisted to
what we call a pair of shears, formed by two poles crossing at the
top, where they are lashed together. It is obvious that it would be
difficult to step a mast securely to a raft in the manner it is done
in a ship. It is truly astonishing to see how fast these singular
vessels go through the water; but it is still more curious to observe
how accurately they can be steered, and how effectively they may be
handled in all respects like any ordinary vessel.
The method by which the balsas are directed in their course is
extremely ingenious, and is that to which I should wish to call the
attention of sailors, not merely as a matter of curiosity, but from
its practical utility in seamanship. No officer can tell how soon he
may be called upon to place his crew on a raft, should his ship be
wrecked; and yet, unless he has been previously made aware of some
method of steering it, no purpose may be answered but that of
protracting the misery of the people under his charge. Nothing can be
more simple, or more easy of application, than the South American
contrivance. Near both ends of the centre spar there is cut a
perpendicular slit, about a couple of inches wide by one or two feet
in length. Into each of these holes a broad plank, called guaras by
the natives, is inserted in such a way that it may be thrust down to
the depth of ten or twelve feet, or it may be drawn up entirely. The
slits are so cut, that, when the raft is in motion, the edges of these
planks shall meet the water. It is clear, that if both the guaras be
thrust quite down, and held fast in a perpendicular direction, they
will offer a broad surface towards the side, and thus, by acting like
the leeboards of a river-barge, or the keel of a ship, prevent the
balsa from drifting sidewise or dead to leeward. But while these
guaras serve the purpose of a keel, they also perform the important
duty of a rudder, the rationale of which every sailor will understand,
upon considering the effect which must follow upon pulling either up
the guara in the bow or that in the stern. Suppose, when the wind is
on the beam, the foremost one drawn up; that end of the raft will
instantly have a tendency to drift to leeward, from the absence of
the lateral support it previously received from its guara or keel at
the bow; or, in sea language, the balsa will immediately "fall off,"
and in time she will come right before the wind. On the other hand, if
the foremost guara be kept down while the sternmost one is drawn up,
the balsa's head, or bow, will gradually come up towards the wind, in
consequence of that end retaining its hold of the water by reason of
its guara, while the stern end, being relieved from its lateral
support, drifts to leeward. Thus, by judiciously raising or lowering
one or both the guaras, the raft may not only be steered with the
greatest nicety, but may be tacked or wore, or otherwise directed,
with precision.
I never shall forget the sensation produced in a ship I commanded one
evening on the coast of Peru, as we steered towards the roadstead of
Payta. An immense balsa was dashing out before the land-wind, and
sending a snowy wreath of foam before her like that which curls up
before the bow of a frigate in chase. As long as she was kept before
the wind, we could understand this in some degree; but when she hauled
up in order to round the point, and having made a stretch along-shore,
proceeded to tack, we could scarcely believe our eyes. Had the
celebrated Flying Dutchman sailed past us, our wonder could hardly
have been more excited.
It will generally be found well worth an officer's attention to remark
in what manner the natives of any coast, however rude they may be,
contrive to perform difficult tasks. Such things may be very simple
and easy for us to execute, when we have all the appliances and means
of our full equipment at command; but, as circumstances may often
occur to deprive us of many of those means, and thus, virtually, to
reduce us to the condition of the natives, it becomes of consequence
to ascertain how necessity, the venerable mother of invention, has
taught people so situated to do the required work. For example, it is
generally easy for a ship of war to pick up her anchor with her own
boats; but it will sometimes happen that the launch and other large
boats may be stove, and then it may prove of consequence to know how a
heavy anchor can be weighed without a boat at all.
We happened, in his Majesty's ship Minden, to run upon the Coleroon
shoal, off the mouth of the great river of that name, about a hundred
miles south of Madras. After laying out a bower anchor, and hauling
the ship off, we set about preparing the boats to weigh it in the
usual way. But the master-attendant of Porto Novo, who had come off to
our assistance with a fleet of canoes and rafts, suggested to Sir
Samuel Hood that it might he a good opportunity to try the skill of
the natives, who were celebrated for their expertness in raising great
weights from the bottom. The proposal was one which delighted the
Admiral, who enjoyed everything that was new. He posted himself
accordingly in his barge near the spot, but he allowed the task to be
turned over entirely to the black fellows, whom he ordered to be
supplied with ropes, spars, and anything else they required from the
ship. The officers and sailors, in imitation of their chief, clustered
themselves in wondering groups in the rigging, in the chains, and in
the boats, to witness the strange spectacle of a huge bower anchor,
weighing nearly four tons, raised off the ground by a set of native
fishermen, possessed of no canoe larger than the smallest gig on
board.
The master-attendant stood interpreter, and passed backwards and
forwards between the ship and the scene of operations--not to direct,
but merely to signify what things the natives required for their
purpose. They first begged us to have a couple of spare topmasts and
topsail-yards, with a number of smaller spars, such as top-gallant
masts and studding-sail booms. Out of these they formed, with
wonderful speed, an exceedingly neat cylindrical raft, between two and
three feet in diameter. They next bound the whole closely together by
lashings, and filled up all its inequalities with capstan-bars,
handspikes, and other small spars, so as to make it a compact, smooth,
and uniform cylinder from end to end. Nothing could be more dexterous
or seaman-like than the style in which these fellows swam about and
passed the lashings; in fact, they appeared to be as much at home in
the water as our sailors were in the boats or in the rigging.
A stout seven-inch hawser was now sent down by the buoy-rope, and the
running clinch or noose formed on its end, placed over the fluke of
the anchor in the usual way. A couple of round turns were then taken
with the hawser at the middle part of the cylindrical raft, after it
had been drawn up as tight as possible from the anchor. A number of
slew-ropes, I think about sixty or seventy in all, were next passed
round the cylinder several times, in the opposite direction to the
round turns taken with the hawser.
Upwards of a hundred of the natives now mounted the raft, and, after
dividing themselves into pairs, and taking hold of the slew-ropes in
their hands, pulled them up as tight as they could. By this effort
they caused the cylinder to turn round till its further revolutions
were stopped by the increasing tightness of the hawser, which was
wound on the cylinder as fast as the slew-ropes were wound off it.
When all the ropes had been drawn equally tight, and the whole party
of men had been ranged along the top in an erect posture, with their
faces all turned one way, a signal was given by one of the principal
natives. At this moment the men, one and all, still grasping their
respective slew-ropes firmly in their hands, and without bending a
joint in their whole bodies, fell simultaneously on their backs, flat
on the water! The effect of this sudden movement was to turn the
cylinder a full quadrant, or one quarter of a revolution. This, of
course, brought a considerable strain on the hawser fixed to the
anchor. On a second signal being given, every alternate pair of men
gradually crept up the spars by means of their slew-ropes, till
one-half of the number stood once more along the top of the cylinder,
while the other half of the party still lay flat on the water, and by
their weight prevented the cylinder rolling back again.
When the next signal was given, those natives who had regained their
original position on the top of the cylinder threw themselves down
once more, while those who already lay prostrate gathered in the slack
of their slew-ropes with the utmost eagerness as the cylinder revolved
another quarter of a turn. It soon became evident that the anchor had
fairly begun to rise off the ground, for the buoy-rope, which at first
had been bowsed taught over the stern of our launch, became
quite slack.
I forget how many successive efforts were made by the natives before
the anchor was lifted; but, in the end, it certainly was raised
completely off the ground by their exertions alone. The natives,
however, complained of the difficulty being much greater than they had
expected in consequence of the great size of our anchor. In fact, when
at length they had wound the hawser on the cylinder so far that it
carried the full weight, the whole number of the natives lay stretched
on the water in a horizontal position, apparently afraid to move, lest
the weight, if not uniformly distributed amongst them, might prove too
great, and the anchor drop again to the bottom, by the returning
revolutions of the cylinder. When this was explained to Sir Samuel
Hood, he ordered the people in the launch to bowse away at the
buoy-rope. This proved a most seasonable relief to the poor natives,
who, however, declared, that, if it were required, they would go on,
and bring up the anchor fairly to the water's edge. As the
good-natured Admiral would not permit this, the huge anchor, cylinder,
natives, launch, and all, were drawn into deep water were the ship
lay. The master-attendant now explained to the natives that they had
nothing more to do than to continue lying flat and still on the water,
till the people on board the ship, by heaving in the cable, should
bring the anchor to the bows, and thus relieve them of their burden.
The officer of the launch was also instructed not to slack the
buoy-rope till the cable had got the full weight of the anchor, and
the natives required no farther help.
Nothing could be more distinctly given than those orders, so that I
cannot account for the panic which seized some of the natives when
close to the ship. Whatever was the cause, its effect was such that
many of them let go their slew-ropes, and thus cast a disproportionate
share of burden on the others, whose strength, or rather weight,
proving unequal to counterpoise the load, the cylinder began to turn
back again. This soon brought the whole strain, or nearly the whole,
on the stern of the launch, and had not the tackle been smartly let
go, she must have been drawn under water and swamped. The terrified
natives now lost all self-possession, as the mighty anchor shot
rapidly to the bottom. The cylinder of course whirled round with
prodigious velocity as the hawser unwound itself; and so suddenly had
the catastrophe occurred, that many of the natives, not having
presence of mind to let go their slew-ropes, held fast and were
whisked round and round several times alternately under water beneath
the cylinder and on the top of it, not unlike the spokes of a
coach-wheel wanting the rim.
The Admiral was in the greatest alarm, lest some of these poor fellows
should get entangled with the ropes and be drowned, or be dashed
against one another, and beaten to pieces against the cylinder. It was
a great relief, therefore, to find that no one was in the least degree
hurt, though some of the natives had been soused most soundly, or, as
the Jacks said, who grinned at the whole affair, "keel-hauled in
proper style."
In a certain sense, then, this experiment may be said to have failed;
but enough was done to show that it might be rendered exceedingly
effective on many occasions. The Admiral, one of the best practical
sailors of his day, thus explained it:--
"In the first place," said Sir Samuel, "you must observe, youngsters,
that this device of the natives is neither more nor less than a
floating windlass, where the buoyant power of the timber serves the
purpose of a support to the axis. The men fixed by the slew-ropes to
the cylinder, represent the handspikes or bars by which the windlass
is turned round, and the hawser takes the place of the cable. But,"
continued he, "there appears to be no reason why the cylinder should
be made equally large along its whole length; and were I to repeat
this experiment, I would make the middle part, round which the hawser
was to be passed, of a single topmast, while I would swell out the
ends of my cylinder or raft to three or four feet in diameter. In this
way a great increase of power would evidently be gained by those who
worked the slew-ropes. In the next place," said the Admiral, "it is
clear that either the buoy-rope, or another hawser also fastened to
the anchor, as a 'preventer,' ought to be carried round the middle
part of the cylinder, but in the opposite direction to that of the
weighing hawser. This second hawser should be hauled tight round at
the end of each successive quarter-turn gained by the men. If this
were done, all tendency in the cylinder to turn one way more than the
other would be prevented; for each of the hawsers would bear an equal
share of the weight of the anchor, and being wound upon the raft in
opposite directions, would of course counteract each other's tendency
to slew it round. The whole party of men, instead of only one-half of
them, might then mount the spars; and thus their united strength could
be exerted at each effort, and in perfect security, against the
formidable danger of the cylinder whirling back by the anchor gaining
the mastery over them, and dropping again to the bottom. But without
using their clumsy, though certainly very ingenious, machinery of
turning men into handspikes, I think," said he, "we might construct
our floating windlass in such a way that a set of small
spars--studding-sail booms, for instance--might be inserted at right
angles to its length, like the bars of a capstan, and these, if
swifted together, could be worked from the boats, without the
necessity of any one going into the water."
While speaking of the dexterity of the natives of India, I may mention
a feat which interested us very much. A strong party of hands from the
ship were sent one day to remove an anchor, weighing seventy-five
hundred-weight, from one part of Bombay dockyard to another, but,
from the want of some place to attach their tackle to, they could not
readily transport it along the wharf. Various devices were tried in
vain by the sailors, whose strength, if it could have been brought to
bear, would have proved much more than enough for the task. In process
of time, no doubt, they would have fallen upon some method of
accomplishing their purpose; but while they were discussing various
projects, one of the superintendents said he thought his party of
native coolies or labourers could lift the anchor and carry it to any
part of the yard. This proposal was received by our Johnnies with a
loud laugh; for the numbers of the natives did not much exceed their
own, and the least powerful of the seamen could readily, at least in
his own estimation, have demolished half-a-dozen of the strongest of
these slender Hindoos.
To work they went, however, while Jack looked on with great
attention. Their first operation was to lay a jib-boom horizontally,
and nearly along the shank of the anchor. This being securely lashed
to the shank, and also to the stock, the whole length of the spar was
crossed at right angles by capstan bars, to the ends of which as many
handspikes as there was room for were lashed also at right angles. In
this way, every cooly of the party could obtain a good hold, and exert
his strength to the greatest purpose. I forget how many natives were
applied to this service; but in the course of a very few minutes,
their preparations being completed, the ponderous anchor was lifted a
few inches from the ground, to the wonder and admiration of the
British seamen, who cheered the black fellows, and patted them on the
back as they trotted along the wharf with their load, which appeared
to oppress them no more than if it had been the jolly boat's grapnel!