For the following note [356] on agricultural ceremonies in Malabar,
I am indebted to Mr C. Karunakara Menon, who writes as an eye-witness
thereof.
"Vishu, the feast of the vernal equinox, is celebrated on the
first of the Malabar month Medom, between the 10th and 14th of
April. To the Tamulians it is the New Year's day, but to the people
of Malabar it marks the commencement of the new agricultural year. A
Malabar proverb says 'No hot weather after Vishu.' The first thing
seen on the morning of Vishu day is considered as an omen for the
whole year. Every Malayali takes care, therefore, to look at an
auspicious object. Arrangements are accordingly made to have a kani,
which means a sight or spectacle (see p. 18). After the first sight,
the elders make presents of money to the junior members of the family
and the servants. After the distribution of money, the most important
function on Vishu morning is the laying of the spade-furrow, as a
sign that cultivation operations have commenced. A spade decorated
with konna (Cassia Fistula) flowers, is brought, and a portion of
the yard on the north side smeared with cow-dung, and painted with
powdered rice-water. An offering is made on the spot to Ganapathi
(the elephant god), and a member of the family, turning to the
east, cuts the earth three times. A ceremony on a grander scale is
called the Chal, which literally means a furrow, for an account of
which we must begin with the visit of the astrologer (Kanisan) on
Vishu eve. Every desam (hamlet) in Malabar has its own astrologer,
who visits families under his jurisdiction on festive occasions
(see p. 275). Accordingly, on the eve of the new agricultural year,
every Hindu home in the district is visited by the Kanisans of the
respective desams, who, for a modest present of rice, vegetables, and
oils, make a forecast of the season's prospects, which is engrossed
on a cadjan (palm leaf). This is called the Vishu phalam, which is
obtained by comparing the nativity with the equinox. Special mention
is made therein as to the probable rainfall from the position of the
planets--highly prized information in a district where there are no
irrigation works or large reservoirs for water. But the most important
item in the forecast is the day and time at which the first ploughing
is to take place. The Chal is one of the most impressive and solemn of
the Malabar agricultural ceremonies, and, in its most orthodox form,
is now prevalent only in the Palghat taluk. At the auspicious hour
shown in the forecast, the master of the house, the cultivation agent,
and the Cherumars, [357] assemble in the barn. A portion of the yard
in front of the building is painted with rice-water, and a lighted
bell-metal lamp is placed near at hand with some paddy (unhusked
rice) and rice, and several cups made of the leaves of the kanniram
(Strychnos Nux-vomica)--as many cups as there are varieties of seed
in the barn. Then, placing implicit faith in his gods and ancestors,
the master of the house opens the barn-door, followed by a Cheruman
with a new painted basket containing the leaf cups. The master then
takes a handful of seed from a seed-basket, and fills one of the cups,
and the cultivating agent, head Cheruman, and others who are interested
in a good harvest, fill the cups till the seeds are exhausted. The
basket, with the cups, is next taken to the decorated portion of the
yard. A new ploughshare is fastened to a new plough, and a pair of
cattle are brought onto the scene. Plough, cattle, and basket, are
all painted with rice-water. A procession proceeds to the fields,
on reaching which the head Cheruman lays down the basket, and makes
a mound of earth with the spade. To this a little manure is added,
and the master throws a handful of seed into it. The cattle are then
yoked, and one turn is ploughed by the head Cheruman. Inside this
at least seven furrows are made, and the plough is dropped to the
right. An offering is made to Ganapathi, and the master throws some
seed into the furrow. Next the head Cheruman calls out, 'May the
gods on high, and the deceased ancestors, bless the seed which has
been thrown broadcast, and the cattle which are let loose, the mother
and children of the house, the master and the slaves. May they also
vouchsafe to us a good crop, good sunshine, and a good harvest.' A
cocoanut is then cut on the ploughshare, and from the cut portions
several deductions are made. If the hinder portion is larger than the
front one, it augurs an excellent harvest. If the nut is cut into two
equal portions, the harvest will be moderate. If the cut passes through
the eyes of the nut, or if no water is left in the cut portions,
certain misfortune is foreboded. The cut fragments are then taken
with a little water inside them, and a leaf of the tulsi plant [358]
(sacred basil, Ocimum sanctum) dropped in. If the leaf turns
to the right, a propitious harvest is assured, whereas, if it
turns to the left, certain calamity will follow. This ceremonial
concluded, there is much shouting, and the names of all the gods
are called out in a confused prayer. The party then breaks up,
and the unused seeds are divided among the workmen. The actual
sowing of the seed takes place towards the middle of May. The
local deity who is responsible for good crops is Cherukunnath
Bhagavathi, who is also called Annapurana, and is worshipped in
the Chirakkal taluk. Before the seed is sown, a small quantity
is set apart as an offering to the goddess Annapurna Iswari. By
July the crops should be ready for harvesting, and the previous
year's stock is running low. Accordingly, several ceremonies are
crowded into the month Karkitakam (July-August). When the sun
passes from the sign of Gemini to Cancer, i.e., on the last day of
Mithuna (June-July), a ceremony called the driving away of Potti
(evil spirit) is performed in the evening. The house is cleaned,
and the rubbish collected in an old winnowing basket. A woman
rubs oil on her head, and, taking the basket, goes three times
round the house, while children run after her, calling out,
'Potti, phoo' (run away, evil spirit). On the following morning
the good spirit is invoked, and asked to bless every householder,
and give a good harvest. Before dawn a handful of veli, a wild yam
(Caladium nymphoeiflorum), and turmeric, together with ten herbs
called dasapushpam (ten flowers), such as are worn in the head
by Nambutiri Brahman ladies after the morning bath, are brought
in. They are:--
Thiruthali (Ipomoea sepiaria).
Nilappana (Curculigo orchioides).
Karuka (Cynodon Dactylon).
Cherupoola (AErua lanata).
Muyalchevi (Emelia sonchifolia).
Puvamkurunthala (Vernonia cinerea).
Ulinna (Cardiospermum Halicacabum).
Mukutti (Biophytum sensitivum).
Kannunni (Eclipta alba).
Krishnakananthi (Evolvulus alsinoides).
"Each of the above is believed to be the special favourite of some
deity, e.g., Nilappana of the god of riches, Thiruthali of the
wife of Kama, the god of love, etc. They are stuck in the front
eaves of every house with some cow-dung. Then, before daybreak, Sri
Bhagavathi is formally installed, and her symbolical presence is
continued daily till the end of the month Karkitakam. A plank, such
as is used by Malayalis when they sit at meals, is well washed,
and smeared with ashes. On it are placed a mirror, a potful of
ointment made of sandal, camphor, musk, and saffron (turmeric), a
small round box containing red paint, a goblet full of water, and
a grandham (sacred book made of cadjan), usually Devi-Mahathmyam,
i.e., song in praise of Bhagavathi. By its side the ten flowers are
set. On the first day of Karkitakam, in some places, an attempt is
made to convert the malignant Kali into a benificent deity. From
Calicut northward, this ceremonial is celebrated, for the most
part by children, on a grand scale. From early morning they may
be seen collecting ribs of plantain (banana) leaves, with which
they make representations of a ladder, cattle-shed, plough, and
yoke. Representations of cattle are made from the leaves of the
jak tree (Artocarpus integrifolia). These are placed in an old
winnowing basket. The materials for a feast are placed in a pot,
and the toy agricultural articles and the pot are carried round
each house three times, while the children call out 'Kalia, Kalia,
monster, monster, receive our offering, and give us plenty of seed
and wages, protect our cattle, and support our fences.' The various
articles are then placed under a jak tree, on the eastern side of
the house if possible. The next important ceremony is called the
Nira, or bringing in of the first-fruits. It is celebrated about
the middle of Karkitakam. The house is cleaned, and the doors
and windows are cleansed with the rough leaves of a tree called
parakam (Ficus hispida), and decorated with white rice paint. The
walls are whitewashed, and the yard is smeared with cow-dung. The
ten flowers (dasapushpam) are brought to the gate of the house,
together with leaves of the following:--
Athi (Ficus glomerata).
Ithi (Ficus infectoria).
Arayal (Ficus religiosa).
Peral (Ficus bengalensis).
Illi (tender leaves of bamboo).
Nelli (Phyllanthus Emblica).
Jak (Artocarpus integrifolia).
Mango (Mangifera indica).
"On the morning of the ceremony, the priest of the local temple
comes out therefrom, preceded by a man blowing a conch (Turbinella
rapa) shell. [359] This is a signal for the whole village,
and every household sends out a male member, duly purified by
a bath and copiously smeared with sacred ashes, to the fields,
to gather some ears of paddy. Sometimes the paddy is brought
from the temple, instead of the field. It is not necessary to
pluck the paddy from one's own fields. Free permission is given
to pluck it from any field in which it may be ripe. When the
paddy is brought near the house, the above said leaves are taken
out from the gate-house, where they had been kept over night,
and the ears of paddy are laid thereon. The bearer is met at
the gate by a woman of the house with a lighted lamp. The new
paddy is then carried to the house in procession, those assembled
crying out 'Fill, fill; increase, increase; fill the house; fill
the baskets; fill the stomachs of the children.' In a portion of
the verandah, which is decorated with rice paint, a small plank,
with a plantain leaf on it, is set. Round this the man who bears
the paddy goes three times, and, turning due east, places it on
the leaf. On the right is set the lighted lamp. An offering of
cocoanuts and sweets is made to Ganapathi, and the leaves and
ears of paddy are attached to various parts of the house, the
agricultural implements, and even to trees. A sumptuous repast
brings the ceremony to a close. At Palghat, when the new paddy is
carried in procession, the people say 'Fill like the Kottaram in
Kozhalmannam; fill like the expansive sands of the Perar.' This
Kottaram is eight miles west of Palghat. According to Dr Gundert,
the word means a store-house, or place where temple affairs are
managed. It is a ruined building with crumbling walls, lined
inside with laterite, and outside with slabs of granite. It was
the granary of the Maruthur temple adjoining it, and, the story
goes that the supply in this granary was inexhaustible.
"The next ceremony of importance is called Puthari (meal of new
rice). In some places it takes place on Nira day, but, as a rule,
it is an independent festival, which takes place during the great
national festival Onam in August. When the new rice crop has been
threshed, a day is fixed for the ceremony. Those who have no land
under cultivation simply add some grains of the new rice to their
meal. An indispensable curry on this day is made of the leaves
of Cassia Tora, peas, the fruit of puthari chundanga (Swertia
Chirata), brinjals (Solanum Melongena), and green pumpkins.
The first crop is now harvested. There are no special ceremonies
connected with the cultivation of the second crop, except the one
called Chettotakam in the month of Thulam (November), which is
observed in the Palghat taluk. It is an offering made to the gods,
when the transplantation is completed; to wipe out the sin the
labourers may have committed by unwittingly killing the insects
and reptiles concealed in the earth. The god, whose protection
is invoked on this occasion, is called Muni. No barn is complete
without its own Muni, who is generally represented by a block of
granite beneath a tree. He is the protector of cattle and field
labourers, and arrack (liquor), toddy, and blood, form necessary
ingredients for his worship.
"In well-to-do families, a goat is sacrificed to him, but
the poorer classes satisfy him with the blood of a fowl. The
officiating priest is generally the cultivation agent, who is a
Nayar, or sometimes a Cheruman. The goat or fowl is brought before
the god, and a mixture of turmeric and chunam (lime) sprinkled
over it. If the animal shakes, it is a sign that the god is
satisfied. If it does not, the difficulty is got over by a very
liberal interpretation of the smallest movement of the animal,
and a further application of the mixture. The god who ensures
sunshine and good weather is Mullan. He is a rural deity, and is
set up on the borders and ridges of the rice-fields. Like Muni,
he is propitiated by the sacrifice of a fowl. The second crop
is harvested in Makaram (end of January), and a festival called
Ucharal is observed from the twenty-eighth to the thirtieth in
honour of the menstruation of mother earth, which is believed to
take place on those days, which are observed as days of abstinence
from all work, except hunting. A complete holiday is given to the
Cherumans. The first day is called the closing of ucharal. Towards
evening some thorns, five or six broomsticks, and ashes, are taken
to the room in which the grain is stored. The door is closed, and
the thorns and sticks are placed against it, or fixed to it with
cow-dung. The ashes are spread before it, and, during that and
the following day, no one will open the door. On the second day,
cessation from work is scrupulously observed. The house may not
be cleaned, and the daily smearing of the floor with cow-dung is
avoided. Even gardens may not be watered. On the fourth day the
ucharal is opened, and a basketful of dry leaves is taken to the
fields, and burnt with a little manure. The Ucharal days are the
quarter days of Malabar, and demands for surrender of property
may be made only on the day following the festival, when all
agricultural leases expire. By the burning of leaves and manure
on his estate, the cultivator, it seems to me, proclaims that
he remains in possession of the property. In support of this,
we have the practice of a new lessee asking the lessor whether
any other person has burnt dry leaves in the field. The Ucharal
festival is also held at Cherupulcherri, and at Kanayam near
Shoranur. Large crowds assemble with representations of cattle in
straw, which are taken in procession to the temple of Bhagavathi
with beating of drums and the shouting of the crowd."
The fact that the Cherumans, who are agrestic serfs, play a leading
part in some of the festivals which have just been described, is
significant. In an interesting note on the privileges of the servile
classes, Mr M. J. Walhouse writes [360] that "it is well known that
the servile castes in Southern India once held far higher positions,
and were indeed masters of the land on the arrival of the Brahmanical
race. Many curious vestiges of their ancient power still survive
in the shape of certain privileges, which are jealously cherished,
and, their origin being forgotten, are much misunderstood. These
privileges are remarkable instances of survivals from an extinct state
of society--shadows of long-departed supremacy, bearing witness to
a period when the present haughty high-caste races were suppliants
before the ancestors of degraded classes, whose touch is now regarded
as pollution. In the great festival of Siva at Trivalur in Tanjore,
the headman of the Pareyans is mounted on the elephant with the god,
and carries his chauri (yak-tail fly fan). In Madras, at the annual
festival of the goddess of the Black Town (now George Town [361]),
when a tali (marriage badge) is tied round the neck of the idol in
the name of the entire community, a Pareyan is chosen to represent the
bridegroom. At Melkote in Mysore, the chief seat of the followers of
Ramanuja Acharya, and at the Brahman temple at Belur, the Holeyas or
Pareyans have the right of entering the temple on three days in the
year, specially set apart for them."
The privilege is said to have been conferred on the Holeyas, in
return for their helping Ramanuja to recover the image of Krishna,
which was carried off to Delhi by the Muhammadans. Paraiyans are
allowed to take part in pulling the cars of the idols in the great
festivals at Conjeeveram, Kumbakonam, and Srivilliputtur. Their touch
is not reckoned to defile the ropes used, so that other Hindus will
pull with them. It was noted by Mr F. H. Ellis, who was Collector of
the Madras district in 1812, that "a custom prevails among the slave
castes in Tondeimandalam, especially in the neighbourhood of Madras,
which may be considered as a periodical assertion of independence at
the close of the Tamil month Auni, with which the revenue year ends,
and the cultivation of the ensuing year ought to commence. The whole
of the slaves strike work, collect in bodies outside of the villages,
and so remain until their masters, by promising to continue their
privileges, by solicitations, presents of betel, and other gentle
means, induce them to return. The slaves on these occasions, however
well treated they may have been, complain of various grievances,
real and imaginary, and threaten a general desertion. This threat,
however, they never carry into execution, but, after the usual time,
everything having been conducted according to mamul (custom), return
quietly to their labours."
Coming to more recent times, it is recorded by Mr Walhouse [362]
that "at particular seasons there is a festival much resembling the
classic Saturnalia, in which, for the time, the relation of slaves and
masters is inverted, and the former attack the latter with unstinted
satire and abuse, and threaten to strike work unless confirmed in
their privileges, and humbly solicit to return to labour."
In villages in South Canara there are certain rakshasas (demons),
called Kambla Asura, who preside over the fields. To propitiate them,
buffalo races, [363] which are an exciting form of sport, are held,
usually in October and November, before the second or sugge crop is
sown. It is believed that, if the races are omitted, there will be a
failure of the crop. The Koragas (field labourers) sit up through the
night before the Kambla day, performing a ceremony called panikkuluni,
or sitting under the dew. They sing songs to the accompaniment of
a band about their devil Nicha, and offer toddy and a rice pudding
boiled in a large earthen pot, which is broken so that the pudding
remains as a solid mass. This pudding is called kandel adde, or pot
pudding. On the morning of the races, the Holeyas (agrestic serfs)
scatter manure over the field, in which the races are to take place,
and plough it. On the following day, the seedlings are planted. To
propitiate various demons, the days following the races are devoted
to cock-fighting, in which hundreds of birds may take part.
Important agricultural ceremonies are performed by the Badagas of
the Nilgiris, who carry out most of the cultivation on these hills,
at the time of sowing and harvesting the crop. The seed-sowing ceremony
takes place in March, and, in some places, a Kurumba (jungle tribesman)
plays an important part in it. On an auspicious day--a Tuesday before
the crescent moon--a priest of the Devve temple sets out several
hours before dawn with five or seven kinds of grain in a basket and a
sickle, accompanied by a Kurumba, and leading a pair of bullocks with
a plough. On reaching the field selected, the priest pours the grain
into the cloth of the Kurumba, and, yoking the animals to the plough,
makes three furrows in the soil. The Kurumba, stopping the bullocks,
kneels on the ground between the furrows, facing east. Removing his
turban, he places it on the ground, and, closing his ears with his
palms, bawls out "Dho, Dho" thrice. He then rises, and scatters the
grain thrice on the soil. The priest and Kurumba then return to the
village, and the former deposits what remains of the grain in the
store-room. A new pot, full of water, is placed in the milk-house,
and the priest dips his right hand therein, saying "Nerathubitta"
(it is full). This ceremony is an important one, as, until it has
been performed, sowing may not commence. It is a day of feasting,
and, in addition to rice, Dolichos Lablab is cooked.
Another agricultural ceremony of the Badagas is called Devva habba or
tenai (Setaria italica), and is usually celebrated in June or July,
always on a Monday. It is apparently performed in honour of the gods
Mahalingaswami and Hiriya Udaya, to whom a group of villages will have
temples dedicated. The festival is celebrated at one place, whither
the Badagas from other villages proceed, to take part in it. About
midday, some Badagas and the temple priest go from the temple of
Hiriya Udaya to that of Mahalingaswami. The procession is usually
headed by a Kurumba, who scatters fragments of tud (Meliosma pungens)
bark and wood as he goes on his way. The priest takes with him the
materials necessary for performing worship, and, after worshipping
Mahalingaswami, the party return to the Hiriya Udaya temple, where
milk and cooked rice are offered to the various gods within the
temple precincts. On the following day, all assemble at the temple,
and a Kurumba brings a few sheaves of Setaria italica, and ties them
to a stone set up at the main entrance. After this, worship is done,
and the people offer cocoanuts to the god. Later on, all the women of
the Madhave sept, who have given birth to a first-born child, come,
dressed up in holiday attire, with their babies, to the temple. On this
day they wear a special nose ornament called elemukkuththi, which is
only worn on one other occasion, at the funeral of a husband. The women
worship Hiriya Udaya, and the priest gives them a small quantity of
rice on minige (Argyreia) leaves. After eating this, they wash their
hands with water given to them by the priest, and leave the temple
in a line. As soon as the Devve festival is concluded, the reaping
of the crop commences, and a measure or two of grain gathered on the
first day is set apart for the Mahalingaswami temple.
By the Kotas (artisans and cultivators) of the Nilgiris, a seed-sowing
ceremony is celebrated in the month of Kumbam (February-March) on a
Tuesday or Friday. For eight days the officiating priest abstains from
meat, and lives on vegetable diet, and may not communicate directly
with his wife for fear of pollution, a boy acting as spokesman. On the
Sunday before the ceremony, a number of cows are penned in a kraal,
and milked by the priest. The milk is preserved, and, if the omens are
favourable, is said not to turn sour. If it does, this is attributed
to the priest being under pollution from some cause or other. On the
day of the ceremony, the priest bathes in a stream, and proceeds,
accompanied by a boy, to a field or the forest. After worshipping
the gods, he makes a small seed-pan in the ground, and sows therein
a small quantity of ragi (Eleusine Coracana). Meanwhile, the Kotas of
the village go to the temple, and clean it. Thither the priest and the
boy proceed, and the deity is worshipped with offerings of cocoanuts;
betel, flowers, etc. Sometimes a Terkaran (priest) becomes inspired,
and gives expression to oracular utterances. From the temple all go
to the house of the priest, who gives them a small quantity of milk
and food. Three months later, on an auspicious day, the reaping of
the crop is commenced with a very similar ceremonial.
Writing in 1832, Mr Harkness states [364] that, during the seed-sowing
ceremony, "offerings are made at the temples, and, on the day of the
full-moon, after the whole have partaken of a feast, the blacksmith,
and the gold and silversmith, constructing separately a forge and
furnace within the temple, each makes something in the way of his
vocation, the blacksmith a chopper or axe, the silversmith a ring or
other kind of ornament."
In connection with the ceremonial observances of the Koyis of the
Godavari district, the Rev. J. Cain writes [365] that "at present
the Koyis around Dummagudem have very few festivals, except one at
the harvest of the zonna (Sorghum vulgare). Formerly they had one
not only for every grain crop, but one when the ippa [366] (Bassia)
flowers were ready to be gathered, another when the pumpkins were
ripe, at the first tapping of the palm-tree for toddy, etc. Now, at
the time the zonna crop is ripe and ready to be cut, they take a fowl
into the field, kill it, and sprinkle its blood on any ordinary stone
put up for the occasion, after which they are at liberty to partake
of the new crop. In many villages they would refuse to eat with any
Koi who has neglected this ceremony, to which they give the name
Kottalu, which word is evidently derived from the Telugu word kotta
(new). Rice-straw cords are hung on trees, to show that the feast has
been observed. [In some places, Mr Hemingway tells me, the victim
is a sheep, and the first-fruits are offered to the local gods and
the ancestors.] Another singular feast occurs soon after the cholam
(zonna) crop has been harvested. Early on the morning of that day,
all the men of each village have to turn out into the forest to hunt,
and woe betide the unlucky individual who does not bring home some
game, be it only a bird or a mouse. All the women rush after him with
cow-dung, mud, or dirt, and pelt him out of their village, and he
does not appear again in that village till next morning. The hunter
who has been most successful then parades the village with his game,
and receives presents of paddy (rice) from every house. Mr Vanstavern,
whilst boring for coal at Beddanolu, was visited by all the Koi women
of the village, dressed up in their lord's clothes, and they told
him that they had that morning driven their husbands to the forest,
to bring home game of some kind or other."
Mr N. E. Marjoribanks once witnessed a grossly indecent pantomime,
held in connection with this festival, which is called Bhudevi Panduga,
or festival of the earth goddess. The performers were women, of whom
the drummers and sword-bearers were dressed up as men. In a note on
this festival, Mr F. R. Hemingway writes that "when the samalu crop
is ripe, the Kois summon the pujari on a previously appointed day,
and collect from every house in the village a fowl and a handful of
grain. The pujari has to fast all that night, and bathe early the
next morning. After bathing, he kills the fowls gathered the previous
evening in the names of the favourite gods, and fastens an ear of
samalu to each house, and then a feast follows. In the evening they
cook some of the new grain, and kill fresh fowls, which have not to
be curried but roasted, and the heart, liver, and lights of which are
set apart as the especial food of their ancestral spirits, and eaten
by every member of each household in their name. The bean feast is
an important one, as, until it is held, no one is allowed to gather
any beans. On the second day before the feast, the village pujari must
eat only bread. The day before, he must fast for the whole twenty-four
hours, and, on the day of the feast, he must eat only rice cooked in
milk, with the bird offered in sacrifice. All the men of the village
accompany the pujari to a neighbouring tree, which must be a Terminalia
tomentosa, and set up a stone, which they thus dedicate to the goddess
Kodalamma. Every one is bound to bring for the pujari a good hen and
a seer of rice, and for himself a cock and half a seer of rice. The
pujari also demands from them two annas as his sacrificing fee."
Seed-drills used by agriculturists in the Bellary district are
ornamented with carved representations of the sacred bull Nandi,
the monkey-god Hanuman, and the lingam, and decorated with margosa
(Melia Azadirachta) leaves, to bring good luck.