CHARMS

Mantrams, or consecrated formulae, are supposed to be very powerful,

and by their aid even gods can be brought under control. They are,

inter alia, believed to be efficacious in curing disease, in protecting

children against devils, and women against miscarriage, in promoting

development of the breasts, in bringing offspring to barren women,

in warding off misfortune consequent on marriage with a girl who has

an unlucky mark, in keeping wild pigs from the fields, and warding off

cattle disease. For the last purpose, the magical formula is carved

on a stone pillar, which is set up in the village. They are divided

into four classes, viz., mantrasara, or the real essence of magic;

yantrasara, or the science of cabalistic figures; prayogasara, or the

method of using these for the attainment of any object; tantrasara,

or the science of symbolical acts with or without words.

Mantrasara includes all mantrams, with their efficacy for good and

evil, and the methods of learning and reciting them with the aid of

a guru (spiritual preceptor). They are said to be effective only when

the individual who resorts to them is pure in mind and body. This can

be attained by the recitation of ajapagayithri (216,000 inhalations

and exhalations in twenty-four hours). These have to be divided among

the deities Ganesa, Brahma, Vishnu, Rudra, Jivathma, Paramathma,

and the guru, in the proportion of 600, 6000, 6000, 6000, 1000,

1000, 1000. A man can only become learned in mantrams (mantravadi)

by the regular performance of the recognised ceremonial, by proper

recital of the mantrams, by burning the sacred fire, and by taking

food. A Lambadi has been seen repeating mantrams over his patients,

and touching their heads at the same time with a book, which was a

small edition of the Telugu translation of St John's gospel. Neither

the physician nor the patient could read, and had no idea of the

contents of the book. [227] It is noted by the Abbe Dubois, [228]

that one of the principal reasons why so little confidence is placed in

European doctors by Hindus is that, when administering their remedies,

they recite neither mantrams nor prayers.

Yantrasara includes all cabalistic figures, the method of drawing and

using them, and the objects to be attained by them. They are usually

drawn on thin plates of gold, silver, copper, or lead. The efficacy of

the figures, when drawn on gold, will, it is said, last for a century,

while those drawn on the less precious metals will only be effective

for six months or a year. Leaden plates are used when the yantrams

are to be buried underground. The figures should possess the symbols

of life, the eyes, tongue, eight cardinal points of the compass,

and the five elements.

Prayogasara includes attraction or summoning by enchantment, driving

out evil spirits, stupefaction, tempting or bringing a deity or evil

spirits under control, and enticement for love, destruction, and the

separation of friends.

The following are examples of cases in which a European, who, having

been trained by a guru, was well versed in the theory and practice of

native magic, was called in to administer to Natives, who were under

the spell of devils. In the first case, a Telugu girl, about seventeen

years old, had been for some time possessed by her sister's husband,

under whose influence she used to eat abnormal quantities of food,

tear off her clothes, and use indecent language in a voice other than

her own. When the European arrived in her room, the devil, speaking

through the girl, threatened to kill her, or the European, or the

individual who put it into her. Under the spell of a suitable mantram,

the devil departed, and its return was prevented by the wearing of

a yantram. The other case was that of a boy, who was possessed by a

devil. He was found, on the occasion of the visit of the European,

lying down in the courtyard of his house, clad in an ample loin-cloth,

and with a high temperature. Suddenly, through some invisible agency,

a corner of his loin-cloth caught fire, which was stamped out. It then

caught fire in another place, and eventually was riddled with burnt

holes. This was the way in which the devil manifested its influence,

and sometimes the boy got burnt. A mantram was recited, with the

result that the burning ceased, and the fever abated. An impromptu

yantram was made out of vibhuti (sacred ashes), and tied round the

boy's neck. A religious mendicant came along a short time afterwards,

and treated the boy for some ordinary sickness not connected with

the devil, but the medicine did him no good. Finding the yantram

round his neck, the mendicant asserted that it was the cause of his

failure, and ordered its removal. This the boy's relations refused

to permit. But the holy man ripped it off. Whereon the boy instantly

fell down comatose. In recording these two cases, I have reproduced

my notes made on the occasion of an interview with the European.

Reference has been made (p. 180) to mantrams carved on stone

pillars. The story of a stone slab at Rayalcheruvu in the Anantapur

district, known as the yantram rayi or magic stone, is narrated by

Mr Francis. [229]

"The charm consists of eighty-one squares, nine each way,

within a border of tridents. Each square contains one or more

Telugu letters, but these will not combine into any intelligible

words. At the bottom of the stone are cut a lingam and two pairs

of foot-prints. Some twelve years ago, it is said, the village

suffered severely from cholera for three years in succession, and

a Telugu mason, a foreigner who was in the village at the time,

cut this charm on the stone to stop the disease. It was set up with

much ceremony. The mason went round the village at night without

a stitch of clothing on him, and with the entrails of a sheep

hanging round his neck. Many cocoanuts were offered to the stone,

and many sheep slain before it. The mason tossed a lamb in the

air, caught it as it fell, tore its throat open with his teeth,

and then bounded forward, and spat out the blood. More sheep

and cocoanuts were offered, and then the slab was set up. The

mason naturally demanded a substantial return for the benefit he

had conferred on the inhabitants. When cholera now breaks out,

the villagers subscribe together, and do puja (worship) to the

stone in accordance with directions left by him."

Of similar stones in the South Arcot district, Mr Francis writes as

follows [230]:--

"In several villages in the west of the district are magical slabs,

which are supposed to cure cholera and cattle disease. On them,

surrounded by a border of trisulas (the trident of Siva) are

cut a series of little squares, in each of which is some Tamil

letter. The villagers usually explain their existence by saying

that, some forty years ago, an ascetic, whom they call the sangili

(chain) sanyasi from his predilection for wearing red-hot chains

round his neck, came there when cholera and cattle disease were

rife, and (for a consideration) put up these slabs to ward off

his ills. He left directions that, when either disease reappeared,

108 pots of water were to be poured over the slab, 108 bilva (AEgle

Marmelos) leaves tied to it and so on, and that men and animals

were then to walk through the water which had been poured over it."

Mr Francis writes further [231] that "in many places, stone slabs may

be seen set up in the outskirts of the villages, on what are said

to be the old boundaries. These are thought to be able to ward off

sickness, and other harm which threatens to enter the place, and are

revered accordingly. Some are quite blank, others have letters cut

on them, while others again bear the rude outline of a deity, and are

accordingly given such names as Pidari or Ellai Amman (the goddess of

the boundary). To these last, periodical worship is often performed,

but, in the case of the others, the attentions of the villagers

are confined to an annual ceremony, whereat cocoanuts are broken,

camphor is burnt, and a light is placed on the stone."

It was noted by Lieutenant R. F. Burton [232] that, in some hamlets,

the Kotas of the Nilgiris have set up curiously carved stones,

which they consider sacred, and attribute to them the power of curing

diseases, if the member affected is rubbed against them. At cross-roads

in Bellary, odd geometric patterns may sometimes be noticed. These

are put there at night by people suffering from disease, in the hope

that the affliction will pass to the person who first treads on the

charm. [233]

As examples of yantrams, the following, selected from a very large

repertoire, may be cited:--

Ganapathi yantram should be drawn on metal, and worship performed. It

is then enclosed in a metal cylinder, and tied by a thread round the

neck of females, or the waist or arm of men. It will cure disease,

conquer an enemy, or entice any one. If the sacred fire is kept

up while the formula is being repeated, and dry cocoanut, plantain

fruits, money, ghi (clarified butter), and sweet bread put into it,

the owner will be blessed with wealth and prosperity.

Bhadrakali yantram. The figure is drawn on the floor with flour

or rice, turmeric, charcoal powder, and leaves of the castor-oil

plant. If the deity is worshipped at night, it will lead to the

acquisition of knowledge, strength, freedom from disease and impending

calamities, wealth, and prosperity. If puja (worship) is celebrated by

a mantravadi for twelve days with the face turned towards the south,

it will produce the death of an enemy.

Sudarsana yantram, when drawn on a sheet of metal, and enclosed in

a cylinder worn round the neck or on the arm, will relieve those who

are ill or possessed by devils. If it is drawn on butter spread on a

plantain leaf, puja performed, and the butter given to a barren woman,

there will be no danger to herself or her future issue.

Suthakadosham yantram. Children under one year of age are supposed

to be affected, if they are seen by a woman on the fourth day of

menstruation with wet clothes and empty stomach after bathing. She may

not even see her own baby or husband till she has changed her clothes,

and taken food. To avert the evil, a waist-band, made of the bark of

the arka plant (Calotropis gigantea), is worn.

Sarabha yantram will cure persons suffering from epilepsy or

intermittent fever.

Subramaniya yantram, if regularly worshipped, will expel devils from

those attacked by them, and from houses.

Hanuman yantram will protect those who are out on dark nights, and

produce bodily strength and wisdom. If drawn on a sheet of gold,

and puja is performed to it every Saturday, it will bring prosperity,

and help pregnant women during their confinement.

Pakshi yantram, if drawn on a sheet of lead, and kept in several

places round a house, will keep snakes away.

Vatugabhairava yantram cures disease in those who are under eighteen

years old, and drives out all kinds of evil spirits. If ashes are

smeared on the face, and the mantram is uttered sixteen times, it

will be very effective.

Varati yantram is very useful to any one who wishes to kill an

enemy. He should sit in a retired spot at night, with his face

turned towards the south, and repeat the mantram a thousand times

for twenty days.

Prathingiri yantram is drawn on a sheet of lead, and buried at a

spot over which a person, whose death is desired, will pass. It is

then placed on the floor, on which the sacred fire is kindled. The

mantram should be repeated eight hundred times for seven nights.

Chamundi and Raktha Chamundi yantrams are used for causing the death

of enemies. The mantram should be written on a sheet of lead, and puja,

with the sacrifice of toddy and mutton, performed.

Asvaruda yantram enables a person wearing it to cover long distances

on horseback, and he can make the most refractory horse amenable by

tying it round its neck. [234]

An inhabitant of Malabar presented Mr Fawcett with a yantram against

the evil eye, which, if whispered over a piece of string, and tied

round any part of the body affected, would work an instantaneous

cure. A Cheruman at Calicut, who was wearing on his loin-string a

copper cylinder containing a brass strip with mantrams, sold it to

me for a rupee with the assurance that it would protect me from devils.

To produce an ulcer, which will cause the death of an enemy in ninety

days, a mantram is written on a piece of cadjan (palm leaf), enclosed

in an egg with a small quantity of earth on which he has urinated,

and buried in an ant-hill. A fowl is killed, and its blood and some

toddy are poured over the egg. To cure fever, the formula is written

with the finger in water contained in a basin, and the appropriate

words are repeated while the water is being drunk.

By some Muhammadans, on festival days, the names of holy persons,

together with their sayings, are written on mango or palmyra leaves

in ink made of charred rice. When the ink is dry, the leaves are

washed in water, which is drunk. This is supposed to cure people of

many obstinate diseases. A European official was informed by a Native

magistrate in the Vizagapatam district that, when he wanted to tear up

some old abkari (liquor) licenses, a man implored him not to do so, as

they had brought him life for a year, and were therefore worshipped. So

the medicine was water, in which an old license had been dipped.

It is recorded [235] by Mr Logan that "in 1877, a poor Mappilla

(Muhammadan) woman residing in one of the Laccadive islands was put

upon her trial for witchcraft for importing into the island a betel

leaf with a certain cabalistic and magical inscription on it; but

it fortunately turned out for her that she had merely pounded it up,

and rubbed it over her daughter's body to cure her of fits. Ibn Batuta

(the Arab traveller who visited South India in the fourteenth century)

wrote of a Malayali king who was converted to Islam by the leaf of

'the tree of testimony,' a tree of which it was related to him that

it does not generally drop its leaves, but at the season of autumn in

every year one of them changes its colour, first to yellow, then to

red, and that upon this is written 'There is no God but God: Muhammad

is the Prophet of God,' and that this leaf alone falls. The falling

of the leaf was an annual event, and the leaf itself was efficacious

in curing diseases. Nowadays the belief among the Muhammadans still

subsists, that the leaves of a certain tree growing on Mount Deli

(in Malabar) possess similar virtues."

Metal bowls, engraved both on the outside and inside with texts from

the Quran, are taken or sent by Muhammadans to Mecca, where they are

placed at the head of the tomb of the Prophet, and blessed. They are

highly valued, and used in cases of sickness for the administration

of medicine or nourishment.

It is on record that, at the battle of Seringapatam in 1799, an officer

took from off the right arm of the dead body of Tipu Sultan a talisman,

which contained sewed up in pieces of fine flowered silk a charm

made of a brittle metallic substance of the colour of silver, and

some manuscripts in magic Arabic and Persian characters. A notorious

Mappilla dacoit, who was shot by the police a few years ago, and whom

his co-religionists tried to make a saint, was at the time of his

death wearing five copper and silver charm cylinders round his waist.

It is noted by Mr Logan [236] that "when affliction comes, the animal

affected is served with grass, fruit, etc., on which charms have been

whispered, or is bathed in charmed water, or has a talisman in the

shape of a palm leaf inscribed with charms rolled up and tied round

its neck."

The tooth or claw of a tiger, worn on the neck or round the loins,

is considered effective against evil influences. A tiger's whiskers

are held to be a most potent poison when chopped up; so, when

a tiger is killed, the whiskers are immediately singed off. [237]

They are represented in stuffed heads by the delicate bristles of the

porcupine. When a Savara of Ganjam is killed by a tiger, the Kudang

goes through a performance on the following Sunday to prevent a similar

fate overtaking others. Two pigs are killed outside the village, and

every man, woman, and child is made to walk over the ground whereon

the pig's blood is spilled, and the Kudang gives to each individual

some kind of tiger medicine as a charm. [238]

In Malabar the tusks of a wild boar are, in cases of protracted labour,

pressed over the abdomen of the woman from above downwards.

The hair of the bear is enclosed in a casket or cylinder, and tied to

the girdle round the loins of male children, and in strings round the

neck of female children, as a remedy against fever, and to prevent

involuntary discharge of urine during sleep. [239]

One of the occupations of the Kuruvikkarans (bird-catchers and

beggars) is the manufacture and sale of spurious jackal horns,

known as narikompu. To catch the jackals they make an enclosure of

a net, inside which a man seats himself armed with a big stick. He

then proceeds to execute a perfect imitation of the jackal's cry,

on hearing which the jackals come running to see what is the matter,

and are beaten down. Sometimes the entire jackal's head is sold, skin

and all. The process of manufacture of the horn is as follows. After

the brain has been removed, the skin is stripped off a limited area

of the skull, and the bone at the place of junction of the sagittal

and lambdoid sutures above the occipital foramen is filed away, so

that only a point, like a bony outgrowth, is left. The skin is then

brought back, and pressed over the little horn which pierces it. The

horn is also said to be made out of the molar tooth of a dog or

jackal, introduced through a small hole in a piece of jackal's skin,

round which a little blood or turmeric paste is smeared to make it

look more natural. In most cases only the horn, with a small piece

of skull and skin, is sold. Sometimes, instead of the skin from the

part where the horn is made, a piece of skin is taken from the snout,

where the long black hairs are. The horn then appears surrounded by

long black bushy hairs. The Kuruvikkarans explain that, when they see

a jackal with such long hairs on the top of its head, they know that

it possesses a horn. A horn-vendor, whom I interviewed, assured me

that the possessor of a horn is a small jackal, which comes out of

its hiding-place on full-moon nights to drink the dew. According to

another version, the horn is only possessed by the leader of a pack

of jackals. A nomad Dommara, whom I saw at Coimbatore, carried a bag

containing a miscellaneous assortment of rubbish used in his capacity

as medicine-man and snake-charmer, which included a collection of

spurious jackal horns. To prove the genuineness thereof, he showed

me not only the horn, but also the feet with nails complete, as

evidence that the horns were not made from the nails. Being charged

with manufacturing the horns, he swore, by placing his hand on the

head of a child who accompanied him, that he was not deceiving

me. The largest of the horns in his bag, he gravely assured me,

was from a jackal which he dug out of its hole on the last new-moon

night. The Sinhalese and Tamils regard the horn as a talisman, and

believe that its fortunate possessor can command the realisation

of every wish. Those who have jewels to conceal rest in perfect

security if, along with them, they can deposit a narikompu. [240]

The ayah (nurse) of a friend who possessed such a talisman, remarked:

"Master going into any law-court, sure to win the case." Two horns,

which I possessed, were stolen from my study table, to bring luck to

some Tamil member of my establishment.

The nasal bone of a jackal or fox, enclosed in a receptacle, is

believed to ward off many evils. The nose of a hyaena is also held in

great estimation as a charm. When a hyaena is killed, the end of the

nose is cut off and dried, and is supposed to be a sovereign charm

in cases of difficult labour, indigestion, and boils, if applied to

the nostrils of the patient. [241]

In Malabar, silver finger-rings with a piece of bristle from the tail

of an elephant set in them, are worn as a charm.

In the Vizagapatam district, a most efficacious charm, supposed to

render a man invulnerable to every ill, consists of a small piece of

black wool, given to every one who takes a black sheep for the priest

of a temple on the Bopelli ghat. Another much valued charm in this

district is called chemru mausa, which is described as being a small

musk-rat only an inch and a half long, very scarce, and only found on

rocky hills. It is worn in a gold or silver receptacle on the arm,

and is supposed to render a man invulnerable against sword cuts and

musket shots. In like manner, a mixture of gingelly (Sesamum) oil,

the red dye which women use, and other ingredients, put into a small

piece of hollow bamboo, and worn on the arm, are believed to protect

a man against being shot with a bow or musket.

Many of the Kadir infants on the Anaimalai hills have tied round the

neck a charm, which takes the form of a dried tortoise foot; the tooth

of a crocodile mimicking a phallus, and supposed to ward off attacks

from a mythical water elephant which lives in the mountain streams,

or wooden imitations of tiger's claws.

The joints taken from the tail of the black scorpion are believed to

ward off illness, if children wear them on their waist-thread. [242]

Of charms worn by the Nambutiri Brahmans in Malabar, the following

are recorded by Mr F. Fawcett [243]:--

Ring, in which an anavarahan coin is set. This is a very lucky

ring. Spurious imitations are often set in rings, but it is the

genuine one which brings good luck.

Gold case fastened to a string round the waist, and containing a

figure written on a silver plate. The man had worn it for three years,

having put it on because he used to feel hot during the cold season,

and attributed his condition to the influence of an evil spirit.

Two cylinders, one of gold, the other of silver. In each were some

chakrams (Travancore silver coins) and a gold leaf, on which a

charm was inscribed. One of the charms was prepared by a Mappilla,

the other by a Nambutiri.

In connection with the wearing of charms by the Nayars of Malabar,

Mr Fawcett writes [244] as follows:--

"One individual wore two rings made of an amalgamation of gold and

copper, called tambak on the ring-finger of the right hand for

good luck. Tambak rings are lucky rings. It is a good thing to

wash the face with the hand, on which is a tambak ring. Another

wore two rings of the pattern called triloham on the ring-finger

of each hand. Each of these was made during an eclipse. An Akattu

Charna Nayar wore an amulet, to keep off the spirit of a Brahman

who died by drowning."

As examples of charms worn by Bedar men in the Canarese country,

the following may be cited:--

String tied round right arm with metal box attached to it, to drive

away devils. String round ankle for the same purpose.

Necklet of coral and ivory beads worn as a vow to the goddess

Huligamma.

Necklets of ivory beads, and a gold disc with the Vishnupad (feet

of Vishnu) engraved on it, purchased from a religious mendicant to

bring good luck.

In an account of the Mandulas (medicine-men) of the Telugu country,

Bishop Whitehead records [245] that a baby three days old had an anklet

made of its mother's hair tied round the right ankle, to keep off

the evil eye. The mother, too, had round her ankle a similar anklet,

which she put on before her confinement. One of the men was also

wearing an anklet of hair, as he had recently been bitten by a snake.

A metal charm-cylinder is sometimes attached to the sacred thread,

which is worn by Devangas (a weaving caste), who claim to be Devanga

Brahmans.

I have seen the child of a Kuruba (Canarese agriculturist) priest

wearing a necklet with a copper ornament engraved with cabalistic

devices, a silver plate bearing a figure of Hanuman (the monkey god),

as all his other children had died, and a piece of pierced pottery from

the burial-ground, to ward off whooping-cough. The Rev. S. Nicholson

informs me that, if a Mala (Telugu Pariah) child grinds its teeth in

its sleep, a piece of a broken pot is brought from a graveyard, and,

after being smoked with incense, tied round the child's neck with a

piece of string rubbed with turmeric, or with a piece of gut. In the

Tamil country, the bark of a tree on which any one has hanged himself,

a cord with twenty-one knots, and the earth from a child's grave,

are hung round the neck, or tied to the waist-string as talismans.

A Kota woman at Kotagiri on the Nilgiris, was wearing a glass necklet,

with a charm pendant from it, consisting of the root of some tree

rolled up in a ball of cloth. She put it on when her baby was quite

young, to protect it against devils. The baby had a similar charm on

its neck. By some jungle Chenchus pieces of stick strung on a thread,

or seeds of Givotia rottleriformis are worn, to ward off various

forms of pain.

Small flat plates of copper, called takudu, are frequently worn by

Tamil Paraiyan children. One side is divided into sixteen squares

in which what look like the Telugu numerals nine, ten, eleven

and twelve, are engraved. On the other side a circle is drawn,

which is divided into eight segments, in each of which a Telugu

letter is inscribed. This charm is supposed to protect the wearer

from harm coming from any of the eight cardinal points of the Indian

compass. Charms, in the form of metal cylinders, are worn for the same

purpose by adults and children, and procured from some exorcist. [246]

By some Medaras of the Telugu country, a figure of Hanuman (the

monkey god) is engraved on a thin plate of gold with cabalistic

letters inscribed on it, and worn on the neck. On eclipse days,

a piece of root of the arka plant (Calotropis gigantea) is worn on

the neck of females, and on the waist or arm of males.

In a note regarding moon-shaped amulets against the evil eye described

by Professor Tylor, [247] Mr. Walhouse mentions that crescents, made of

thin plates of metal, sometimes gold, are worn by children on the west

coast, suspended upon the breast with the point upwards. Neck ornaments

in the form of a crescent are commonly worn by Muhammadan children.

Concerning the use of coins as charms, Mr V. Devasahayam writes as

follows [248]:--

"Seeing a woman with several old coins strung on the tali

(marriage badge) string round the neck, I offered to buy them

of her for a good price, but got only a torrent of abuse, since

she, in her ignorance and superstition, supposed that Lutchmi,

the goddess of fortune, would forsake her if she parted with the

coins. In Tranquebar there lives a head mason, who always carries

in his betel-nut bag a copper coin bearing the inscription of

Koneri Rayan, one of the later Pandyans or early Nayakars. The

man would on no account part with this coin, for he believes

that his success in business has improved since he came into

possession of it, and that it will continue as long as he carries

it with him. He says that he shall bequeath it to his family at

his death, to hold in veneration almost amounting to worship. For

dog bite, some Natives tie an old copper coin with a bandage over

the wound, and wear it till it has healed. Others rub the coin

against a copper vessel, using a few drops of the juice of the

datura plant in order to form a paste, and apply the paste to the

wound. Whooping-cough is believed to be caused by the displeasure

of Bhairava, the dog-god, and the whooping is regarded as a sort

of barking, under possession by the god. To appease his anger,

an old coin is hammered into a flat round disc, a rude figure of a

dog engraved on it, and suspended as a charm to the sick child's

waist. In the treatment of skin disease, dyspepsia, and leprosy,

old copper coins are ground to dust, heated till the dust is

like ashes, and administered medicinally. Soon after a Sonaga

woman is delivered of a child, she is made to swallow a small

old copper coin together with some water. Natives believe that,

during delivery, the whole system is so irritated that strong

counter-irritants must be administered to prevent tetanus."

Mercury cups, said to be made of an amalgam of mercury and tin, are

stated to possess the property of allowing mercury, when poured in,

to ooze through them, and pass out. Milk preserved in such a cup

for a few hours is said to turn into hard curd. Milk kept over night

in one of these cups, or an amulet made from the cup materials, are

believed to exercise a most potent influence over the male fertilising

element. Such an amulet, applied to the neck of a chorister, is said

to have increased his vocal powers three or four times. Piles, and

other bodily ailments, are believed to be cured by wearing rings,

in the composition of which mercury is one of the ingredients.

In a case which was tried before a magistrate in Travancore, the

accused, in order to win his case, had concealed in his under-cloth

some yantrams, which had been prepared for him by a sorcerer. The

plaintiff, having got scent of this, gave information, and the charms

were handed over to the magistrate. It is recorded in the Vigada

Thuthan that, when a woman who gets tired of her husband sues him for

maintenance, she wears charm bundles (manthira kattu), so that his

evidence may be confused and incoherent. Such charms are said to be

concealed in the hair of the head or in the headdress, and generally

to consist of a lime fruit, which has been charmed by magical spells

in a graveyard, after the sorcerer has performed certain ceremonies

to guard him against devils catching him during the incantations. It

is said that, in former times, if the chastity of a Tamil Paraiyan

bride was suspected, she had to establish her virtue by picking some

cakes out of boiling oil, and then husking some rice with her bare

hand. Her hair, nails, and clothes were examined, to see that she

had no charm concealed about her. [249]

A friend once dismissed a servant for cheating and lying. A

short time afterwards, he found nailed to a teapoy a paper scroll

containing a jasmine flower tied up with coloured threads. On the

scroll were inscribed in Tamil the mystic syllable, "Om," and "Nama

Siva R. U. Masthan Sahibu avergal padame thunai" (I seek for help at

the feet of Masthan sahib). Masthan is a Muhammad saint. The servant

of a European police officer, who had been caught out in all sorts

of malpractices, tried to win back the good-will of his master by

means of a charm, for which he paid fifteen rupees, placed under his

master's pillow.

It is recorded by Marco Polo [250] that South Indian pearl divers

[251] call in the services of an Abraiman (Brahman?) to charm the

sharks. "And their charm holds good for that day only; for at night

they dissolve the charm, so that the fishes can work mischief at their

will." The prospects of a pearl fishery, when success seems certain,

may be abruptly ruined by accidents from sharks, of which the divers

have a superstitious, but not altogether unreasonable, dread. Before

the fishery of 1889, at which I was present, the divers of Kilakarai on

the Madura coast, as a preliminary to starting for the scene thereof,

performed a ceremony, at which prayers were offered for protection

against the attacks of sharks.

"The only precaution," Tennent writes, [252] "to which the

Ceylon diver devotedly resorts is the mystic ceremony of the

shark-charmer, whose power is believed to be hereditary. Nor is

it supposed that the value of his incantations is at all dependent

upon the religious faith professed by the operator, for the present

head of the family happens to be a Roman Catholic. At the time

of our visit, this mysterious functionary was ill, and unable to

attend; but he sent an accredited substitute, who assured me that,

although he was himself ignorant of the grand and mystic secret,

the fact of his presence, as a representative of the higher

authority, would be recognised and respected by the sharks."

At the Tuticorin fishery in 1890, a scare was produced by a diver

being bitten by a shark, but subsided as soon as a "wise woman" was

employed. Her powers do not, however, seem to have been great, for more

cases of shark-bite occurred, and the fishery had to be abandoned at a

time when favourable breezes, clear water, plenty of boats, and oysters

selling at a good price, indicated a successful financial result.