Very closely connected with the subject of vows and votive offerings
is that of the worship of snakes, to which vows are made and offerings
dedicated.
In a note on serpent worship in Malabar, [135] it is stated that "even
to-day some corner of the garden of every respectable tarawad [136]
is allotted for snakes. Here a few trees are allowed to grow wild,
and under them, on a masonry platform, one or more sculptured granite
stones representing hooded serpents (cobras) are consecrated and set
up. The whole area is held sacred, and a mud lamp is lighted there
every evening with religious regularity. I have seen eggs, milk, and
plantains offered in the evening, after the lamp has been lit, at these
shrines, to invoke the serpent's aid on particular occasions. Such
is the veneration in which these shrines are held that Cherumars
(agrestic serfs) and other low caste aborigines, who are believed to
pollute by their very approach, are absolutely interdicted from getting
within the precincts. Should, however, any such pollute the shrine,
the resident snake or its emissary is said to apprise the owner of
the defilement by creeping to the very threshold of his house, and
remaining there until the Karanavan, [137] or other managing member
of the family promises to have it duly purified by a Brahman."
Concerning snake worship in Malabar, Mr C. Karunakara Menon writes [138]
as follows:--
"The existence of snake groves is said to owe its origin to Sri
Parasurama. [According to tradition, Parasurama was an avatar of
Vishnu, who destroyed the Kshatriya Rajas, and retired to Gokarnam
in Canara. He called on Varuna, the god of water, to give him some
land. Varuna caused the sea to recede, and thus the land called Kerala
(including Malabar) came into existence. Brahmans were brought from
Northern India to colonise the new country, but they ran away from
fear of the snakes, of which it was full. Parasurama then brought in a
further consignment of Brahmans from the north, and divided the country
into sixty-four Brahmanical colonies.] Parasurama advised that a part
of every house should be set apart for snakes as household gods. The
(snake) groves have the appearance of miniature reserved forests, as
they are considered sacred, and there is a strong prejudice against
cutting down trees therein. The groves contain a snake king and queen
made of granite, and a tower-like structure, made of laterite, [139]
for the sacred snakes. Snakes were, in olden days, considered a part
of the property. [Transfer deeds made special mention of the family
serpent as one of the articles sold along with the freehold.]
"When a snake is seen inside, or in the neighbourhood of the
house, great care is taken to catch it without giving it the least
pain. Usually a stick is placed gently on its head, and the mouth of
an earthenware pot is shown to it. When it is in, the pot is loosely
covered with a cocoanut shell, to allow of free breathing. It is
then taken to a secluded spot, the pot is destroyed, and the snake
set at liberty. It is considered to be polluted by being caught in
this way, and holy water is sometimes poured over it. Killing a snake
is considered a grievous sin, and even to see a snake with its head
bruised is believed to be a precursor of calamities. Pious Malayalis
(natives of Malabar), when they see a snake killed in this way, have
it burnt with the full solemnities attendant on the cremation of a
high-caste Hindu. The carcase is covered with a piece of silk, and
burnt in sandalwood. A Brahman is hired to observe pollution for some
days, and elaborate funeral oblations are offered to the dead snake."
In Travancore there was formerly a judicial ordeal by snake-bite. The
accused thrust his hand into a mantle, in which a cobra was wrapped
up. If it bit him, he was declared guilty, if not innocent.
In connection with snake worship in Malabar, Mr Upendra Pai gives
the following details. [140] Among snakes none is more dreaded than
the cobra (Naia tripudians), which accordingly has gathered round
it more fanciful superstitions than any other snake. This has led
to cobra worship, which is often performed with a special object in
view. In some parts of the country, every town or village has its
images of cobras rudely carved on stone. These cobra stones, as they
are termed, are placed either on little platforms of stone specially
erected for them, or at the base of some tree, preferably a holy
fig. [141] On the fifth day of the lunar month Shravana, known as the
Nagarapanchami--that is, the fifth day of the nagas or serpents--these
stones are first washed; then milk, curds, ghi (clarified butter), and
cocoanut water, are poured over them. Afterwards they are decorated
with flowers, and offerings are made to them. The cobra stone is
also worshipped at other times by those who have no male children,
in order to obtain such. But to establish new images of cobras in
suitable places is regarded as a surer method of achieving this
object. For this certain preliminary ceremonies have to be gone
through, and, when once the image has been established, it is the
duty of the establisher to see that it is properly worshipped at
least once a year, on the Nagarapanchami day. The merit obtained
is proportionate to the number of images thus worshipped, so that
pious people, to obtain a great deal of merit, and at the same time
to save themselves the expense of erecting many stone images, have
several images drawn, each on a tiny bit of a thin plate of gold or
silver. These images are handed over to some priest, to be kept along
with other images, to which daily worship is rendered. In this way,
great merit is supposed to be obtained. It is also believed that
such worship will destroy all danger proceeding from snakes. The
cobra being thus an object of worship, it is a deadly sin to kill or
maim it. For the cobra is in the popular imagination a Brahman, and
there is no greater sin than that of killing a Brahman. Accordingly,
if any one kills a cobra, he is sure to contract leprosy, which is
the peculiar punishment of those who have either killed a cobra, or
have led to the destruction of its eggs by digging in or ploughing
up soil which it haunts, or setting on fire jungle or grass in the
midst of which it is known to live and breed.
In a note on snake worship, Mr R. Kulathu Iyer writes as follows:
[142]--
"In Travancore there is a place called Mannarsala, which is well
known for its serpent worship. It is the abode of the snake king
and queen, and their followers. The grove and its premises cover
about 16 acres. In the middle of this grove are two small temples
dedicated to the snake king and queen. There are also thousands
of snakes of granite, representing the various followers of the
king and queen. Just to the northern side of the temple there is
a house, the abode of the Nampiathy, [143] who performs pooja
(worship) in the temple. In caste he is lower in grade than a
Brahmin. The temple has paddy (rice) fields and estates of its
own, and also has a large income from various sources. There is
an annual festival at this temple, known as Ayilyam festival,
which is celebrated in the months of Kanny and Thulam (September
and October). A large number of people assemble for worship
with offerings of gold, silver, salt, melons, etc. The sale
proceeds of these offerings after a festival would amount to a
pretty large sum. On the day previous to the Ayilyam festival,
the temple authorities spend something like three thousand rupees
in feeding the Brahmins. A grand feast is given to nearly three
thousand Brahmins at the house of the Nampiathy. On the Ayilyam
day, all the serpent gods are taken in procession to the illam
(house of the Nampiathy) by the eldest female member of the
house, and offerings of neerumpalum (a mixture of rice-flour,
turmeric, ghi, water of tender cocoanuts, etc.), boiled rice,
and other things, are made to the serpent gods. It is said that
the neerumpalum mixture would be poured into a big vessel, and
kept inside a room for three days, when the vessel would be found
empty. It is supposed that the serpents drink the contents. As
regards the origin of this celebrated grove, Mr S. Krishna Iyer,
in one of his contributions to the Calcutta Quarterly Review,
says that 'the land from Avoor on the south to Alleppy on the
north was the site of the Khandava forest celebrated in the
Mahabaratha; that, when Arjuna set fire to it, the serpents
fled in confusion and reached Mannarasalay, and there prayed
to the gods for protection; that thereupon the earth around was
miraculously cooled down, and hence the name mun-l-ari-l-sala,
the place where the earth was cooled. After the serpents found
shelter from the Khandava fire, an ancestress of the Nambiathy
had a vision calling upon her to dedicate the groves and some land
to the Naga Raja (snake king), and build a temple therein. These
commands were obeyed forth-with, and thenceforward the Naga Raja
became their family deity.' In the 'Travancore State Manual,'
Mr Nagam Iyer, referring to Mannarsala, says that 'a member of
this Mannarsala illam married a girl of the Vettikod illam, where
the serpents were held in great veneration. The girl's parents,
being very poor, had nothing to give in the way of dowry, so
they gave her one of the stone idols of the serpent, of which
there were many in the house. The girl took care of this idol,
and worshipped it regularly. Soon she became pregnant, and gave
birth to a male child and a snake. The snake child grew up,
and gave rise to a numerous progeny. They were all removed to a
spot where the present kavu (grove) is. In this kavu there are
now four thousand stone idols representing snake gods.' Such is
the origin of this celebrated grove of Central Travancore."
On the bank of the river separating Cranganore from the rest of
the Native State of Cochin is the residence of a certain Brahman
called the Pampanmekkat (snake guardian) Nambudri, who has been
called the high priest of serpent worship. It is recorded [144]
by Mr Karunakara Menon that, "a respectable family at Angadipuram
(in Malabar) sold their ancestral house to a supervisor in the Local
Fund P. W. D. (Public Works Department). He cut down the snake grove,
and planted it up. Some members of the vendor's family began to suffer
from some cutaneous complaint. As usual the local astrologer was
called in, and he attributed the ailment to the ire of the aggrieved
family serpents. These men then went to the Brahmin house of Pampu
Mekat. This Namboodri family is a special favourite of the snakes. When
a new serpent grove has to be created, or if it is found necessary to
remove a grove from one place to another, the ritual is entirely in
the hands of these people. When a family suffers from the wrath of the
serpents, they generally go to this Namboodri house. The eldest woman
of the house would hear the grievances of the party, and then, taking
a vessel full of gingelly (Sesamum) oil, and looking into it, would
give out the directions to be observed in satisfying the serpents."
Concerning the Pampanmekkat Nambudri, Mr Gopal Panikkar writes [145]
that, "it is said that this Nambudri household is full of cobras,
which find their abode in every nook and corner of it. The inmates
can scarcely move about without placing their feet upon one of these
serpents. Owing to the magic influence of the family, the serpents
cannot and will not injure them. The serpents are said to be always at
the beck and call of the members of this Nambudri family, and render
unquestioned obedience to their commands. They watch and protect the
interests of the family in the most zealous spirit."
It is said [146] that, "every year the Nambudri receives many
offerings in the shape of golden images of snakes, for propitiating
the serpent god to ward off calamity, or to enlist its aid in the
cure of a disease, or for the attainment of a particular object. It
is well known that the Nambudri has several hundreds of these images
and other valuable offerings, the collection of centuries, amounting
in value to over a lakh of rupees. This aroused the cupidity of a
gang of dacoits (robbers), who resolved some years ago to ease the
Nambudri of a great portion of this treasure. On a certain night,
armed with lathies (sticks), slings, torches, and other paraphernalia,
the dacoits went to the illam, and, forcibly effecting an entrance,
bound the senior Nambudri's hands and feet, and threw him on his
breast. This precaution taken, the keys of the treasure-room were
demanded, the alternative being further personal injury. To save
himself from further violence, the keys were surrendered. The dacoits
secured all the gold images, leaving the silver ones severely alone,
and departed. But, directly they went past the gate of the house,
many snakes chased them, and, in the twinkling of an eye, each of
the depredators had two snakes coiled round him, others investing
the gang, and threatening, with uplifted hoods and hisses, to dart
at them. The dacoits remained stunned and motionless. Meantime, the
authorities were communicated with, and the whole gang was taken into
custody. It is said that the serpents did not budge an inch until
after the arrival of the officers."
Other marvellous stories of the way in which the snakes carry out
their trust are narrated.
A section of Ambalavasis or temple servants in Malabar, called
Teyyambadis, the members of which dance and sing in Bhagavati temples,
perform a song called Nagapattu (song in honour of snakes) in private
houses, which is supposed to be effective in procuring offspring. [147]
In many houses of the Tiyans of Malabar, offerings are made annually to
a bygone personage named Kunnath Nayar, and to his friend and disciple,
Kunhi Rayan, a Mappilla (Muhammadan). According to the legend, the
Nayar worshipped the kite until he obtained command and control over
all the snakes in the land. There are Mappilla devotees of Kunnath
Nayar and Kunhi Rayan, who exhibit snakes in a box, and collect
alms for a snake mosque near Manarghat at the foot of the Nilgiri
hills. A class of snake-charmers in Malabar, called Kuravan, go about
the country exhibiting snakes. It is considered to be a great act of
piety to purchase these animals, and set them at liberty. The vagrant
Kakkalans of Travancore, who are said to be identical with the Kakka
Kuravans, are unrivalled at a dance called pampatam (snake dance).
The Pulluvans of Malabar are astrologers, medicine-men, and priests
and singers in snake groves. According to a legend [148] they are
descended from a male and female servant, who were exiled by a
Brahman in connection with the rescuing by the female of a snake
which escaped when the Gandava forest was set on fire by Agni, the
god of fire. Another legend records how a five-hooded snake fled
from the burning forest, and was taken home by a woman, and placed
in a room. When her husband entered the room, he found an ant-hill,
from which the snake issued forth, and bit him. As the result of
the bite, the man died, and his widow was left without means of
support. The snake consoled her, and devised a plan, by which she
could maintain herself. She was to go from house to house, and cry
out, "Give me alms, and be saved from snake-poisoning." The inmates
would give alms, and the snakes, which might be troubling them,
would cease to annoy. For this reason, the Pulluvas, when they go
with their pot-drum (pulluva kudam) to a house, are asked to play,
and sing songs which are acceptable to the snake gods, in return for
which they receive a present of money. A Pulluvan and his wife preside
at the ceremony called Pamban Tullal, which is carried out with the
object of propitiating the snake gods. Concerning this ceremony,
Mr L. K. Anantha Krishna Iyer writes as follows [149]:--
"A pandal (booth) supported by four poles driven into the ground is
put up for the purpose, and the tops of the poles are connected
with a network of strings, over which a silk or red cloth is
spread to form a canopy. The pandal is well decorated, and the
floor below it is slightly raised and smoothed. A hideous figure of
the size of a big serpent is drawn in rice-flour, turmeric (Curcuma
longa), kuvva(Curcuma angustifolia), powdered charcoal, and a green
powder. These five powders are essential, for their colours are
visible on the necks of serpents. Some rice is scattered on the
floor and on the sides, and ripe and green cocoanuts are placed on
a small quantity of rice and paddy (unhusked rice) on each side. A
puja for Ganapathi (the elephant god) is performed, to see that
the whole ceremony terminates well. A good deal of frankincense
is burned, and a lamp is placed on a plate, to add to the purity,
sanctity, and solemnity of the occasion. The members of the house
go round the pandal as a token of reverence, and take their seats
close by. It often happens that the members of several neighbouring
families take part in the ceremony. The women, from whom devils
have to be cast out, bathe and take their seats on the western
side, each with a flower-pod of the areca palm. The Pulluvan,
with his wife or daughter, begins his shrill musical tunes (on
serpents), vocal and instrumental alternately. As they sing, the
young female members appear to be influenced by the modulation of
the tunes and the smell of the perfumes. They gradually move their
heads in a circle, which soon quickens, and the long locks of hair
are soon let loose. These movements appear to keep time with the
Pulluvan's music. In their unconscious state, they beat upon the
floor, and wipe off the figure drawn. As soon as this is done,
they go to a serpent grove close by, where there may be a few stone
images of serpents, before which they prostrate themselves. They
now recover their consciousness, and take milk, water of the
green cocoanut, and plantain fruits, and the ceremony is over."
In connection with the Pamban Tullal, Mr Gopal Panikkar writes [150]
that "sometimes the gods appear in the bodies of all these females, and
sometimes only in those of a select few, or none at all. The refusal
of the gods to enter into such persons is symbolical of some want of
cleanliness in them; which contingency is looked upon as a source of
anxiety to the individual. It may also suggest the displeasure of
these gods towards the family, in respect of which the ceremony is
performed. In either case, such refusal on the part of the gods is
an index of their ill-will or dissatisfaction. In cases where the
gods refuse to appear in any one of those seated for the purpose,
the ceremony is prolonged until the gods are so propitiated as to
constrain them to manifest themselves. Then, after the lapse of the
number of days fixed for the ceremony, and, after the will of the
serpent gods is duly expressed, the ceremonies close."
Sometimes, it is said, it may be considered necessary to rub away
the figure as many as one hundred and one times, in which case the
ceremony is prolonged over several weeks. Each time that the snake
design is destroyed, one or two men, with torches in their hands,
perform a dance, keeping step to the Pulluvan's music. The family
may eventually erect a small platform or shrine in a corner of their
grounds, and worship at it annually. The snake deity will not, it is
believed, manifest himself if any of the persons or articles required
for the ceremony are impure, e.g., if the pot-drum has been polluted
by the touch of a menstruating female. The Pulluvan, from whom a
drum was purchased for the Madras Museum, was very reluctant to part
with it, lest it should be touched by an impure woman. In addition
to the pot-drum, the Pulluvans play on a lute with snakes painted
on the reptile skin, which is used in lieu of parchment. The skin,
in a specimen which I acquired, is apparently that of the big lizard
Varanus bengalensis. The lute is played with a bow, to which a metal
bell is attached.
In the "Madras Census Report," 1871, [151] Surgeon-Major Cornish
states that there is a place near Vaisarpadi, close to Madras, in
which the worship of the living snakes draws crowds of votaries,
who make holiday excursions to the temple, generally on Sundays,
in the hope of seeing the snakes, which are preserved in the temple
grounds; and, he adds, probably as long as the desire of offspring is a
leading characteristic of the Indian people, so long will the worship
of the serpent, or of snake-stones, be a popular cult. He describes
further how, at Rajahmundry in the Telugu country, he came across
an old ant-hill by the side of a public road, on which was placed a
stone representing a cobra, and the ground all round was stuck over
with pieces of wood carved very rudely in the shape of a snake. These
were the offerings left by devotees at the abode taken up by an old
snake, who would occasionally come out of his hole, and feast on the
eggs and ghi (clarified butter) left for him by his adorers. Around
this place he saw many women who had come to pray at the shrine. If
they chanced to see the cobra, the omen was interpreted favourably,
and their prayers for progeny would be granted.
>Concerning snake worship in the Tamil country, Mr W. Francis writes
as follows [152]:--
"A vow is taken by childless wives to install a serpent
(nagapratishtai), if they are blessed with offspring. The
ceremony consists in having a figure of a serpent cut in a
stone slab, placing it in a well for six months, giving it life
(pranapratishtai) by reciting mantrams and performing other
ceremonies over it, and then setting it up under a pipal tree
(Ficus religiosa), which has been married to a margosa (Melia
Azadirachta). Worship, which consists mainly in going round the
tree 108 times, is then performed to it for the next forty-five
days. Similar circumambulations will also bring good luck in a
general way, if carried out subsequently."
It is further recorded by Mr F. R. Hemingway [153] that, "Brahmans
and the higher Vellalans think that children can be obtained by
worshipping the cobra. Vellalans and Kallans perform the worship on
a Friday. Among the Vellalans, this is generally after the Pongal
festival. The Vellalans make an old woman cry aloud in the backyard
that a sacrifice will be made to the cobra next day, and that they pray
it will accept the offering. At the time of sacrifice, cooked jaggery
(crude sugar) and rice, burning ghi in the middle of rice-flour,
and an egg, are offered to the cobra, and left in the backyard for
its acceptance. The Pallis annually worship the cobra by pouring milk
on an ant-hill, and sacrificing a fowl near it. Valaiyans, Pallans,
and Paraiyans sacrifice a fowl in their own backyards."
In the Tamil country, children whose birth is attributed to a vow
taken by childless mothers to offer a snake cut on a stone slab,
sometimes have a name bearing reference to snakes given to them,
i.e., Seshachalam, [154] Seshamma, Nagappa, or Nagamma. Naga, Nagasa,
or Nageswara, occurs as the name of a totemistic exogamous sept or
gotra of various classes in Ganjam and Vizagapatam. In the Odiya
caste of farmers in Ganjam, members of the Nagabonso sept claim to
be descendants of Nagamuni, the serpent rishi. Nagavadam (cobra's
hood) is the name of a subdivision of the Tamil Pallis, who wear an
ornament called nagavadam, representing a cobra, in the dilated lobes
of the ears.
Ant (i.e., white-ant, Termes) hills, which have been repeatedly
referred to in this chapter, are frequently inhabited by cobras,
and offerings of milk, fruit, and flowers are consequently made to
them on certain ceremonial occasions. Thus it is recorded, [155]
by the Rev. J. Cain that when he was living in Ellore Fort in the
Godavari district, in September, 1873, "a large crowd of people,
chiefly women and children, came in, and visited every white-ant
hill, poured upon each their offerings of milk, flowers, and fruit,
to the intense delight of all the crows in the neighbourhood. The
day was called the Nagula Chaturdhi--Chaturdhi, the fourth day of
the eighth lunar month--and was said to be the day when Vasuki,
Takshaka, and the rest of the thousand Nagulu were born to Kasyapa
Brahma by his wife Kadruva. [156] The other chief occasions when
these ant-hills are resorted to are when people are affected with
earache or pains in the eye, and certain skin diseases. They visit
the ant-hills, pour out milk, cold rice, fruit, etc., and carry away
part of the earth, which they apply to the troublesome member, and,
if they afterwards call in a Brahman to repeat a mantra or two,
they feel sure the complaint will soon vanish. Many parents first
cut their children's hair near one of these hillocks, and offer the
first fruits of the hair to the serpents residing there."
The colossal Jain figure of Gomatesvara, Gummatta, or Gomata Raya,
at Sravana Belgola in Mysore, [157] is represented as surrounded by
white-ant hills, from which snakes are emerging, and with a climbing
plant twining itself round the legs and arms.
On the occasion of the snake festival in the Telugu country, the Boya
women worship the Nagala Swami (snake god) by fasting, and pouring
milk into the holes of white-ant hills. By this a double object is
fulfilled. The ant-hill is a favourite dwelling of the cobra, and was,
moreover, the burial-place of Valmiki, from whom the Boyas claim to be
descended. Valmiki was the author of the Ramayana, and is believed to
have done penance for so long in one spot that a white-ant hill grew
up round him. On the Nagarapanchami day, Lingayats worship the image
of a snake made of earth from a snake's hole with offerings of milk,
rice, cocoanuts, flowers, etc. During the month Aswija, Lingayat
girls collect earth from ant-hills, and place it in a heap at the
village temple. Every evening they go there with wave-offerings, and
worship the heap. At the Dipavali festival, [158] the Gamallas (Telugu
toddy-drawers) bathe in the early morning, and go in wet clothes to an
ant-hill, before which they prostrate themselves, and pour a little
water into one of the holes. Round the hill they wind five turns of
cotton thread, and return home. Subsequently they come once more to the
ant-hill with a lamp made of flour paste. Carrying the light, they go
three or five times round the hill, and throw split pulse (Phaseolus
Mungo) into one of the holes. On the following morning they again go
to the hill, pour milk into it, and snap the threads wound round it.
The famous temple of Subramanya in South Canara is said to have
been in charge of the Subramanya Stanikas (temple servants), till
it was wrested from them by the Shivalli Brahmans. In former times,
the privilege of sticking a golden ladle into a heap of food piled
up in the temple on the Shasti day is said to have belonged to the
Stanikas. They also brought earth from an ant-hill on the previous
day. Food from the heap, and some of the earth, are received as sacred
articles by devotees who visit the sacred shrine.
At the Smasanakollai festival in honour of the goddess Ankalamma
at Malayanur, some thousands of people congregate at the temple. In
front of the stone idol is a large ant-hill, on which two copper idols
are placed, and a brass vessel is placed at the base of the hill,
to receive the various offerings.
At a wedding among the nomad Lambadis, the bride and bridegroom pour
milk into an ant-hill, and offer cocoanuts, milk, etc., to the snake
which lives therein. During the marriage ceremonies of the Dandasis
(village watchmen in Ganjam), a fowl is sacrificed at an ant-hill. At
a Bedar (Canarese cultivator) wedding, the earth from an ant-hill
is spread near five water-pots, and on it are scattered some paddy
(unhusked rice) and dhal (Cajanus indicus) seeds. The spot is visited
later on, and the seeds should have sprouted.
V