OMENS

In seeking for omens, Natives consult the so-called science of omens

or science of the five birds, and are guided by them. Selected omens

are always included in native calendars or panchangams.

To the quivering and throbbing of various parts of the body as omens,

repeated reference is made in the Hindu classics. Thus, in Kalidasa's

Sakuntala, King Dushyanta says: "This hermitage is tranquil, and yet

my arm throbs. Whence can there be any result from this in such a

place? But yet the gates of destiny are everywhere." Again, Sakuntala

says: "Alas! why does my right eye throb?" to which Gautami replies:

"Child, the evil be averted. May the tutelary deities of your husband's

family confer happy prospects!" In the Raghuvamsa, the statement occurs

that "the son of Paulastya, being greatly incensed, drove an arrow

deep into his right arm, which was throbbing, and which, therefore,

prognosticated his union with Sita." A quivering sensation in the

right arm is supposed to indicate marriage with a beautiful woman;

in the right eye some good luck.

During a marriage among the Telugu Tottiyans, who have settled in

the Tamil country, a red ram without blemish is sacrificed. It is

first sprinkled with water, and, if it shivers, this is considered

a good omen. It is recorded, [1] in connection with the legends of

the Badagas of the Nilgiris, that "in the heart of the Banagudi shola

(grove), not far from the Dodduru group of cromlechs, is an odd little

shrine to Karairaya, within which are a tiny cromlech, some sacred

water-worn stones, and sundry little pottery images representing

a tiger, a mounted man, and some dogs. These keep in memory, it is

said, a Badaga who was slain in combat with a tiger; and annually

a festival is held, at which new images are placed there, and vows

are paid. A Kurumba (jungle tribe) makes fire by friction, and burns

incense, throws sanctified water over the numerous goats brought to

be sacrificed, to see if they will shiver in the manner always held

necessary in sacrificed victims, and then slays, one after the other,

those which have shown themselves duly qualified."

In many villages, during the festival to the village deity, water is

poured over a sheep's back, and it is accepted as a good sign if it

shivers. "When the people are economical, they keep on pouring water

till it does shiver, to avoid the expense of providing a second victim

for sacrifice. But, where they are more scrupulous, if it does not

shiver, it is taken as a sign that the goddess will not accept it,

and it is taken away." [2]

Before the thieving Koravas set out on a predatory expedition, a goat

is decorated, and taken to a shrine. It is then placed before the idol,

which is asked whether the expedition will be successful. If the body

of the animal quivers, it is regarded as an answer in the affirmative;

if it does not, the expedition is abandoned.

If, in addition to quivering, the animal urinates, no better sign

could be looked for. Thieves though they are, the Koravas make it a

point of honour to pay for the goat used in the ceremony. It is said

that, in seeking omens from the quivering of an animal, a very liberal

interpretation is put on the slightest movement. It is recorded by

Bishop Whitehead [3] that, when an animal has been sacrificed to the

goddess Nukalamma at Coconada, its head is put before the shrine,

and water poured on it. If the mouth opens, it is accepted as a sign

that the sacrifice is accepted.

At the death ceremonies of the Idaiyans of Coimbatore, a cock is tied

to a sacrificial post, to which rice is offered. One end of a thread

is tied to the post, and the other end to a new cloth. The thread is

watched till it shakes, and then broken. The cock is then killed.

Of omens, both good and bad, in Malabar, the following comprehensive

list is given by Mr Logan [4]:--

"Good.--Crows, pigeons, etc., and beasts as deer, etc., moving

from left to right, and dogs and jackals moving inversely, and

other beasts found similarly and singly; wild crow, ruddy goose,

mungoose, goat, and peacock seen singly or in couples either at

the right or left. A rainbow seen on the right and left, or behind,

prognosticates good, but the reverse if seen in front. Buttermilk,

raw rice, puttalpira (Trichosanthes anguina, snake-gourd),

priyangu flower, honey, ghi (clarified butter); red cotton juice,

antimony sulphurate, metal mug, bell ringing, lamp, lotus, karuka

grass, raw fish, flesh, flour, ripe fruits, sweetmeats, gems,

sandalwood, elephants, pots filled with water, a virgin, a couple

of Brahmans, Rajas, respectable men, white flower, white yak tail,

[5] white cloth, and white horse. Chank shell (Turbinella rapa),

flagstaff, turban, triumphal arch, fruitful soil, burning fire,

elegant eatables or drinkables, carts with men in, cows with

their young, mares, bulls or cows with ropes tied to their necks,

palanquin, swans, peacock and crane warbling sweetly. Bracelets,

looking-glass, mustard, bezoar, any substance of white colour,

the bellowing of oxen, auspicious words, harmonious human voice,

such sounds made by birds or beasts, the uplifting of umbrellas,

hailing exclamations, sound of harp, flute, timbrel, tabor,

and other instruments of music, sounds of hymns of consecration

and Vedic recitations, gentle breeze all round at the time of

a journey.

"Bad.--Men deprived of their limbs, lame or blind, a corpse

or wearer of a cloth put on a corpse, coir (cocoanut fibre),

broken vessels, hearing of words expressive of breaking, burning,

destroying, etc.; the alarming cry of alas! alas! loud screams,

cursing, trembling, sneezing, the sight of a man in sorrow,

one with a stick, a barber, a widow, pepper, and other pungent

substances. A snake, cat, iguana (Varanus), blood-sucker (lizard),

or monkey passing across the road, vociferous beasts such as

jackals, dogs, and kites, loud crying from the east, buffalo,

donkey, or temple bull, black grains, salt, liquor, hide, grass,

dirt, faggots, iron, flowers used for funeral ceremonies, a eunuch,

ruffian, outcaste, vomit, excrement, stench, any horrible figure,

bamboo, cotton, lead, cot, stool or other vehicle carried with legs

upward, dishes, cups, etc., with mouth downwards, vessels filled

with live coals, which are broken and not burning, broomstick,

ashes, winnow, hatchet."

In the category of good omens among the Nayars of Travancore,

are placed the elephant, a pot full of water, sweetmeats, fruit,

fish, and flesh, images of gods, kings, a cow with its calf, married

women, tied bullocks, gold lamps, ghi, and milk. In the list of bad

omens come a donkey, broom, buffalo, untied bullock, barber, widow,

patient, cat, washerman. The worst of all omens is to allow a cat

to cross one's path. An odd number of Nayars, and an even number of

Brahmans, are good omens, the reverse being particularly bad. On the

Vinayakachaturthi day in the month of Avani, no man is allowed to

look at the rising moon, on penalty of incurring unmerited obloquy.

By the Pulayas of Travancore, it is considered lucky to see another

Pulaya, a Native Christian, an Izhuva with a vessel in the hand, a

cow behind, or a boat containing sacks of rice. On the other hand,

it is regarded as a very bad omen to be crossed by a cat, to see a

fight between animals, a person with a bundle of clothes, or to meet

people carrying steel instruments.

It is a good omen for the day if, when he gets up in the morning,

a man sees any of the following:--his wife's face, the lines on the

palm of his right hand, his face in a mirror, the face of a rich man,

the tail of a black cow, the face of a black monkey, or his rice

fields. There is a legend that Sita used to rise early, and present

herself, bathed and well dressed, before her lord Rama, so that he

might gaze on her face, and be lucky during the day. This custom is

carried out by all good housewives in Hindu families. A fair skinned

Paraiyan, or a dark skinned Brahman, should not, in accordance with

a proverb, be seen the first thing in the morning.

Hindus are very particular about catching sight of some auspicious

object on the morning of New Year's Day, as the effects of omens

seen on that occasion are believed to last throughout the year. Of

the Vishu festival, held in celebration of the New Year in Malabar,

the following account is given by Mr Gopal Panikkar. [6]

"Being the commencement of a new year, native superstition surrounds

it with a peculiarly solemn importance. It is believed that a

man's whole prosperity in life depends upon the nature, auspicious

or otherwise, of the first things that he happens to fix his eyes

upon on this particular morning. According to Nair, and even general

Hindu mythology, there are certain objects which possess an inherent

inauspicious character. For instance, ashes, firewood, oil, and a lot

of similar objects, are inauspicious ones, which will render him who

chances to notice them first fare badly in life for the whole year,

and their obnoxious effects will be removed only on his seeing holy

things, such as reigning princes, oxen, cows, gold, and such like,

on the morning of the next new year. The effects of the sight of

these various materials are said to apply even to the attainment

of objects by a man starting on a special errand, who happens for

the first time to look at them after starting. However, with this

view, almost every family religiously takes care to prepare the

most sightworthy objects on the new year morning. Therefore, on the

previous night, they prepare what is known as a kani. A small circular

bell-metal vessel is taken, and some holy objects are arranged inside

it. A grandha or old book made of palmyra leaves, a gold ornament,

a new-washed cloth, some 'unprofitably gay' flowers of the konna tree

(Cassia Fistula), a measure of rice, a so-called looking-glass made

of bell-metal, and a few other things, are all tastefully arranged

in the vessel, and placed in a prominent room inside the house. On

either side of this vessel, two brass or bell-metal lamps, filled

with cocoanut oil clear as diamond sparks, are kept burning, and a

small plank of wood, or some other seat, is placed in front of it. At

about five o'clock in the morning of the day, some one who has got

up first wakes the inmates, both male and female, of the house, and

takes them blindfolded, so that they may not gaze at anything else,

to the seat near the kani. The members are seated, one after another,

in the seat, and are then, and not till then, asked to open their eyes,

and carefully look at the kani. Then each is made to look at some

venerable member of the house, or sometimes a stranger even. This

over, the little playful urchins of the house fire small crackers

which they have bought for the occasion. The kani is then taken round

the place from house to house, for the benefit of the poor families,

which cannot afford to prepare such a costly adornment."

I gather further, in connection with the Vishu festival, that it is

the duty of every devout Hindu to see the village deity the first of

all things in the morning. For this purpose, many sleep within the

temple precincts, and those who sleep in their own houses are escorted

thither by those who have been the first to make their obeisance. Many

go to see the image with their eyes shut, and sometimes bound with

a cloth. [7]

If a person places the head towards the east when sleeping, he will

obtain wealth and health; if towards the south, a lengthening of life;

if towards the west, fame; if towards the north, sickness. The last

position, therefore, should be avoided. [8] In the Telugu country, when

a child is roused from sleep by a thunderclap, the mother, pressing

it to her breast, murmurs, "Arjuna Sahadeva." The invocation implies

the idea that thunder is caused by the Mahabharata heroes, Arjuna

and Sahadeva. [9] To dream of a temple car in motion, foretells the

death of a near relative. Night, but not day dreams, are considered

as omens for good or evil. Among those which are auspicious, may be

mentioned riding on a cow, bull, or elephant, entering a temple or

palace, a golden horse, climbing a mountain or tree, drinking liquor,

eating flesh, curds and rice, wearing white cloths, or jewelry set

with precious stones, being dressed in white cloths, and embracing

a woman, whose body is smeared with sandal paste. A person will be

cured of sickness if he dreams of Braahmans, kings, flowers, jewels,

women, or a looking-glass. Wealth is ensured by a dream that one

is bitten in the shade by a snake, or stung by a scorpion. One who

dreams that he has been bitten by a snake is considered to be proof

against snake-bite; and if he dreams of a cobra, his wife or some

near relative is believed to have conceived. Hindu wives believe that

to tell their husband's name, or pronounce it even in a dream, would

bring him to an untimely end. If a person has an auspicious dream,

he should get up and not go to sleep again. But, if the dream is of

evil omen, he should pray that he may be spared from its ill effects,

and may go to sleep again.

The arrival of a guest is foreshadowed by the hissing noise of the

oven, the slipping of a winnow during winnowing, or of a measure

when measuring rice. If one dines with a friend or relation on

Monday, Wednesday, Friday, or Saturday, it is well; if on a Tuesday,

ill-feeling will ensue; if on a Thursday, endless enmity; if on a

Sunday, hatred. While eating, one should face east, west, south,

or north, according as one wishes for long life, fame, to become

vainglorious, or for justice or truth. Evil is foreshadowed if a

light goes out during meals, or while some auspicious thing, such,

for example, as a marriage, is being discussed. A feast given to

the jungle Paliyans by some missionaries was marred at the outset

by the unfortunate circumstance that betel and tobacco were placed

by the side of the food, these articles being of evil omen as they

are placed in the grave with the dead. Chewing a single areca nut,

along with betel leaf secures vigour, two nuts are inauspicious,

three are excellent, and more bring indifferent luck. The basal

portion of the betel leaf must be rejected, as it produces disease;

the apical part, as it induces sin; and the midrib and veins, as they

destroy the intellect. A leaf on which chunam (lime) has been kept,

should be avoided, as it may shorten life.

Before the Koyis shift their quarters, they consult the omens, to see

whether the change will be auspicious or not. Sometimes the hatching

of a clutch of eggs provides the answer, or four grains of four kinds

of seed, representing the prosperity of men, cattle, sheep, and land,

are put on a heap of ashes under a man's bed. Any movement among them

during the night is a bad omen. [10]

When a Kondh starts on a shooting expedition, if he first meets an

adult female, married or unmarried, he will return home, and ask a

child to tell the females to keep out of the way. He will then make

a fresh start, and, if he meets a female, will wave his hand to her

as a sign that she must keep clear of him. The Kondh believes that,

if he sees a female, he will not come across animals in the jungle

to shoot. If a woman is in her menses, her husband, brothers, and

sons living under the same roof, will not go out shooting for the

same reason.

It is noted by Mr F. Fawcett [11] that it is considered unlucky by

the Koravas, when starting on a dacoity or housebreaking, "to see

widows, pots of milk, dogs urinating, a man leading a bull, or a

bull bellowing. On the other hand, it is downright lucky when a bull

bellows at the scene of the criminal operation. To see a man goading

a bull is a good omen when starting, and a bad one at the scene. The

eighteenth day of the Tamil month, Avani, is the luckiest day of

all for committing crimes. A successful criminal exploit on this day

ensures good luck throughout the year. Sundays, which are auspicious

for weddings, are inauspicious for crimes. Mondays, Wednesdays,

and Saturdays are unlucky until noon for starting out from home. So,

too, is the day after new moon." Fridays are unsuitable for breaking

into the houses of Brahmans or Komatis, as they may be engaged in

worshipping Ankalamma, to whom the day is sacred.

Some Boyas in the Bellary district enjoy inam (rent free) lands, in

return for propitiating the village goddesses by a rite called bhuta

bali, which is intended to secure the prosperity of the village. The

Boya priest gets himself shaved at about midnight, sacrifices a sheep

or buffalo, mixes its blood with rice, and distributes the rice thus

prepared in small balls throughout the village. When he starts on this

business, all the villagers bolt their doors, as it is not considered

auspicious to see him then.

When a student starts for the examination hall, he will, if he sees

a widow or a Brahman, retrace his steps, and start again after the

lapse of a few minutes. Meeting two Brahmans would indicate good luck,

and he would proceed on his way full of hope.

If, when a person is leaving his house, the head or feet strike

accidentally against the threshold, he should not go out, as it

forebodes some impending mischief. Sometimes, when a person returns

home from a distance, especially at night, he is kept standing at the

door, and, after he has washed his hands and feet, an elderly female

or servant of the house brings a shallow plate full of water mixed

with lime juice and chunam (lime), with some chillies and pieces

of charcoal floating on it. The plate is carried three times round

the person, and the contents are then thrown into the street without

being seen by the man. He then enters the house. If a person knocks at

the door of a house in the night once, twice, or thrice, it will not

be opened. If the knock is repeated a fourth time, the door will be

opened without fear, for the evil spirit is said to knock only thrice.

A tickling sensation in the sole of the right foot foretells that

the person has to go on a journey. The omens are favourable if any

of the following are met with by one who is starting on a journey,

or special errand:--

Married woman.

Virgin.

Prostitute.

Two Brahmans.

Playing of music.

One carrying musical instruments.

Money.

Fruit or flowers.

A light, or clear blazing fire.

Umbrella.

Cooked food.

Milk or curds.

Cow.

Deer.

Corpse.

Two fishes.

Recital of Vedas.

Sound of drum or horn.

Spirituous liquor.

Bullock.

Mutton.

Precious stones.

One bearing a silver armlet.

Sandalwood.

Rice.

Elephant.

Horse.

Pot full of water.

Married woman carrying a water-pot from a tank.

Pot of toddy.

Black monkey.

Dog.

Royal eagle.

Parrot.

Honey.

Hearing kind words.

A Gazula Balija with his pile of bangles on his back.

If, on similar occasions, a person comes across any of the following,

the omens are unfavourable:--

Widow.

Lightning.

Fuel.

Smoky fire.

Hare.

Crow flying from right to left.

Snake.

New pot.

Blind man.

Lame man.

Sick man.

Salt.

Tiger.

Pot of oil.

Leather.

Dog barking on a housetop.

Bundle of sticks.

Buttermilk.

Empty vessel.

A quarrel.

Man with dishevelled hair.

Oilman.

Leper.

Mendicant.

Sometimes people leave their house, and sleep elsewhere on the

night preceding an inauspicious day, on which a journey is to be

made. Unlucky days for starting on a journey are vara-sulai, or days

on which Siva's trident (sula) is kept on the ground. The direction

in which it lies, varies according to the day of the week. For

example, Sunday before noon is a bad time to start towards the west,

as the trident is turned that way. It is said to be unlucky to go

westward on Friday or Sunday, eastward on Monday or Saturday, north

on Tuesday or Wednesday, south on Thursday. A journey begun on Tuesday

is liable to result in loss by thieves or fire at home. Loss, too, is

likely to follow a journey begun on Saturday, and sickness a start on

Sunday. Wednesday and Friday are both propitious days, and a journey

begun on either with a view to business will be lucrative. The worst

days for travelling are Tuesday, Saturday, and Sunday. [12] On more

than one occasion, a subordinate in my office overstayed his leave

on the ground that his guru (spiritual preceptor) told him that the

day on which he should have returned was an unlucky one for a journey.

If a traveller sees a hare on his way, he may be sure that he will

not succeed in the object of his journey. If, however, the hare

touches him, and he does not at once turn back and go home, he is

certain to meet with a great misfortune. There is an authority for

this superstition in the Ramayana. After Rama had recovered Sita and

returned to Ayodha, he was informed that, whilst a washerman and his

wife were quarrelling, the former had exclaimed that he was not such

a fool as the king had been to take back his wife after she had been

carried away by a stranger. Rama thought this over, and resolved to

send his wife into the forest. His brother, Lutchmana, was to drive

her there, and then to leave her alone. On their way they met a hare,

and Sita, who was ignorant of the purpose of the journey, begged

Lutchmana to return, as the omen was a bad one. [13]

If a dog scratches its body, a traveller will fall ill; if it lies down

and wags its tail, some disaster will follow. To one proceeding on a

journey, a dog crossing the path from right to left is auspicious. But,

if it gets on his person or his feet, shaking its ears, the journey

will be unlucky.

A person should postpone an errand on which he is starting, if he

sees a cobra or rat-snake. In a recent judicial case, a witness gave

evidence to the effect that he was starting on a journey, and when he

had proceeded a short way, a snake crossed the road. This being an

evil omen, he went back and put off his journey till the following

day. On his way he passed through a village in which some men had

been arrested for murder, and found that one of two men, whom he had

promised to accompany and had gone on without him, had been murdered.

Sneezing once is a good sign; twice, a bad sign. When a child sneezes,

those near it usually say "dirgayus" (long life), or "sathayus" (a

hundred years). The rishi or sage Markandeya, who was remarkable for

his austerities and great age, is also known as Dirgayus. Adults who

sneeze pronounce the name of some god, the common expression being

"Srimadrangam." When a Badaga baby is born, it is a good omen if

the father sneezes before the umbilical cord has been cut, and an

evil one if he sneezes after its severance. In the Teluga country it

is believed that a child who sneezes on a winnowing fan, or on the

door-frame, will meet with misfortune unless balls of boiled rice are

thrown over it; and a man who sneezes during his meal, especially at

night, will also be unlucky unless water is sprinkled over his face,

and he is made to pronounce his own name, and that of his birthplace

and his patron deity. [14]

Gaping is an indication that evil spirits have effected an entrance

into the body. Hence many Brahmans, when they gape, snap their fingers

as a preventive. [15] When a great man yawns, his sleep is promoted by

all the company with him snapping their fingers with great vehemence,

and making a singular noise. It was noted by Alberuni [16] that Hindus

"spit out and blow their noses without any respect for the elder ones

present, and crack their lice before them. They consider the crepitus

ventris as a good omen, sneezing as a bad omen." In Travancore, a

courtier must cover the mouth with the right hand, lest his breath

should pollute the king or other superior. Also, at the temples,

a low-caste man must wear a bandage over his nose and mouth, so

that his breath may not pollute the idols. [17] A Kudumi woman in

Travancore, at the menstrual period, should stand at a distance of

seven feet, closing her mouth and nostrils with the palm of her hand,

as her breath would have a contaminating effect. Her shadow, too,

should not fall on any one.

A Kumbara potter, when engaged in the manufacture of the pot or

household deity for the Kurubas, should cover his mouth with a bandage,

so that his breath may not defile it. The Koragas of South Canara are

said to be regarded with such intense loathing that, up to quite recent

times, one section of them called Ande or pot Kurubas, continually wore

a pot suspended from their necks, into which they were compelled to

spit, being so utterly unclean as to be prohibited from even spitting

on the highway. [18] In a note on the Paraiyans (Pariahs), Sonnerat,

writing in the eighteenth century, [19] says that, when drinking,

they put the cup to their lips, and their fingers to their mouths,

in such a way that they are defiled with the spittle. A Brahman may

take snuff, but he should not smoke a cheroot or cigar. When once

the cheroot has touched his lips, it is defiled by the saliva, and,

therefore, cannot be returned to his mouth. [20]

At the festivals of the village deities in the Telugu country,

an unmarried Madiga (Telugu Pariah) woman, called Matangi [21]

(the name of a favourite goddess) spits upon the people assembled,

and touches them with her stick. Her touch and saliva are believed to

purge all uncleanliness of body and soul, and are said to be invited

by men who would ordinarily scorn to approach her. At a festival

called Kathiru in honour of a village goddess in the Cochin State,

the Pulayans (agrestic slaves) go in procession to the temple,

and scatter packets of palm-leaves containing handfuls of paddy

(unhusked rice) rolled up in straw among the crowds of spectators

along the route. "The spectators, both young and old, scramble to

obtain as many of the packets as possible, and carry them home. They

are then hung in front of the houses, for it is believed that their

presence will help to promote the prosperity of the family, until

the festival comes round again next year. The greater the number of

trophies obtained for a family by its members, the greater, it is

believed, will be the prosperity of the family." [22]

In a note on the Kulwadis or Chalavadis of the Hassan district in

Mysore, Captain J. S. F. Mackenzie writes [23] as follows:--

"Every village has its Holigiri--as the quarters inhabited by

the Holiars (formerly agrestic serfs) is called--outside the

village boundary hedge. This, I thought, was because they are

considered an impure race, whose touch carries defilement with

it. Such is the reason generally given by the Brahman, who refuses

to receive anything directly from the hands of a Holiar, and yet

the Brahmans consider great luck will wait upon them if they can

manage to pass through the Holigiri without being molested. To

this the Holiars have a strong objection, and, should a Brahman

attempt to enter their quarters, they turn out in a body and

slipper him, in former times it is said to death. Members of

the other castes may come as far as the door, but they must not

enter the house, for that would bring the Holiar bad luck. If,

by chance, a person happens to get in, the owner takes care to

tear the intruder's cloth, tie up some salt in one corner of it,

and turn him out. This is supposed to neutralise all the good

luck which might have accrued to the trespasser, and avert any

evil which might have befallen the owner of the house."

The Telugu Tottiyans, who have settled in the Tamil country,

are said by Mr F. R. Hemingway not to recognise the superiority of

Brahmans. They are supposed to possess unholy powers, especially the

Nalla (black) Gollas, and are much dreaded by their neighbours. They

do not allow any stranger to enter their villages with shoes on,

or on horseback, or holding up an umbrella, lest their god should be

offended. It is believed that, if any one breaks this rule, he will

be visited with illness or some other punishment.

I am informed by Mr S. P. Rice that, when smallpox breaks out in

a Hindu house, it is a popular belief that to allow strangers or

unclean persons to go into the house, to observe festivals, and even

to permit persons who have combed their hair, bathed in oil, or had

a shave, to see the patient, would arouse the anger of the goddess,

and bring certain death to the sick person. Strangers, and young

married women are not admitted to, and may not approach the house,

as they may have had sexual intercourse on the previous day.

It is believed that the sight or breath of Muhammadans, just after

they have said their prayers at a mosque, will do good to children

suffering from various disorders. For this purpose, women carry or

take their children, and post themselves at the entrance to a mosque

at the time when worshippers leave it. Most of them are Hindus, but

sometimes poor Eurasians may be seen there. I once received a pathetic

appeal from a Eurasian woman in Malabar, imploring me to lay my hands

on the head of her sick child, so that its life might be spared.

In teaching the Grandha alphabet to children, they are made to

repeat the letter "ca" twice quickly without pausing, as the word

"ca" means "die." In Malabar, the instruction of a Tiyan child in

the alphabet is said by Mr F. Fawcett to begin on the last day of

the Dasara festival in the fifth year of its life. A teacher, who

has been selected with care, or a lucky person, holds the child's

right hand, and makes it trace the letters of the Malayalam alphabet

in rice spread on a plate. The forefinger, which is the one used in

offering water to the souls of the dead, and in other parts of the

death ceremonies, must not be used for tracing the letters, but is

placed above the middle finger, merely to steady it. For the same

reason, a doctor, when making a pill, will not use the forefinger. To

mention the number seven in Telugu is unlucky, because the word (yedu)

is the same as that for weeping. Even a treasury officer, who is an

enlightened university graduate, in counting money, will say six and

one. The number seven is, for the same reason, considered unlucky by

the Koravas, and a house-breaking expedition should not consist of

seven men. Should this, however, be unavoidable, a fiction is indulged

in of making the house-breaking implement the eighth member of the

gang. [24] In Tamil the word ten is considered inauspicious, because,

on the tenth day after the death of her husband, a widow removes the

emblems of married life. Probably for this reason, the offspring of

Kallan polyandrous marriages style themselves the children of eight

and two, not ten fathers. Labha is a Sanskrit word meaning profit or

gain, and has its equivalent in all the vernacular languages. Hindus,

when counting, commence with this word instead of the word signifying

one. In like manner, Muhammadans use the word Bismillah or Burketh,

apparently as an invocation like the medicinal Rx (Oh! Jupiter,

aid us). When the number a hundred has been counted, they again

begin with the substitute for one, and this serves as a one for the

person who is keeping the tally. Oriya merchants say labho (gain)

instead of eko (one), when counting out the seers of rice for the

elephants' rations. The people of the Oriya Zemindaris often use,

not the year of the Hindu cycle or Muhammadan era, but the year of

the reigning Raja of Puri. The first year of the reign is called, not

one, but labho. The counting then proceeds in the ordinary course,

but, with the exception of the number ten, all numbers ending with

seven or nothing are omitted. This is called the onko. Thus, if a

Raja has reigned two and a half years, he would be said to be in the

twenty-fifth onko, seven, seventeen and twenty being omitted. [25]

For chewing betel, two other ingredients are necessary, viz., areca

nuts and chunam (lime). For some reason, Tamil Vaishnavas object to

mentioning the last by name, and call it moonavadu, or the third.

At a Brahman funeral, the sons and nephews of the deceased go

round the corpse, and untie their kudumi (hair knot), leaving

part thereof loose, tie up the rest into a small bunch, and slap

their thighs. Consequently, when children at play have their kudumi

partially tied, and slap their thighs, they are invariably scolded

owing to the association with funerals. Among all Hindu classes it

is considered as an insult to the god to bathe or wash the feet on

returning home from worship at a temple, and, by so doing, the punyam

(good) would be lost. Moreover, washing the feet at the entrance to a

home is connected with funerals, inasmuch as, on the return from the

burning-ground, a mourner may not enter the house until he has washed

his feet. The Badagas of the Nilgiris hold an agricultural festival

called devve, which should on no account be pronounced duvve, which

means burning-ground.

A bazaar shop-keeper who deals in colours will not sell white paint

after the lamps have been lighted. In like manner, a cloth-dealer

refuses to sell black cloth, and the dealer in hardware to sell nails,

needles, etc., lest poverty should ensue. Digging operations with a

spade should be stopped before the lamps are lighted. A betel-vine

cultivator objects to entering his garden or plucking a leaf after

the lighting of the lamps; but, if some leaves are urgently required,

he will, before plucking them, pour water from a pot at the foot of

the tree on which the vine is growing.

Arrack (liquor) vendors consider it unlucky to set their measures

upside down. Some time ago, the Excise Commissioner informs me,

the Madras Excise Department had some aluminium measures made for

measuring arrack in liquor shops. It was found that the arrack corroded

the aluminium, and the measures soon leaked. The shop-keepers were

told to turn their measures upside down, in order that they might

drain. This they refused to do, as it would bring bad luck to their

shops. New measures with round bottoms, which would not stand up, were

evolved. But the shop-keepers began to use rings of indiarubber from

soda-water bottles, to make them stand. An endeavour was then made to

induce them to keep their measures inverted by hanging them on pegs,

so that they would drain without being turned upside down. The case

illustrates how important a knowledge of the superstitions of the

people is in the administration of their affairs. Even so trifling an

innovation as the introduction of a new arrangement for maintaining

tension in the warp during the process of weaving gave rise a few

years ago to a strike among the hand-loom weavers at the Madras School

of Arts.

When a Paidi (agriculturists and weavers in Ganjam) is seriously ill,

a male or female sorcerer (bejjo or bejjano) is consulted. A square

divided into sixteen compartments is drawn on the floor with rice

flour. In each compartment are placed a leaf-cup of Butea frondosa,

a quarter-anna piece, and some food. Seven small bows and arrows are

set up in front thereof in two lines. On one side of the square, a big

cup filled with food is placed. A fowl is sacrificed, and its blood

poured thrice round this cup. Then, placing water in a vessel near

the cup, the sorcerer or sorceress throws into it a grain of rice,

giving out at the same time the name of some god or goddess. If the

rice sinks, it is believed that the illness is caused by the anger

of the deity, whose name has been mentioned. If the rice floats, the

names of various deities are called out, until a grain sinks. When

selecting a site for a new dwelling hut, the Maliah Savaras place

on the proposed site as many grains of rice in pairs as there are

married members in the family, and cover them over with a cocoanut

shell. They are examined on the following day, and, if they are all

there, the site is considered auspicious. Among the Kapu Savaras,

the grains of rice are folded up in leaflets of the bael tree (AEgle

Marmelos), and placed in a split bamboo.

It is recorded by Gloyer [26] that "when a Domb (Vizagapatam hill

tribe) house has to be built, the first thing is to select a favourable

spot, to which few evil spirits (dumas) resort. At this spot they put,

in several places, three grains of rice arranged in such a way that

the two lower grains support the upper one. To protect the grains,

they pile up stones round them, and the whole is lightly covered

with earth. When, after some time, they find on inspection that the

upper grain has fallen off, the spot is regarded as unlucky, and

must not be used. If the position of the grains remains unchanged,

the omen is regarded as auspicious. They drive in the first post,

which must have a certain length, say of five, seven, or nine ells,

the ell being measured from the tip of the middle finger to the

elbow. The post is covered on the top with rice straw, leaves, and

shrubs, so that birds may not foul it, which would be an evil omen."

In Madras, a story is current with reference to the statue of Sir

Thomas Munro, that he seized upon all the rice depots, and starved

the people by selling rice in egg-shells, at one shell for a rupee. To

punish him, the Government erected the statue in an open place without

a canopy, so that the birds of the air might insult him by polluting

his face. In the Bellary district, the names Munrol and Munrolappa

are common, and are given in hope that the boy may attain the same

celebrity as the former Governor of Madras. (I once came across

a Telugu cultivator, who rejoiced in the name of Curzon). One of

Sir Thomas Munro's good qualities was that, like Rama and Rob Roy,

his arms reached to his knees, or, in other words, he possessed the

quality of an Ajanubahu, which is the heritage of kings, or those

who have blue blood in them.

In a case of dispute between two Koravas, [27] "the decision is

sometimes arrived at by means of an ordeal. An equal quantity of rice

is placed in two pots of equal weight, having the same quantity of

water, and there is an equal quantity of fire-wood. The judges satisfy

themselves most carefully as to quantity, weights, and so on. The

water is boiled, and the man whose rice boils first is declared to be

the winner of the dispute. The loser has to recoup the winner all his

expenses. It sometimes happens that both pots boil at the same time;

then a coin is to be picked out of a pot containing boiling oil."

At one of the religious ceremonies of the Koravas, offerings of

boiled rice (pongal) are made to the deity, Poleramma, by fasting

women. The manner in which the boiling food bubbles over from the

cooking-pot is eagerly watched, and accepted as an omen for good or

evil. A festival called Pongal is observed by Hindus on the first day

of the Tamil month Tai, and derives its name from the fact that rice

boiled in milk is offered to propitiate the Sun God.

Before the ceremony of walking through fire [28] (burning embers) at

Nidugala on the Nilgiris, the omens are taken by boiling two pots of

milk, side by side, on two hearths. If the milk overflows uniformly

on all sides, the crops will be abundant for all the villages. But,

if it flows over on one side only, there will be plentiful crops for

villages on that side only. For boiling the milk, a light obtained by

friction must be used. After the milk-boiling ceremonial, the pujari

(priest), tying bells on his legs, approaches the fire-pit, carrying

milk freshly drawn from a cow, which has calved for the first time,

and flowers of Rhododendron, Leucas, or jasmine. After doing puja

(worship), he throws the flowers on the embers, and they should remain

unscorched for a few seconds. He then pours some of the milk over

the embers, and no hissing sound should be produced. The omens being

propitious, he walks over the glowing embers, followed by a Udaya [29]

and the crowd of celebrants, who, before going through the ordeal,

count the hairs on their feet. If any are singed, it is a sign of

approaching ill-fortune, or even death.

It is recorded by the Rev. J. Cain [30] that, when the Koyis of the

Godaavari district determine to appease the goddess of smallpox or

cholera, they erect a pandal (booth) outside their village under a

nim tree (Melia Azadirachta). They make the image of a woman with

earth from a white-ant hill, tie a cloth or two round it, hang a

few peacock's feathers round its neck, and place it under the pandal

on a three-legged stool made from the wood of the silk-cotton tree

(Cochlospermum Gossypium). They then bring forward a chicken, and

try to persuade it to eat some of the grains which they have thrown

before the image, requesting the goddess to inform them whether she

will leave their village or not. If the chicken picks up some of

the grains, they regard it as a most favourable omen; but, if not,

their hearts are filled with dread of the continued anger of the

goddess. At the Bhudevi Panduga, or festival of the earth goddess,

according to Mr F. R. Hemingway, the Koyis set up a stone beneath

a Terminalia tomentosa tree, which is thus dedicated to the goddess

Kodalamma. Each worshipper brings a cock to the priest, who holds it

over grains of rice, which have been sprinkled before the goddess. If

the bird pecks at the rice, good luck is ensured for the coming year,

whilst, if perchance the bird pecks three times, the offerer of that

particular bird can scarcely contain himself for joy. If the bird

declines to touch the grains, ill-luck is sure to visit the owner's

house during the ensuing year.

Concerning a boundary oath in the Mulkangiri taluk of Vizagapatam,

Mr C. A. Henderson writes to me as follows:--

"The pujari (priest) levelled a piece of ground about a foot

square, and smeared it with cow-dung. The boundary was marked with

rice-flour and turmeric, and a small heap of rice and cow-dung

was left in the middle. A sword was laid across the heap. The

pujari touched the rice-flour line with the tips of his fingers,

and then pressed his knuckles on the same place, thus leaving an

exit on the south side. He then held a chicken over the central

heap, and muttered some mantrams. The chicken pecked at the rice,

and an egg was placed on the heap. The chicken then pecked at

the rice again. The ceremony then waited for another party, who

performed a similar ceremony. There was some amusement because

their chickens would not eat. The chickens were decapitated, and

their heads placed in the square. The eggs were then broken. It

was raining, and there was a resulting puddle of cow-dung,

chicken's blood, egg, and rice, of which the representatives of

each party took a portion, and eat it, or pretended to do so,

stating to whom the land belonged. There is said to be a belief

that, if a man swears falsely, he will die."

Though not bearing on the subject of omens, some further boundary

ceremonies may be placed under reference. At Sattamangalam, in the

South Arcot district, the festival of the goddess Mariamma is said

to be crowned by the sacrifice at midnight of a goat, the entrails

of which are hung round the neck of the Toti (scavenger), who then

goes, stark naked, save for this one adornment, round all the village

boundaries. [31]

It is recorded by Bishop Whitehead [32] that, in some parts of the

Tamil country, e.g., in the Trichinopoly district, at the ceremony for

the propitiation of the village boundary goddess, a priest carries

a pot containing boiled rice and the blood of a lamb which has been

sacrificed to the boundary stone, round which he runs three times. The

third time he throws the pot over his shoulder on to another smaller

stone, which stands at the foot of the boundary stone. The pot is

dashed to pieces, and the rice and blood scatter over the two stones

and all round them. The priest then goes away without looking back,

followed by the crowd of villagers in dead silence. In the Cuddapah

district, when there is a boundary dispute in a village, an image

of the goddess Gangamma is placed in the street, and left there for

two days. The head of a buffalo and several sheep are offered to her,

and the blood is allowed to run into the gutter. The goddess is then

worshipped, and she is implored to point out the correct boundary. [33]

In Mysore, if there is a dispute as to the village boundaries, the

Holeya [34] Kuluvadi is believed to be the only person competent to

take the oath as to how the boundary ought to run. The old custom for

settling such disputes is thus described by Captain J. S. F. Mackenzie:

[35]

"The Kuluvadi, carrying on his head a ball made of the village

earth, in the centre of which is placed some earth, passes

along the boundary. If he has kept the proper line, everything

goes well, but, should he, by accident even, go beyond his own

proper boundary, then the ball of earth, of its own accord,

goes to pieces. The Kuluvadi is said to die within fifteen days,

and his house becomes a ruin. Such is the popular belief."

Some years ago Mr H. D. Taylor was called on to settle a boundary

dispute between two villages in Jeypore under the following

circumstances. As the result of a panchayat (council meeting), the

men of one village had agreed to accept the boundary claimed by the

other party if the head of their village walked round the boundary and

eat earth at intervals, provided that no harm came to him within six

months. The man accordingly perambulated the boundary eating earth,

and a conditional order of possession was given. Shortly afterwards the

man's cattle died, one of his children died of smallpox, and finally

he himself died within three months. The other party then claimed

the land on the ground that the earth-goddess had proved him to have

perjured himself. It was urged in defence that the man had been made

to eat earth at such frequent intervals that he contracted dysentery,

and died from the effects of earth-eating. [36]

When the time for the annual festival of the tribal goddess of the

Kuruvikkarans (Marathi-speaking beggars) draws nigh, the headman or

an elder piles up Vigna Catiang seeds in five small heaps. He then

decides in his mind whether there is an odd or even number of seeds

in the majority of heaps. If, when the seeds are counted, the result

agrees with his forecast, it is taken as a sign of the approval of

the goddess, and arrangements for the festival are made. Otherwise

it is abandoned for the year.

At the annual festival of Chaudeswari, the tribal goddess of Devanga

weavers, the priest tries to balance a long sword on its point on

the edge of the mouth of a pot. A lime fruit is placed in the region

of the navel of the idol, who should throw it down spontaneously. A

bundle of betel leaves is cut across with a knife, and the cut ends

should unite. If the omens are favourable, a lamp made of rice-flour

is lighted, and pongal (boiled rice) offered to it.

It is recorded by Canter Visscher [37] that, in the building of a house

in Malabar, the carpenters open three or four cocoanuts, spilling the

juice as little as possible, and put some tips of betel leaves into

them. From the way these float on the liquid they foretell whether

the house will be lucky or unlucky, whether it will stand for a long

or short period, and whether another will ever be erected on its site.

Korava women, if their husbands are absent on a criminal expedition

long enough to arouse apprehension of danger, pull a long piece out

of a broom, and tie to one end of it several small pieces dipped in

oil. If the stick floats in water, all is well; but, should it sink,

two of the women start at once to find the men. [38]

In the village of Chakibunda in the Cuddapah district, there is a pool

of water at the foot of a hill. Those who are desirous of getting

children, wealth, etc., go there and pour oil into the water. The

oil is said not to float as is usual in greasy bubbles, but to sink

and never rise. They also offer betel leaves, on which turmeric and

kunkumam have been placed. If these leaves sink, and after some time

reappear without the turmeric and kunkumam, but with the marks of

nails upon them, the person offering them will gain his wishes. The

contents of the leaves, and the oil, are supposed to be consumed by

some divine being at the bottom of the pool. [39] At Madicheruvu, in

the Cuddapah district, there is a small waterfall in the midst of a

jungle, which is visited annually by a large number of pilgrims. Those

who are anxious to know if their sins are forgiven stand under the

fall. If they are acceptable the water falls on their heads, but,

if they have some great guilt weighing on them, the water swerves on

one side, and refuses to be polluted by contact with the sinner. [40]

Among the Vadas (Telugu fishermen) the Mannaru is an important

individual who not only performs worship, but is consulted on many

points. If a man does not secure good catches of fish, he goes to

the Mannaru to ascertain the cause of his bad luck. The Mannaru

holds in his hand a string on which a stone is tied, and invokes

various gods and goddesses by name. Every time a name is mentioned,

the stone either swings to and fro like a pendulum, or performs a

circular movement. If the former occurs, it is a sign that the deity

whose name has been pronounced is the cause of the misfortune, and

must be propitiated in a suitable manner.

The Nomad Bauris or Bawariyas, who commit robberies and manufacture

counterfeit coin, keep with them a small quantity of wheat and sandal

seeds in a tin or brass case, which they call devakadana or god's

grain, and a tuft of peacock's feathers. They are very superstitious,

and do not embark on any enterprise without first ascertaining by

omens whether it will be attended with success or not. This they do

by taking at random a small quantity of grains out of the devakadana,

and counting the number thereof, the omen being considered good or bad

according as the number is odd or even. [41] A gang of Donga Dasaris,

before starting on a thieving expedition, proceed to the jungle near

their village in the early part of the night, worship their favourite

goddesses, Huligavva and Ellamma, and sacrifice a sheep or fowl before

them. They place one of their turbans on the head of the animal as

soon as its head falls on the ground. If the turban turns to the right

it is considered a good sign, the goddess having permitted them to

proceed on the expedition; if to the left they return home. Hanuman

(the monkey god) is also consulted as to such expeditions. They go

to a Hanuman temple, and, after worshipping him, garland him with a

wreath of flowers. The garland hangs on both sides of the neck. If any

of the flowers on the right side drop down first, it is regarded as

a permission granted by the god to start on a plundering expedition;

and, conversely, an expedition is never undertaken if any flower

happens to drop from the left side first. [42] The Kallans are said

by Mr F. S. Mullaly [43] to consult the deity before starting on

depredations. Two flowers, the one red and the other white, are placed

before the idol, a symbol of their god Kalla Alagar. The white flower

is the emblem of success. A child of tender years is told to pluck a

petal of one of the two flowers, and the success of the undertaking

rests upon the choice made by the child. The Pulluvan astrologers of

Malabar sometimes calculate beforehand the result of a project in which

they are engaged, by placing before the god two bouquets of flowers,

one red, the other white, of which a child picks out one with its eyes

closed. Selection of the white bouquet predicts auspicious results,

of the red the reverse. In the same way, when the Kammalans (Tamil

artisans) appoint their Anjivittu Nattamaikkaran to preside over them,

five men selected from each of the five divisions meet at the temple

of the caste goddess, Kamakshi Amman. The names of the five men are

written on five slips of paper, which, together with some blank slips,

are thrown before the shrine of the goddess. A child, taken at random

from the assembled crowd, is made to pick up the slips, and he whose

name turns up first is proclaimed Anjivittu Nattamaikkaran.

Eclipses are regarded as precursors of evil, which must, if possible,

be averted. Concerning the origin thereof, according to tradition in

Malabar, Mr Gopal Panikkar writes as follows [44]:--

"Tradition says that, when an eclipse takes place, Rahu the huge

serpent is devouring the sun or moon, as the case may be. An

eclipse being thus the decease of one of those heavenly bodies,

people must, of necessity, observe pollution for the period during

which the eclipse lasts. When the monster spits out the body, the

eclipse is over. Food and drink taken during an eclipse possess

poisonous properties, and people therefore abstain from eating

and drinking until the eclipse is over. They bathe at the end of

the eclipse, so as to get rid of the pollution. Any one shutting

himself up from exposure may be exempted from this obligation to

take a bath."

Deaths from drowning are not unknown in Madras at times of eclipse,

when Hindus bathe in the sea, and get washed away by the surf. It

is said [45] that, before an eclipse, the people prepare their

drums, etc., to frighten the giant, lest he should eat up the moon

entirely. Images of snakes are offered to the deity on days of eclipse

by Brahmans on whose star day the eclipse falls, to appease the wrath

of the terrible Rahu. It is noted by Mr S. M. Natesa Sastri [46]

that "the eclipse must take place on some asterism or other, and,

if that asterism happens to be that in which any Hindu was born,

he has to perform some special ceremonies to absolve himself from

impending evil. He makes a plate of gold or silver, or of palm leaf,

according to his means, and ties it on his forehead with Sanskrit

verses inscribed on it. He sits with this plate for some time, performs

certain ceremonies, bathes with the plate untied, and presents it to

a Brahman with some fee, ranging from four annas to several thousands

of rupees. The belief that an eclipse is a calamity to the sun or

moon is such a strong Hindu belief, that no marriage takes place in

the month in which an eclipse falls."

I gather [47] that, "during an eclipse, many of the people retire into

their houses, and remain behind closed doors until the evil hour has

passed. The time is in all respects inauspicious, and no work begun or

completed during this period can meet with success; indeed, so great

is the dread, that no one would think of initiating any important work

at this time. More especially is it fatal to women who are pregnant,

for the evil will fall upon the unborn babe, and, in cases of serious

malformation or congenital lameness, the cause is said to be that the

mother looked on an eclipse. Women, therefore, not only retire into

the house, but, in order that they may be further protected from the

evil, they burn horn shavings. The evils of an eclipse are not limited

to human beings, but cattle and crops also need protection from the

malignant spirits which are supposed to be abroad. In order that the

cattle may be preserved, they are as far as possible taken indoors,

and especially those which have young calves; and, to make assurance

doubly sure, their horns are smeared with chunam (lime). The crops

are protected by procuring ashes from the potter's field, which seem

to be specially potent against evil spirits. With these ashes images

are made, and placed on the four sides of the field. Comets, too,

are looked upon as omens of evil."

When a person is about to occupy a new house, he takes particular care

to see that the planet Venus does not face him as he enters it. With

this star before him, he sometimes postpones the occupation, or, if

he is obliged to enter, he reluctantly does so through the back-door.

On the day of the capture of Seringaptam, which, being the last

day of a lunar month, was inauspicious, the astrologer repeated the

unfavourable omen to Tipu Sultan, who was slain in the course of the

battle. It is recorded [48] that "to different Bramins he gave a black

buffalo, a milch buffalo, a male buffalo, a black she-goat, a jacket of

coarse black cloth, a cap of the same material, ninety rupees, and an

iron pot filled with oil; and, previous to the delivery of this last

article, he held his head over the pot for the purpose of seeing the

image of his face; a ceremony used in Hindostan to avert misfortune."

The time at which the address of welcome by the Madras Municipal

Corporation to Sir Arthur Lawley on his taking over the Governorship

of Madras was changed from 12-30 P.M. to 1 P.M. on a Wednesday,

as the time originally fixed fell within the period of Rahukalam,

which is an inauspicious hour on that day.

It is considered by a Hindu unlucky to get shaved for ceremonial

purposes in the months of Adi, Purattasi, Margali, and Masi, and,

in the remaining months, Sunday, Tuesday, and Saturday should be

avoided. Further, the star under which a man was born has to be

taken into consideration, and it may happen that an auspicious day

for being shaved does not occur for some weeks. It is on this account

that orthodox Hindus are sometimes compelled to go about with unkempt

chins. Even for anointing the body, auspicious and inauspicious

days are prescribed. Thus, anointing on Sunday causes loss of

beauty, on Monday brings increase of riches, and on Thursday loss

of intellect. If a person is obliged to anoint himself on Sunday,

he should put a bit of the root of oleander (Nerium) in the oil,

and heat it before applying it. This is supposed to avert the evil

influences. Similarly on Tuesday dry earth, on Thursday roots of

Cynodou Dactylon, and on Friday ashes must be used.

It is considered auspicious if a girl attains puberty on a Monday,

Wednesday, Thursday, or Friday, and the omens vary according to the

month in which the first menstrual period occurs. Thus the month of

Vaiyasi ensures prosperity, Ani male issue, Masi happiness, Margali

well-behaved children, Punguni long life and many children. At the

first menstrual ceremony of a Tiyan girl in Malabar, her aunt, or,

if she is married, her husband's sister, pours gingelly (Sesamum)

oil over her head, on the top of which a gold fanam (coin) has been

placed. The oil is poured from a little cup made from a leaf of

the jak tree (Artocarpus integrifolia), flows over the forehead,

and is received with the fanam in a dish. It is a good omen if the

coin falls with the obverse upwards.

If a Brahman woman loses her tali (marriage badge), it is regarded as

a bad omen for her husband. As a Deva-dasi (dancing-girl) can never

become a widow, the beads in her tali are considered to bring good luck

to those who wear them. And some people send the tali required for a

marriage to a Deva-dasi, who prepares the string for it, and attaches

to it black beads from her own tali. A Deva-dasi is also deputed to

walk at the head of Hindu marriage processions. Married women do not

like to do this, as they are not proof against evil omens, which the

procession may come across, and it is believed that Deva-dasis, to whom

widowhood is unknown, possess the power of warding off the effects of

unlucky omens. It may be remarked, en passant, that Deva-dasis are not

at the present day so much patronised at Hindu marriages as in former

days. Much is due in this direction to the progress of enlightened

ideas, which have of late been strongly put forward by Hindu social

reformers. General Burton narrates [49] how a civilian of the old

school built a house at Bhavani, and established a corps de ballet,

i.e., a set of nautch girls, whose accomplishments extended to singing

God Save the King, and this was kept up by their descendants, so that,

when he visited the place in 1852, he was "greeted by the whole party,

bedizened in all their finery, and squalling the National Anthem." With

this may be contrasted a circular from a modern European official,

which states that "during my jamabandy (land revenue settlement) tour,

people have sometimes been kind enough to arrange singing or dancing

parties, and, as it would have been discourteous to decline to attend

what had cost money to arrange, I have accepted the compliment in

the spirit in which it was offered. I should, however, be glad if you

would let it be generally known that I am entirely in accord with what

is known as the anti-nautch movement in regard to such performances."

It was unanimously decided, in 1905, by the Executive Committee of

the Prince and Princess of Wales' reception committee, that there

should be no performance by nautch girls at the entertainment to

their Royal Highnesses at Madras.

The marriage ceremonies of Are Dammaras (Marathi-speaking acrobats) are

supervised by an old Basavi woman, and the marriage badge is tied round

the bride's neck by a Basavi (public woman dedicated to the deity).

When a marriage is contemplated among the Idaiyans (Tamil shepherds)

of Coimbatore, the parents of the prospective bride and bridegroom

go to the temple, and throw before the idol a red and white flower,

each wrapped in a betel leaf. A small child is then told to pick up

one of the leaves. If the one selected contains the white flower, it is

considered auspicious, and the marriage will be contracted. The Devanga

weavers, before settling the marriage of a girl, consult some village

goddess or the tribal goddess Chaudeswari, and watch the omens. A

lizard chirping on the right is good, and on the left bad. Sometimes,

red and white flowers wrapped in green leaves are thrown in front of

the idol, and the omen is considered good or bad, according to the

flower which a child picks up. Among the hill Uralis of Coimbatore,

a flower is placed on the top of a stone or figure representing the

tribal goddess, and, after worship, it is addressed in the words:

"Oh! swamil (goddess), drop the flower to the right if the marriage

is going to be propitious, and to the left if otherwise." Should the

flower remain on the image without falling either way, it is greeted

as a very happy omen. When a marriage is in contemplation among the

Agamudaiyans (Tamil cultivators), some close relations of the young

man proceed to some distance northward, and wait for omens. If these

are auspicious, they are satisfied. Some, instead of so doing, go to

a temple, and seek the omens either by placing flowers on the idol,

and watching the directions in which they fall, or by picking up

a flower from a large number strewn in front of the idol. If the

flower picked up, and the one thought of, are of the same colour,

it is regarded as a good omen. Among the Gudigaras (wood-carvers) of

South Canara, the parents of the couple go to a temple, and receive

from the priest some flowers which have been used in worship. These

are counted, and, if their number is even, the match is arranged. At

a marriage among the Malaialis of the Kollaimalai hills, the garlands

with which the bridal couple are adorned, are thrown into a well after

the tali has been tied on the bride's neck. If they float together,

it is an omen that the two will love each other.

Among the Telugu Janappans (gunny-bag makers), on the day fixed for

the betrothal, those assembled wait silently listening for the chirping

of a lizard, which is an auspicious sign. It is said that the match is

broken off if the chirping is not heard. If the omen proves auspicious,

a small bundle of nine to twelve kinds of pulses and grain is given by

the bridegroom's father to the father of the bride. This is preserved,

and examined several days after the marriage. If the pulses and grain

are in good condition, it is a sign that the newly married couple

will have a prosperous career. During the marriage ceremonies of

the Muhammadan Daknis or Deccanis, two big pots, filled with water,

are placed near the milk-post. They are kept for forty days, and then

examined. If the water remains sweet, and does not "teem with vermin,"

it is regarded as a good omen. The seed grains, too, which, as among

many Hindu castes, were sown at the time of the wedding, should by

this time have developed into healthy seedlings. At a Rona (Oriya

cultivator) wedding, the Desari who officiates ties to the ends of

the cloths of the bridal couple a new cloth, to which a quarter-anna

piece is attached, betel leaves and areca nuts, and seven grains of

rice. Towards the close of the marriage rites on the third day, the

rice is examined, to see if it is in a good state of preservation,

and its condition is regarded as an omen for good or evil.

On the occasion of a wedding among the Badagas of the Nilgiris,

a procession goes before dawn on the marriage day to the forest,

where two sticks of Mimusops hexandra are collected, to do duty as

the milk-posts. The early hour is selected, to avoid the chance of

coming across inauspicious objects. At the close of the Agamudaiyan

marriage ceremonies, the twig of Erythrina indica or Odina wodier, of

which the milk-post was made, is planted. If it takes root and grows,

it is regarded as a favourable omen. At a Palli (Tamil cultivator)

wedding two lamps, called kuda vilakku (pot light) and alankara vilakku

(ornamental light), are placed by the side of the milk-post. The

former consists of a lighted wick in an earthenware tray placed on

a pot. It is considered an unlucky omen if it goes out before the

conclusion of the ceremonial.

Prior to the betrothal ceremony of the Kammas (Telugu cultivators),

a near relation of the future bridegroom proceeds with a party to the

home of the future bride. On the way thither, they look for omens,

such as the crossing of birds in an auspicious direction. Immediately

on the occurrence of a favourable omen, they burn camphor, and

break a cocoanut, which must split in two with clean edges. One

half is sent to the would-be bridegroom, and the other taken to the

bride's house. When this is reached, she demands the sagunam (omen)

cocoanut. If the first cocoanut does not split properly, others are

broken till the desired result is obtained.

In the Telugu country, the services of a member of the Boya caste are

required if a Brahman wishes to perform Vontigadu, a ceremony by which

he hopes to induce favourable auspices, under which to celebrate a

marriage. The story has it that Vontigadu was a destitute Boya, who

died of starvation. On the morning of the day on which the ceremony,

for which favourable auspices are required, is performed, a Boya is

invited to the house. He is given a present of gingelly (Sesamum)

oil, wherewith to anoint himself. This done, he returns, carrying in

his hand a dagger, on the point of which a lime has been stuck. He is

directed to the cowshed, and there given a good meal. After finishing

the meal, he steals from the shed, and dashes out of the house,

uttering a piercing yell, and waving his dagger. He on no account

looks behind him. The inmates of the house follow for some distance,

throwing water wherever he has trodden. By this means, all possible

evil omens for the coming ceremony are done away with.

A curious mock marriage ceremony is celebrated among Brahmans,

when an individual marries a third wife. It is believed that a

third marriage is very inauspicious, and that the bride will become a

widow. To prevent this mishap, the man is made to marry the arka plant

(Calotropis gigantea), which grows luxuriantly in wastelands, and the

real marriage thus becomes the fourth. The bridegroom, accompanied

by a Brahman priest and another Brahman, repairs to a spot where this

plant is growing. It is decorated with a cloth and a piece of string,

and symbolised into the sun. All the ceremonies, such as making homam

(sacred fire), tying the tali (marriage badge), etc., are performed

as at a regular marriage, and the plant is cut down. On rathasapthami

day, an orthodox Hindu should bathe his head and shoulders with arka

leaves in propitiation of Surya (the sun). The leaves are also used

during the worship of ancestors by some Brahmans. Among the Tangalan

Paraiyans, if a young man dies before he is married, a ceremony

called kannikazhital (removing bachelorhood) is performed. Before

the corpse is laid on the bier, a garland of arka flowers is placed

round its neck, and balls of mud from a gutter are laid on the head,

knees, and other parts of the body. In some places, a variant of

the ceremony consists in the erection of a mimic marriage booth,

which is covered with leaves of the arka plant, flowers of which

are placed round the neck as a garland. Adulterers were, in former

times, seated on a donkey, with their face to the tail, and marched

through the village. The public disgrace was enhanced by placing a

garland of the despised arka leaves on their head. Uppiliyan women

convicted of immorality are said to be garlanded with arka flowers,

and made to carry a basket of mud round the village. A Konga Vellala

man, who has been found guilty of undue intimacy with a widow, is

readmitted to the caste by being taken to the village common, where

he is beaten with an arka stick, and by providing a black sheep for

a feast. When a Kuruvikkaran man has to submit to trial by ordeal,

seven arka leaves are tied to his palms, and a piece of red-hot iron

is placed thereon. His innocence is established, if he is able to

carry it while he takes seven long strides. The juice of the arka

plant is a favourite agent in the hands of suicides.

At a Brahman wedding the bridegroom takes a blade of the sacred dharba

grass, passes it between the eyebrows of the bride and throws it away

saying, "With this grass I remove the influence of any bad mark thou

mayest possess, which is likely to cause widowhood."

There is a Tamil proverb relating to the selection of a wife, to the

effect that curly hair gives food, thick hair brings milk, and very

stiff hair destroys a family. As a preliminary to marriage among the

Kurubas (Canarese shepherds), the bridegroom's father observes certain

curls (suli) on the head of the proposed bride. Some of these are

believed to forebode prosperity, and others misery to the family into

which the girl enters by marriage. They are, therefore, very cautious

in selecting only such girls as possess curls of good fortune. One

of the good curls is the bashingam on the forehead, and bad ones are

the peyanakallu at the back of the head, and the edirsuli near the

right temple. [50] By the Pallis (Tamil cultivators) a curl on the

forehead is considered as an indication that the girl will become

a widow, and one on the back of the head portends the death of the

eldest brother of her husband. By the Tamil Maravans, a curl on the

forehead resembling the head of a snake is regarded as an evil omen.

A woman, pregnant for the first time, should not see a temple car

adorned with figures of a lion, or look at it when it is being

dragged along with the image of the god seated in it. If she does,

the tradition is that she will give birth to a monster.

In some places, before a woman is confined, the room in which her

confinement is to take place is smeared with cow-dung, and, in the

room at the outer gate, small wet cow-dung cakes are stuck on the

wall, and covered with margosa (Melia Azadirachta) leaves and cotton

seeds. These are supposed to have a great power in averting evil

spirits, and preventing harm to the newly-born babe or the lying-in

woman. [51] In the Telugu country, it is the custom among some castes,

e.g., the Kapus and Gamallas, to place twigs of Balanites Roxburghii or

Calotropis gigantea (arka) on the floor or in the roof of the lying-in

chamber. Sometimes a garland of old shoes is hung up on the door-post

of the chamber. A fire is kindled, into which pieces of old leather,

hair, nails, horns, hoofs, and bones of animals are thrown, in the

belief that the smoke arising therefrom will protect the mother

and child against evil spirits. Among some classes, when a woman

is pregnant, her female friends assemble, pile up before her door

a quantity of rice-husk, and set fire to it. To one door-post they

tie an old shoe, and to the other a bunch of tulsi (Ocimum sanctum),

in order to prevent the entry of any demon. A bitch is brought in,

painted, and marked in the way that the women daily mark their own

foreheads. Incense is burnt, and an oblation placed before it. The

woman then makes obeisance to it, and makes a meal of curry and rice,

on which cakes are placed. If there is present any woman who has

not been blessed with children, she seizes some of the cakes, in the

hope that, by so doing, she may ere long have a child. [52] In some

places, when a woman is in labour, her relations keep on measuring

out rice into a measure close to the lying-in room, in the belief

that delivery will be accelerated thereby. Sometimes a gun is fired

off in an adjacent room with the same object, and I have heard of a

peon (orderly), whose wife was in labour, borrowing his master's gun,

to expedite matters.

Some Hindus in Madras believe that it would be unlucky for a

newly-married couple to visit the museum, as their offspring would

be deformed as the result of the mother having gazed on the skeletons

and stuffed animals.

Twins are sometimes objects of superstition, especially if they are

of different sexes, and the male is born first. The occurrence of

such an event is regarded as foreboding misfortune, which can only

be warded off by marrying the twins to one another, and leaving them

to their fate in the jungle. Cases of this kind have, however, it is

said, not been heard of within recent times.

There is a proverb that a child born with the umbilical cord round the

body will be a curse to the caste. If a child is born with the cord

round its neck like a garland, it is believed to be inauspicious for

its uncle, who is not allowed to see it for ten days, or even longer,

and then a propitiatory ceremony has to be performed. By the Koravas

the birth of a child with the cord round its neck is believed to

portend the death of the father or maternal uncle. This unpleasant

effect is warded off by the father or the uncle killing a fowl,

and wearing its entrails round his neck, and afterwards burying them

along with the cord. In other castes it is believed that a child born

with the cord round its neck will be a curse to its maternal uncle,

unless a gold or silver string is placed on the body, and the uncle

sees its image reflected in a vessel of oil. If the cord is entwined

across the breast, and passes under the armpit, it is believed to be

an unlucky omen for the father and paternal uncle. In such cases, some

special ceremony, such as looking into a vessel of oil, is performed. I

am informed by the Rev. S. Nicholson that, if a Mala (Telugu Pariah)

child is born with the cord round its neck, a cocoanut is immediately

offered. If the child survives, a cock is offered to the gods on the

day on which the mother takes her first bath. When the cord is cut,

a coin is placed over the navel for luck. The dried cord is highly

prized as a remedy for sterility. The placenta is placed by the Malas

in a pot, in which are nim (Melia Azadirachta) leaves, and the whole

is buried in some convenient place, generally the backyard. If this

was not done, dogs or other animals might carry off the placenta,

and the child would be of a wandering disposition.

The birth of a Korava child on a new moon night is believed to augur

a notorious thieving future for the infant. Such children are commonly

named Venkatigadu after the god at Tirupati. [53] The birth of a male

child on the day in which the constellation Rohini is visible portends

evil to the maternal uncle; and a female born under the constellation

Moolam is supposed to carry misery with her to the house which she

enters by marriage.

Domb children in Vizagapatam are supposed to be born without souls, and

to be subsequently chosen as an abode by the soul of an ancestor. The

coming of the ancestor is signalised by the child dropping a chicken

bone which has been thrust into its hand, and much rejoicing follows

among the assembled relations.

By some Valaiyans (Tamil cultivators), the naming of infants is

performed at the Aiyanar temple by any one who is under the influence

of inspiration. Failing such a one, several flowers, each with a name

attached to it, are thrown in front of the idol. A boy, or the priest,

picks up one of the flowers, and the infant receives the name which

is connected with it. In connection with the birth ceremonies of the

Koyis of the Godavari district, the Rev. J. Cain writes [54] that, on

the seventh day, the near relatives and neighbours assemble together to

name the child. Having placed it on a cot, they put a leaf of the mowha

tree (Bassia) in its hand, and pronounce some name which they think

suitable. If the child closes its hand over the leaf, it is regarded

as a sign that it acquiesces, but, if the child rejects the leaf or

cries, they take it as a sign that they must choose another name,

and so throw away the leaf, and substitute another leaf and name,

until the child shows its approbation.

It is noted, [55] in connection with the death ceremonies of the

Kondhs, that, if a man has been killed by a tiger, purification is made

by the sacrifice of a pig, the head of which is cut off with a tangi

(axe) by a Pano, and passed between the legs of the men in the village,

who stand in a line astraddle. It is a bad omen to him, if the head

touches any man's legs. According to another account, the head of

the decapitated pig is placed in a stream, and, as it floats down,

it has to pass between the legs of the villagers. If it touches the

legs of any of them, it forebodes that he will be killed by a tiger.

The sight of a cat, on getting out of bed, is extremely unlucky, and

he who sees one will fail in all his undertakings during the day. "I

faced the cat this morning," or "Did you see a cat this morning?" are

common sayings when one fails in anything. The Paraiyans are said

to be very particular about omens, and, if, when a Paraiyan sets

out to arrange a marriage with a certain girl, a cat or a valiyan

(a bird) crosses his path, he will give up the girl. I have heard

of a superstitious European police officer, who would not start in

search of a criminal, because he came across a cat.

House dogs should, if they are to bring good luck, possess more than

eighteen visible claws. If a dog scratches the wall of a house, it

will be broken into by thieves; and, if it makes a hole in the ground

within a cattle-shed, the cattle will be stolen. A dog approaching a

person with a bit of shoe-leather augurs success; with flesh, gain;

with a meaty bone, good luck; with a dry bone, death. If a dog enters

a house with wire or thread in its mouth, the master of the house must

expect to be put in prison. A dog barking on the roof of a house during

the dry weather portends an epidemic, and in the wet season a heavy

fall of rain. There is a proverb "Like a dying dog climbing the roof,"

which is said of a person who is approaching his ruin. The omen also

signifies the death of several members of the family, so the dog's ears

and tail are cut off, and rice is steeped in the blood. A goat which

has climbed on to the roof is treated in like manner, dragged round

the house, or slaughtered. At the conclusion of the first menstrual

ceremony of a Kappiliyan (Canarese farmer) girl, some food is placed

near the entrance to the house, which a dog is allowed to eat. While

so doing, it receives a severe beating. The more noise it makes, the

better is the omen for the girl having a large family. If the animal

does not howl, it is supposed that the girl will bear no children.

The sight of a jackal is very lucky to one proceeding on an errand. Its

cry to the east and north of a village foretells something good for the

villagers, whereas the cry at midday means an impending calamity. If

a jackal cries towards the south in answer to the call of another

jackal, some one will be hung; and, if it cries towards the west,

some one will be drowned. A bachelor who sees a jackal running may

expect to be married shortly. If the offspring of a primipara dies,

it is sometimes buried in a place where jackals can get at it. It

is believed that, if a jackal does not make a sumptuous meal off the

corpse, the woman will not be blessed with more children. The corpses

of the Koramas of Mysore are buried in a shallow grave, and a pot

of water is placed on the mound raised over it. Should the spot be

visited during the night by a pack of jackals, and the water drunk by

them to slake their thirst after feasting on the dead body, the omen

is accepted as a proof that the liberated spirit has fled to the realms

of the dead, and will never trouble man, woman, child, or cattle.

When a person rises in the morning, he should not face or see a cow's

head, but should see its hinder parts. This is in consequence of a

legend that a cow killed a Brahman by goring him with its horns. In

some temples, a cow is made to stand in front of the building with its

tail towards it, so that any one entering may see its face. It is said

that, if a cow voids urine at the time of purchase, it is considered a

very good omen, but, if she passes dung, a bad omen. The hill Kondhs

will not cut the crops with a sickle having a serrated edge, such

as is used by the Oriyas, but use a straight-edged knife. The crops,

after they have been cut, are threshed by hand, and not with the aid of

cattle. The serrated sickle is not used, because it produces a sound

like that of cattle grazing, which would be unpropitious. If cattle

were used in threshing the crop, it is believed that the earth-god

would feel insulted by the dung and urine of the animals.

A timber merchant at Calicut in Malabar is said to have spent more

than a thousand rupees in propitiating the spirit of a deceased

Brahman under the following circumstances. He had built a new house,

and, on the morning after the kutti puja (house-warming) ceremony,

his wife and children were coming to occupy it. Just as they were

entering the grounds, a cow ran against one of the children, and

knocked it down. This augured evil, and, in a few days, the child was

attacked by smallpox. One child after another caught the disease,

and at last the man's wife also contracted it. They all recovered,

but the wife was laid up with some uterine disorder. An astrologer

was sent for, and said that the site on which the house was built

was once the property of a Brahman, whose spirit still haunted it,

and must be appeased. Expensive ceremonies were performed by Brahmans

for a fortnight. The house was sold to a Brahman priest for a nominal

price. A gold image of the deceased Brahman was made, and, after the

purification ceremonies had been carried out, taken to the sacred

shrine at Ramesvaram, where arrangements were made to have daily

worship performed to it. The house, in its purified state, was sold

back by the Brahman priest. The merchant's wife travelled by train to

Madras, to undergo treatment at the Maternity Hospital. The astrologer

predicted that the displeasure of the spirit would be exhibited on

the way by the breaking of dishes and by furniture catching fire--a

strange prediction, because the bed on which the woman was lying

caught fire by a spark from the engine. After the spirit had been

thus propitiated, there was peace in the house.

It is noted [56] that, in the middle of the threshold of nearly all the

gateways of the ruined fortifications round the Bellary villages may be

noticed a roughly carved cylindrical or conical stone, something like

a lingam. This is the boddu-rayi, literally the navel-stone, and so

the middle stone. It was planted there when the fort was first built,

and is affectionately regarded as being the boundary of the village

site. Once a year, in May, just before the sowing season commences,

a ceremony takes place in connection with it. Reverence is first made

to the bullocks of the village, and in the evening they are driven

through the gateway past the boddu-rayi, with tom-toms, flutes, and

other kinds of music. The Barike (village servant) next does puja

(worship) to the stone, and then a string of mango leaves is tied

across the gateway above it. The villagers now form sides, one party

trying to drive the bullocks through the gate, and the other trying

to keep them out. The greatest uproar and confusion naturally follow,

and, in the midst of the turmoil, some bullock or other eventually

breaks through the guardians of the gate, and gains the village. If

that first bullock is a red one, the red grains on the red soil will

flourish in the coming season. If he is white, white crops, such

as cotton and white cholam, will prosper. If he is red and white,

both kinds will do well.

Various Oriya castes worship the goddess Lakshmi on Thursdays, in

the month of November, which are called Lakshmi varam, or Lakshmi's

day. The goddess is represented by a basket filled with grain,

whereon some place a hair-ball which has been vomited by a cow. The

ball is called gaya panghula, and is usually one or two inches in

diameter. The owner of a cow which has vomited such a ball, regards

it as a propitious augury for the prosperity of his family. A feast

is held on the day on which the ball is vomited, and, after the ball

has been worshipped, it is carefully wrapped up, and kept in a box,

in which it remains till it is required for further worship. Some

people believe that the ball continues to grow year by year, and

regard this as a very good sign. Bulls are said not to vomit the balls,

and only very few cows do so.

"Throughout India," Mr J. D. E. Holmes writes, [57] "but more

especially in the Southern Presidency, among the native population,

the value of a horse or ox principally depends on the existence and

situation of certain hair-marks on the body of the animal. These

hair-marks are formed by the changes in the direction in which

the hair grows at certain places, and, according to their shape,

are called a crown, ridge, or feather mark. The relative position

of these marks is supposed to indicate that the animal will bring

good luck to the owner and his relatives. There is a saying that

a man may face a rifle and escape, but he cannot avoid the luck,

good or evil, foretold by hair-marks. So much are the people

influenced by these omens that they seldom keep an animal with

unlucky marks, and would not allow their mares to be covered by

a stallion having unpropitious marks."

It is recorded by Bishop Whitehead [58] that "we went to see the

Maharaja (of Mysore) at his stables, and he showed us his fine stud

of horses. Among them was the State horse, which is only used for

religious ceremonies, and is ridden only by the Maharaja himself. It is

pure white, without spot or blemish, and has the five lucky marks. This

horse came from Kathiawar, and is now about twenty years old. The

Maharaja is trying to get another, to replace it when it dies. But

it is not easy to get one with the unusual points required."

Two deaths occurring in a family in quick succession, were once

believed to be the result of keeping an unlucky horse in the stable. I

have heard of a Eurasian police officer, who attributed the theft of

five hundred rupees, his official transfer to an unhealthy district,

and other strokes of bad luck, to the purchase of a horse with unlucky

curls. All went well after he had got rid of the animal.

From a recent note on beliefs about the bull, [59] I gather that

"Manu enjoins a grihasta or householder to always travel with

beasts which are well broken in, swift, endowed with lucky marks,

and perfect in colour and form, without urging them much with the

goad. Marks are accounted lucky if they appear in certain forms,

and at certain spots. One of these marks is usually known as sudi in

Telugu, and suli in Tamil. A sudi is nothing but a whorl or circlet

of hair, a properly formed sudi being perfectly round in form, and

nearly resembling the sudivalu, the chakrayudha of Vishnu, which is

a short circular weapon commonly known as the discus of Vishnu. Every

ox should have at least two of these circlets or twists of hair, one

on the face, and one on the back, right about its centre. Two curls

may occur on the face, but they should not be one above the other,

in which case they are known as kode mel kode, or umbrella above

umbrella. The purchaser of such a bull, it is believed, will soon have

some mishap in his house. Some, however, hold that this curl is not

really so bad as it is supposed to be. If the curls are side by side,

they are accounted lucky. In that case they are known as damara suli,

or double kettle-drum circlet, from the kettle-drums placed on either

side of Brahmani bulls in temple processions. It is sometimes known

as the kalyana (marriage) suli, because such a kettle-drum is often

used in marriage processions. A curl on the hump is held to be a very

good one, bringing prosperity to the purchaser. It is known as the

kirita suli, or the crown circlet. The dewlaps should have a curl

on either side, or none. A curl on only one side is described as not

lucky. On the back of the animal, a curl must be perfectly round. If

it is elongated, and stretches on one side, it is known as the padai

suli, or the bier circlet. Kattiri suli, or the scissor circlet, is

found usually in the region of the belly, and is an unlucky sign. On

the body is sometimes found the puran suli, the circlet named after

the centipede from its supposed resemblance to it. On the legs is

often found the velangu suli, or chain circlet, from its being like a

chain bound round the legs. Both these are said to be bad marks, and

bulls having them are invariably hard to sell. Attempts at erasure of

unlucky marks are frequently noticed, for the reason that an animal

with a bad mark is scarcely, if ever, sold to advantage. One of the

most common and most effective ways of erasing an unlucky mark is to

brand it pretty deep, so that the hair disappears, and the curl is

no more observable. Animals so branded are regarded with considerable

suspicion, and it is often difficult to secure purchasers for them."

The following are some of the marks on horses and cattle recorded by

Mr Holmes: [60]--

(a) Horses

1. Deobund (having control over evil spirits), also termed devuman

or devumani, said by Muhammadans to represent the Prophet's finger,

and by Hindus to represent a temple bell. This mark is a ridge,

one to three inches long, situated between the throat and counter

along the line of the trachea. It is the most lucky mark a horse can

possess. It is compared to the sun, and, therefore, when it is present,

none of the evil stars can shine, and all unlucky omens are overruled.

2. Khorta-gad (peg-driver), or khila-gad, is a ridge of hair directed

downwards on one or both hind-legs. It is said that no horse in the

stable will be sold, so long as a horse with this mark is kept.

3. Badi (fetter), a ridge of hair directed upwards on one or both

forearms on the outer side, and said to indicate that the owner of

the animal will be sent to jail.

4. Thanni (teat). Teat-like projections on the sheath of the male

are considered unlucky.

(b) Cattle

5. Bhashicam suli is a crown on the forehead above the line of the

eyes, named after the chaplet worn by bride and bridegroom during

the marriage ceremony. If the purchaser be a bachelor or widower,

this mark indicates that he will marry soon. If the purchaser be a

married man, he will either have the misfortune to lose his wife and

marry again, or the good fortune to obtain two wives.

6. Mukkanti suli. Three crowns on the forehead, arranged in the form

of a triangle, said to represent the three eyes of Siva, of which

the one on the forehead will, if opened, burn up all things within

the range of vision.

7. Padai suli. Two ridges of hair on the back on either side of the

middle line, indicating that the purchaser will soon need a coffin.

8. Tattu suli. A crown situated on the back between the points of

the hips, indicating that any business undertaken by the purchaser

will fail.

9. A bullock with numerous spots over the body, like a deer, is

considered very lucky.

The following quaint omen is recorded by Bishop Whitehead. [61] At

a certain village, when a pig is sacrificed to the village goddess

Angalamman, its neck is first cut slightly, and the blood allowed to

flow on to some boiled rice placed on a plantain leaf, and then the

rice soaked in its own blood is given to the pig to eat. If the pig

eats it, the omen is good, if not, the omen is bad; but, in any case,

the pig has its head cut off by the pujari (priest).

If a Brahmani kite (Haliastur indus), when flying, is seen carrying

something in its beak, the omen is considered very auspicious. The

sight of this bird on a Sunday morning is also auspicious, so, on

this day, people may be seen throwing pieces of mutton or lumps of

butter to it. [62]

If an owl takes refuge in a house, the building is at once deserted,

the doors are closed, and the house is not occupied for six months,

when an expiatory sacrifice must be performed. Brahmans are fed,

and the house can only be re-entered after the proper hour has been

fixed upon. This superstition only refers to a thatched house;

a terraced house need not be vacated. [63] Ill-luck will follow,

should an owl sit on the housetop, or perch on the bough of a tree

near the house. One screech forebodes death; two screeches forebode

success in any approaching undertaking; three, the addition of a girl

to the family by marriage; four, a disturbance; five, that the hearer

will travel. Six screeches foretell the coming of guests; seven, mental

distress; eight, sudden death; and nine signify favourable results. A

species of owl, called pullu, is a highly dreaded bird. It is supposed

to cause all kinds of illness to children, resulting in emaciation. At

the sound of the screeching, children are taken into a room, to avoid

its furtive and injurious gaze. Various propitiatory ceremonies are

performed by specialists to secure its good-will. Amulets are worn by

children as a preventive against its evil influences. To warn off the

unwelcome intruder, broken pots, painted with black and white dots,

are set up on housetops. In the Bellary district, the flat roofs of

many houses may be seen decked with rags, fluttering from sticks,

piles of broken pots, and so forth. These are to scare away owls,

which, it is said, sometimes vomit up blood, and sometimes milk. If

they sit on a house and bring up blood, it is bad for the inmates;

if milk, good. But the risk of the vomit turning out to be blood

is apparently more feared than the off chance of its proving to be

milk is hoped for, and it is thought best to be on the safe side,

and keep the owl at a distance. [64] The Kondhs believe that, if

an owl hoots over the roof of a house, or on a tree close thereto,

a death will occur in the family at an early date. If the bird hoots

close to a village, but outside it, the death of one of the villagers

will follow. For this reason, it is pelted with stones, and driven

off. The waist-belt of a Koraga, whom I saw at Udipi in South Canara,

was made of owl bones.

Should a crow come near the house, and caw in its usual rapid

raucous tones, it means that calamity is impending. But, should the

bird indulge in its peculiar prolonged guttural note, happiness will

ensue. If a crow keeps on cawing incessantly at a house, it is believed

to foretell the coming of a guest. The belief is so strong that some

housewives prepare more food than is required for the family. There

is also an insect called virunthoo poochee, or guest insect. If

crows are seen fighting in front of a house, news of a death will

shortly be heard. In some places, if a crow enters a house, it must

be vacated for not less than three months, and, before it can be

re-occupied, a purification ceremony must be performed, and a number

of Brahmans fed. Among the poorer classes, who are unable to incur

this expense, it is not uncommon to allow a house which has been thus

polluted to fall into ruins. [65] In Malabar, there is a belief that

ill-luck will result if, on certain days, a crow soils one's person or

clothes. The evil can only be removed by bathing with the clothes on,

and propitiating Brahmans. On other days, the omen is a lucky one. On

sradh (memorial) days, pindams (balls of cooked rice) are offered to

the crows. If they do not touch them, the ceremony is believed not to

have been properly performed, and the wishes of the dead man are not

satisfied. If the crows, after repeated trials, fail to eat the rice,

the celebrant makes up his mind to satisfy these wishes, and the crows

are then supposed to relish the balls. On one occasion, my Brahman

assistant was in camp with me on the Palni hills, the higher altitudes

of which are uninhabited by crows, and he had perforce to march down

to the plains, in order to perform the annual ceremony in memory of

his deceased father. On another occasion, a Brahman who was staying

on the Palni hills telegraphed to the village of Periakulam for two

crows, which duly arrived confined in a cage. The sradh ceremony was

performed, and the birds were then set at liberty. On the last day

of the death ceremonies of the Oddes (navvies), some rice is cooked,

and placed on an arka (Calotropis gigantea) leaf as an offering to

the crows. The arka plant, which grows luxuriantly on waste lands,

is, it may be noted, used by Brahmans for the propitiation of rishis

(sages) and pithrus (ancestors). [66] For seven days after the death

of a Paniyan of Malabar, a little rice gruel is placed near the grave

by the Chemmi (priest), who claps his hands as a signal to the evil

spirits in the vicinity, who, in the shape of a pair of crows, are

supposed to partake of the food, which is hence called kaka conji,

or crow's gruel. On the third day after the death of a Bedar (Canarese

cultivator), a woman brings to the graveside some luxuries in the way

of food, which is mixed up in a winnowing tray into three portions,

and placed in front of three stones set over the head, abdomen,

and legs of the deceased, for crows to partake of. On the sixth

day after the death of a Korava, the chief mourner kills a fowl,

and mixes its blood with rice. This he places, with betel leaves and

areca nuts, near the grave. If it is carried off by crows, everything

is considered to have been settled satisfactorily. When a jungle

Urali has been excommunicated from his caste, he must kill a sheep

or goat before the elders, and mark his forehead with its blood. He

then gives a feast to the assembly, and puts part of the food on the

roof of his house. If the crows eat it, he is received back into the

caste. A native clerk some time ago took leave in anticipation of

sanction, on receipt of news of a death in his family at a distant

town. His excuse was that his elder brother had, on learning that

his son had seen two crows in coitu, sent him a post-card stating

that the son was dead. The boy turned out to be alive, but the card,

it was explained, was sent owing to a superstitious belief that, if a

person sees two crows engaged in sexual congress, he will die unless

one of his relations sheds tears. To avert this catastrophe, false

news as to the death are sent by post or telegraph, and subsequently

corrected by a letter or telegram announcing that the individual is

alive. A white (albino) crow, which made its appearance in the city

of Madras a few years ago, caused considerable interest among the

residents of the locality, as it was regarded as a very good omen.

Among some classes in Mysore, there is a belief that, if a death occurs

in a house on Tuesday or Friday, another death will speedily follow

unless a fowl is tied to one corner of the bier. The fowl is buried

with the corpse. Those castes which do not eat fowls replace it by

the bolt of the door. [67] Among the Tamils, if a burial takes place

on a Saturday, a fowl must be buried or burnt, or another death will

shortly occur in the family. There is a Tamil proverb that a Saturday

corpse will not go alone. When a fowl is sacrificed to the deity by the

jungle Paliyans of the Palni hills, the head ought to be severed at one

blow, as this is a sign of the satisfaction of the god for the past,

and of protection for the future. Should the head still hang, this

would be a bad omen, foreboding calamities for the ensuing year. [68]

An interesting rite in connection with pregnancy ceremonies among the

Oddes (navvies) is the presentation of a fowl or two to the pregnant

woman by her maternal uncle. The birds are tended with great care,

and, if they lay eggs abundantly, it is a sign that the woman will

be prolific.

By some it is considered unlucky to keep pigeons about a

dwelling-house, as they are believed, on account of their habit of

standing on one leg, to lead to poverty. The temple or blue-rock

pigeon is greatly venerated by Natives, who consider themselves

highly favoured if the birds build in their houses. Should a death

occur in a house where there are tame pigeons, all the birds will,

it is said, at the time of the funeral, circle thrice round the

loft, and leave the locality for ever. House sparrows are supposed

to possess a similar characteristic, but, before quitting the house

of mourning, they will pull every straw out of their nests. Sparrows

are credited with bringing good luck to the house in which they build

their nests. For this purpose, when a house is under construction,

holes are left in the walls or ceiling, or earthen pots are hung on

the walls by means of nails, as an attractive site for nesting. One

method of attracting sparrows to a house is to make a noise with

rupees as in the act of counting out coins.

There are experts who are able to interpret the significance of the

chirping of lizards, which, inter alia, foretells the approach of

a case of snake-bite, and whether the patient will die or not. The

fall of a lizard on different parts of the body is often taken as an

omen for good or evil, according as it alights on the right or left

side, hand or foot, head or shoulders. A Native of Cochin foretold

from the chirping of a lizard that a robbery would take place at a

certain temple. In accordance with the prophecy, the temple jewels

were looted, and the prophet was sent to prison under suspicion of

being an accomplice of the thieves, but subsequently released. The

hook-swinging ceremony is said [69] to be sometimes performed after

the consent of the goddess has been obtained. If a lizard is heard

chirping on the right, it is regarded as a sign of her consent. It

is believed that the man who is swung suffers no pain if the cause

is a good one, but excruciating agony if it is a bad one.

If an "iguana" (Varanus) enters a house, misfortune is certain to

occur within a year, unless the house is shut up for six months. The

appearance of a tortoise in a house, or in a field which is being

ploughed, is inauspicious. In the Cuddapah district, a cultivator

applied for remission of rent, because one of his fields had been left

waste owing to a tortoise making its appearance in it. If, under these

circumstances, the field had been cultivated, the man, his wife, or

his cattle, would have died. It was pointed out that, as the tortoise

was one of Vishnu's incarnations, it should have been considered as

an honour that the animal visited the field; but the reply was that

a tortoise would be honoured in the water, but not on the land. [70]

The sight of two snakes coiled round each other in sexual congress

is considered to portend some great evil. The presence of a rat-snake

(Zamenis mucosus) in a house at night is believed to bring good fortune

to the inmates. Its evil influence is in its tail, a blow from which

will cause a limb to shrink in size and waste away.

In a valley named Rapuri Kanama in the Cuddapah district, there is

a pond near a Siva temple to Gundheswara. Those desirous of getting

children, wealth, etc., should go there with a pure heart, bathe in the

pond, and then worship at the temple. After this, they should take a

wild pine-apple leaf, and place it on the border of the pond. If their

wishes are to be granted, a crab rises from the water, and bites the

leaf in two. If their wishes will not be granted, the crab rises, but

leaves the leaf untouched. If, however, the person has not approached

the pond with a pure heart, he will be set upon by a swarm of bees,

which live in the vicinity, and will be driven off. [71]

If the nest of a clay-building insect is found in a house, the birth

of a child is foretold; if a mud nest, of a male child; if a nest

made of jungle lac, of a girl. [72]